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Croatia at the Crossroads

A consideration of archaeological and historical connectivity

Proceedings of a conference held at Europe House, Smith Square, London, 24–25 June 2013 to mark the accession of Croatia to the European Union

edited by David Davison, Vince Gaffney, Preston Miracle and Jo Sofaer

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Archaeopress Publishing Ltd Gordon House 276 Banbury Road Oxford OX2 7ED

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ISBN 978 1 78491 530 8 ISBN 978 1 78491 5315 (e-Pdf) © Archaeopress and authors 2016

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owners.

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Contents

Preface...... iii

Foreword...... v

Interactions in the Old : Possible Scenarios Using the Vindija Biological Evidence...... 1 Ivor Janković and Fred H. Smith

Contacts and Connections in Late Middle and Early Upper Palaeolithic Croatia...... 11 Ivor Karavanić

Adriatic Connections: Exploring Relationships from the Middle Palaeolithic to the ...... 19 Dario Vujević

The Mesolithic in Croatia...... 33 Darko Komšo

The Development of Eneolithic Cultures Between the Sava and Drava Rivers...... 59 Jacqueline Balen

Croatia and the Crossroads of Early Greek Seafarers...... 75 Helena Tomas

Multiculturalists Before We Knew It: Keeping Pace with Bronze Age Trends...... 85 Sanjin Mihelić

Clay Birds as Religious Objects and Works of Craft in the Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age of the Balkans and the Carpathian Basin...... 91 Darko Maričević

The Princes of the Crossroads — The Early Iron Age in Northern Croatia...... 109 Hrvoje Potrebica

Indigenous in Dalmatia During the Last Millennium BC...... 123 Vedran Barbarić

Salona and the Sea – Some Observations...... 139 Branko Kirigin

Interaction Between Incomers and Autochthons on Roman Funerary Stones from the Croatian Region of Pannonia (1st –4th Centuries)...... 157 Branka Migotti

Immigrants from Other Areas of the Roman Empire Documented on Siscia Lead Tags...... 169 Ivan Radman-Livaja

New Knowledge on Certain Early Christian Dioceses in the Eastern Adriatic Region...... 193 Ante Škegro

The K-type Sword from Koljane in Dalmatia as Possible Evidence for the Arrival of Croats at the End of the 8th Century ...... 207 Ante Milošević

The Gnalić Shipwreck: Microcosm of the Late Renaissance World...... 223 Irena Radić Rossi, Mariangela Nicolardi and Katarina Batur

Weapons of the Military Frontier in Croatia from the End of the 17th to the End of the 19th Century – Combat Equipment and Emblems of Rank...... 249 Dora Bošković

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Adriatic Connections: Exploring Relationships from the Middle Palaeolithic to the Mesolithic

Dario Vujević Department of Archaeology University of Zadar [email protected]

Abstract: The contribution explores cultural similarities and possible connections between the Palaeolithic sites on both sides of the Adriatic Sea. In the period from the Middle Palaeolithic and through the Upper Palaeolithic Epigravettian Adri- atic basin was not a barrier, but a connection of two presently separate geographical features: Italian peninsula and the Eastern Adriatic coast. Sites correspond closely in terms of economy, raw material choice, as as typological and technological char- acteristics of artefacts, indicating a wide area of mobility.

Keywords: Middle Palaeolithic, Mousterian, Upper Palaeolithic, Epigravettian, Adriatic Sea

From earliest times, the wider Adriatic region has Adriatic zone was situated on the periphery of this been characterized by a series of common traits in corridor, and the high mountain ranges around this geomorphological and topographical terms, as well as the zone made settling in these areas difficult. However material culture. Large mountain ranges such as the Alps the presence of sites indicates that natural barriers were or the Dinarides delineate a separate spatial whole which not insurmountable, particularly in cold periods when has been a gateway between the eastern and western the present-day Adriatic area was particularly attractive part of Southern Europe. Besides being a distinct relief because of its favourable climate. Except for the Last and spatial boundary, mountain ranges also represent Glacial Maximum (LGM), analyses indicate relatively an orographic barrier which ensured more favourable cold conditions in the periods between 70 - 60, 90 – climatic conditions to the broader Adriatic region than 100, and around 115 thousand years before present. A the area north of it. Therefore this region was a kind of somewhat milder temperature phase and lowering of refugium even in the coldest periods of the sea level also occurred 45,000 years ago (Shackleton et for plants and animals, as well as for Palaeolithic al. 1984: 312). Drops in temperature are indicated by communities (Surić 2006: 187). The Northern Adriatic analyses of speleothems from various European ; plain during the low sea levels, and Caput Adriae in the these stop depositing during the severest cold periods, period of higher sea levels, were used as natural routes of meaning that ice covered the soil above (Burroughs 2005: movement for various groups of hunter-gatherers. 86). Even in the south of Europe average temperatures were 8-10°C lower than today and the environment was Geomorphological characteristics connected this region a dry open steppe. Large parts of northern Europe was to a unified whole, while climatic conditions made this not suitable for settling during these periods. However area attractive to Palaeolithic communities, giving an even during the severest drops in temperature the cold additional impetus to the settling of this region during conditions did not greatly affect the Mediterranean exceptionally cold periods. It is assumed that climatic area. The Trans-European mountain barrier probably conditions forced the to leave northern protected the northern Mediterranean ensuring this Europe around 60,000 years before present and seek region maintained a milder climate (van Andel and shelter in the Mediterranean regions of Spain, Italy, Tzedakis 1996). The same can be applied to the region Croatia and Greece, where conditions were more of the eastern Adriatic coast. favourable at the time (Runnels 1995: 712; Stinger and Gamble 1993: 176). The density of isotherms in the Dinaric region during the glacial period indicates great contrasts between the area During the better part of the last half million years, north and south of it (Šegota 1979: 26). The formation climatic conditions in Europe were cold and they limited of speleothems in Adriatic caves during the entire last population densities and the spread of populations Glacial indicates the existence of sufficient amounts of to northern parts of the continent. The main route of rainfall i.e. running underground water, temperatures exchange and movements between Europe and eastern high enough to keep water in liquid state, and the regions was usually limited to the corridor between presence of adequate vegetation cover (Surić 2006: Anatolia and the Balkans (Hublin 2002: 304). The 171). If we compare this with surrounding areas where

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Croatia at the Crossroads

Figure 1. Adriatic Sea level: A) -40 m (9,2 ka); B) -120 m (LGM) (modified after Surić 2006, p.26)

the deposits of speleothems stopped temporarily during the Zrmanja valley, irrigated by abundant water from the the severest drops in temperature we may conclude that ice-covered mountain. The River Po and other rivers, the present-day coast of the Adriatic was something of a which are presently separate, were joined into one river border area between periglacial regions of Europe and and thus making a large delta. Analysis has revealed the areas with more moderate Mediterranean conditions. existence of a number of environments, 100m below the present sea level: from plains to swamps, lakes, lagoons, Areas without permanent snow, with plains created due etc. (Mussi 2001: 121-122). to a lowering sea level, and rich in water, offered good conditions for forests, animal herds, and Due to the morphology of the Adriatic coast, where groups. The quick spread of Neanderthals over the the Dinarides end on the coast and fall abruptly into Mediterranean corresponds to the stable phase of OIS the sea, the present-day littoral was, for the most part, 3, but the deterioration in the climate after 37,000 years unsuitable for settling in the Middle Palaeolithic and the before present forced them to retreat abruptly towards the favourable regions with sites are probably now under Atlantic and Black Sea (van Andel et al. 2003: 39). Most the sea. The existence of such sites is testified by the sites on the eastern Adriatic coast correspond to a similar finds of Mousterian in sea near Povljana, on the development of events, whereby analysis indicates site island of Pag (Batović 1990: 29, Vujević 2011: 99), and formation in the period from 60k to 39k years before by the artefacts found on the seabed near Kaštel Štafilić present, with the grouping of 14C dates between 45k and (Karavanić et al. 2010). In the region of the eastern 39k years before present (Vujević 2011, Karavanić 2000; Adriatic coast there are presently several zones, more 2004; 2009). precisely plateaux next to the coast, with much more favourable conditions for settling, and because of their The development of the Mousterian in the Adriatic altitudes they were not exposed to sea activity during the coastal region, and the present state of preserved rise in water levels, and therefore the positions sites, was affected by numerous phenomena including of the sites and the finds contained in them were oscillations in sea level. During most of the last Glacial preserved. Such sites are best known from the expansive this entire region was further from the sea. The sea regions of Istria, Ravni Kotari (in the Zadar region) and reached present-day central Adriatic only during the the hinterlands of Kaštela, which were suitable for the coldest periods. The Great Steppe plain formed the movements of Middle Palaeolithic groups and their prey. northern half of the Adriatic basin and was covered The transition from coastal area to mountainous region with many rivers formed from Glacial water flows from marks the present-day boundary of Mousterian sites. mountain regions. The Dalmatian side consists of steep hills, today islands (Shackleton et al. 1984: 310-311). In On the opposite coast of the Adriatic, in Italy, Mousterian that period the present-day Velebit channel was probably sites can be found from the coast to around 2000m above

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Dario Vujević: Adriatic Connections

Figure 2. Middle Palaeolithic sites

sea level. They are distributed most densely on the a very low population density within this region is out Tyrrhenian coast, but this is probably a consequence of of question. Furthermore, the nature of Neanderthal the longer research period involved, as well as the many communities limits considerably the amount of evidence easily noticeable caves (Kuhn and Bietti 2000: 50). In relating to their inhabitation. Mousterian groups were Padana the sites are mostly distributed on the edges of nomadic, with increased seasonal mobility, and they the Po Valley and particularly in the region of Monti occupied various locations for diverse reasons in Lessini (Riparo Tagliente, Riparo Mezzena, Riparo different periods, as a result of seasonal changes in Zampieri, etc.; Peretto et al. 2001: 9). The Alpine region resource availability (Klein 1989: 447.; Pereseni 2001: was less densely settled. Only a few sites ascribed to the 502). Regional populations were divided into smaller, Mousterian were explored in the region of Caput Adriae, autonomous communities who were careful with the although detailed evidence about the behaviour of these environment. These were mobile populations with highly communities is almost non-existent (Boschian 2003: adaptable individuals (Jelinek 1988: 207-208; Sorensen 97). Regional cultural differentiation was determined and Leonard 2001: 483). Settling in smaller seasonal a long time ago. Mousterian industries described as territories meant reduced circular or radial movement as typical of the era are found in Liguria. In the Veneto a result of seasonal resource use and relying on greater region and north-east Italy Levallois was diversity in heterogeneous regions (Finlayson 2004: used more frequently, and the percentages of scrapers 117). are so large that the typical Mousterian merges into the Ferrassie Mousterian; in central and southern Italy most The fact that Neanderthals lived in heterogeneous of the deposits indicate the Quina Mousterian (Pontinian, Mediterranean environments meant that they could find Apulia region, etc.; Mussi 2001: 144). all their resources in a smaller area, and the Adriatic zone was no exception. The archaeological evidence indicates On the eastern Adriatic coast 40 sites are known with that they occupied a smaller area (the wider regions of finds from the Middle Palaeolithic period, most of them Zadar, Kaštela, etc.), and the number of open-air sites being grouped within the wider Zadar region. The small confirms that these sites satisfied all their needs for range of sites could indicate that the numbers of groups resources. living in these regions were not particularly high, but it could also be a consequence of insufficient exploration. Settlements in the true sense of the word are very scarce. Neanderthals needed contact with other groups, so that There are only a few explored caves in the region of

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Croatia at the Crossroads the eastern Adriatic that offer the best evidence for D2 (about 20%). In layer B this phenomenon is much such sites. These explored caves, however, can provide less pronounced (Karavanić 2004: 194). clear answers to questions about the length of stay of the communities. It is almost impossible to determine When mentioning Levallois technique we need to whether the layers in them appear as a result of a series consider the appearance of micro-Levallois cores that of short-term visits or lengthy stays, although the former were found at several open-air sites in the region of the option seems more plausible. Only Crvena Stijena in Zadar hinterland (Vujević 2007: 80) and in Mujina pećina Crna Gora seems a lengthy and major settlement, and (Karavanić 2004: 84). These are small cores which were recent research indicates a more intensive stay, at least worked in a typically Levallois manner with respect to during the warmer interstadials MIS 5 (Morley 2007: all phases of the process despite the fact that they were 331-337). difficult to actually hold while working, and the fact that the Levallois technique does not result in particularly The largest percentage of sites refers to open-air sites suitable flakes on cores of this size. Therefore although which exhibit a concentration on the exploitation of local analyses indicate that Levallois was most stone and the understandable desire to work near the suitable for flakes of medium and large sizes, these finds best raw material (80% of larger sites are situated on, or show that the Neanderthals in this region had the skills very near, large deposits of raw material). Mostly these and precision to adapt to local raw material with smaller were short-term, specialized places reflecting activities dimensions. documented at sites (Vujević 2011: 55). Centripetal technique is represented more frequently; it Technological and typological analyses show a is evident primarily on flakes. True discoid cores are few. standardization of finds that corresponds to our Laminar technology is represented more often and its conceptions on Mousterian communities. Their general usage is related to the layers of the Late Mousterian. The characteristic is a lack of innovation and the combination Clacton technique is only somewhat more frequent in the of existing ideas into new inventions and , initial layers of Crvena Stijena, while at open-air sites it which is the main reason for the apparent lack of more is represented on only a few examples (Vujević 2007: complex tools. Sites on the eastern Adriatic, even 63-75; Batović 1988: 14). Finally, it should be noted that ones with thick layers, such as Crvena stijena, were the use of small pebbles in later phases of the Mousterian formed under various climatic conditions and indicate increased the use of the ‘citrus-slices’ technique, which minor deviations in technology, which are more the could be related to Quina technology and techniques consequences of raw material choice, and perhaps related applied at sites in central Italy. to site function, and depend less on the environment and climate. Typological analyses of Mousterian finds from the eastern Adriatic coast indicate small differences between Levallois technique is represented at almost all sites, but the sites, with a predominance of scrapers at almost all with differences in frequency at open-air sites and caves. sites. Most frequently these are simple sub-types with At open-air sites Levallois technique is limited, and a tendency towards one-sided and transverse scrapers typical Levallois unretouched flakes are almost entirely (Vujević 2011). Mujina Pećina provides an exception, absent (Vujević 2011). Collected tools exhibit a poor with denticulate tools being more numerous, particularly usage of Levallois technology on raw material of poor in layers B and C (Karavanić et al. 2008: 40). Similar quality and small dimensions. There is evidence of a typological variabilities at different types of site, with somewhat higher percentage use of Levallois technology different functions, suggest that most types were used as on material of higher quality and with larger dimensions. multifunctional tools which could be used for all activities This is best illustrated at the sites of Veršići, Kneževići, necessary for community survival. Partial specialization Podvršje and Beretini near Radovin (Vujević 2007). of tools for particular activities can be noticed only for a smaller number of types (and a smaller number of For caves the situation is almost entirely reversed. Basler artefacts) with certain forms of Mousterian points, and related the emergence of Levallois technology to the upper Palaeolithic variants being most prevalent, the early layers of the Mousterian at Crvena Stijena (1979: latter often in combination with other types, which once 388), although Levallois flakes and cores were present again gives the a multifunctional role. also in later layers, in somewhat smaller percentages. Levallois is represented in considerable Upper Palaeolithic types are poorly represented. However amounts at Mujina Pećina, but without Levallois their appearance, with percentages up to 10%, regardless cores. Karavanić, therefore assumes that these tools of whether the finds are from caves or open-air sites, is were brought to the settlement from some other place another indicator of late-phase Mousterian. Retouched (Karavanić and Bilich-Kamenjarin 1997: 197). Levallois pieces vary from site to site, but their numbers depend industry is particularly well represented in layers D1 and more on the collection method than the actual location. This is best illustrated by the larger numbers of finds

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Dario Vujević: Adriatic Connections

Figure 3. Mousterian tools of this type from those caves explored using modern producing objects, when the evidence indicates that they methods, as opposed to open-air sites where mostly were forced to use it as it was the only available material. specimens of tools were collected. Even when they did find larger pieces of raw material it was of such poor quality that effectively only small flakes One of characteristics of sites on the eastern Adriatic is could be obtained by . This was confirmed by the limited typological variability within the inventory Karavanić’s experiments (2000: 777-778).1 There is no of individual sites. There are certain differences between reason therefore to single out the Micro-Mousterian at open-air sites and caves. One sees a greater diversity of eastern Adriatic sites as a separate cultural facies; we tools in caves, whereas the inventory of finds is almost need only emphasize microlithization as one of typical identical at open-air sites. According to Andrefsky characteristics of this region. (1998), finds should indicate less typological variability if a limited number of activities, or specialized activities, The situation is similar with Mousterian denticulates. were undertaken at a certain place. This corresponds For Bordes (1961) this refers to the increased percentage to our concept of open-air site as places of short-term of denticulate tools (notches and denticulates), with stay, and specialized camps as places for maintaining reduced amounts of scrapers and Levallois technology. principal settlements. Larger open-air sites are perhaps Within the eastern Adriatic region only Mujina pećina an exception, as they may in theory be principal shows a predominance of denticulate tool types, while settlements. at other sites scrapers dominate or equal the numbers of denticulated tools. The working edges of some There are two terms frequently related with the Mousterian tools demonstrate fine denticulation, but it is the result of the eastern Adriatic coast: denticulate Mousterian and primarily of untidy or too invasive retouch, or the poor Micro-Mousterian. Distinct microlithization of tools is quality of the raw material. On the basis of the criteria of the main factor that classifies the industries of the eastern Bordes (1961) and Debenath and Dibble (1994: 90), and Adriatic coast as Micro-Mousterian, but if we consider considering the characteristics of the working edges, the typological characteristics and uses of technology it can be seen that all artefact types are represented and 1 After experimentation, Perhoč concluded that some cores were of all technologies applied, as with industries in which high enough quality to produce some larger specimens of tools, after larger tools dominate. On the other hand, in most the removal of the worst parts of the nodule (personal communication cases it cannot be said that communities in this region with Z. Perhoč). However, the fact is that far less flakes, and only a small number of large and higher quality examples can be obtained intentionally selected small pieces of raw material for from large nodules and cobbles.

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Croatia at the Crossroads tools of this type are classified as scrapers, not notches we can notice a tendency towards increasing regional or denticulates. Therefore, from the technological point differences as a consequence of differences in behaviour of view, the fine denticulation of working edges is not of communities as a response to specific ecological, enough to group these objects into a separate cultural demographic and social conditions at the end of the facies. Denticulation is only one of the Mousterian Pleistocene (Kuhn 2006: 116). The Eastern Adriatic on the eastern Adriatic coast, caused primarily by the cannot provide such evidence for now. The transition poor raw material which results in the untidy retouch of from the Middle to the Upper Palaeolithic in the eastern working edges. Adriatic region is characterized by a reduction in the number of sites. It is difficult to state with certainty The lowering of the sea level made connections between for now whether it is a Palaeolithic question, or just a the two Adriatic coasts inevitable. These connections consequence of the present state of exploration. Only are reflected in the lithic inventory exhibiting several assumed open-air sites in the wider surroundings many resemblances. Taking into consideration the of Zadar or Šandalja II near Pula can provide answers chronological framework the best comparison can to questions of the settlement of newly arrived be made with central Italy, a region characterized by communities, representatives of the culture. a series of characteristics encompassed by the term Most open-air sites contain mixed material with a more Pontinian, which corresponds chronologically to the or less pronounced presence of Middle Palaeolithic period from 80,000 to 40,000 years BP. The Pontinian types, indicating a similar use of resources and making of is a variant of the Mousterian characterized by the use specialized camps in the period of the Middle and Upper of small pebbles, the reduced dimensions of tools and Palaeolithic. But evidence for a similar use of caves is large amounts of distinctly retouched scrapers (Mussi lacking. Moreover, within the entire region of the eastern 2001: 104, Kuhn 2006: 111, Aureli et al. 2011: 175). The Adriatic coast and its hinterland there is not a single site technological and typological characteristics are similar with confirmed Middle and Upper Palaeolithic levels to those of sites on the eastern Adriatic coast. In the (Karavanić 2003). This might indicate different processes Pontinian region the only stones suitable for use within for the selection of settlement location, although more a range of 50km are small pebbles, generally smaller research should be undertaken for such hypotheses. than 10cm, which appear in scattered deposits along the coastal region. Such small and scattered sources of raw There is a noticeable lack of transitional Palaeolithic material led Neanderthal groups to develop techniques industries and different technological and typological which enabled the most efficient possible use and characteristics of the lithic inventory, where neither the maximum size of the tools (Stiner and Kuhn 1992: 316; Mousterian nor Aurignacian sites indicate any traces Kuhn 1995). A similar choice of raw material from the of direct transition (Karavanić 2009: 168-170), which above-mentioned regions led to similar tools and similar points to a complete shift in populations along the typological relations. In the Pontinian culture, and at the eastern Adriatic coast. Relating to Italy, the technological Dalmatian open-air sites, the raw material was so small changes vary from region to region, or even from site to that the pebbles were not decorticated but were turned site. However, similar to the eastern Adriatic coast, in no into tools with more or less cortex. The size of the raw Italian region is there an evident extension of any of the material determined the size of the finished tools. In both trends that began at the end of the Middle Palaeolithic, cases the presence of scrapers in the typology is fairly at least concerning (Kuhn 2006: 115- large (above 60%). 116).

Similarities with sites in Italy and Greece could also Only in later periods of the Upper Palaeolithic does indicate group movements across the wider region, the number of sites increase, although the population which might result in similar industries created in the last densities remain low. The situation is identical in Italy, phases of the Mousterian. Considering the previously where spatial densities of the and early mentioned climatic and topographic characteristics it Epigravettian communities was low, and only in some is possible that the sites on the eastern Adriatic coast later chronological segments of the Epigravettian does represent peripheral parts of a relatively closed system the number of sites rise (Mussi 2001: 269). Only a few of movements of groups from the edge of the Apennine sites on the eastern Adriatic coast can be dated to the Peninsula to the Dinarides and Ionian zone, a region period before 13,000 BP, and those sites that can be which is presently below sea level for the most part. dated to the period of duration, or immediately after the Late Glacial Maximum are particularly rare. Šandalja The transitory period is poorly known in the Adriatic II near Pula, Vela spila on the island of Korčula and region. Generally in various European regions there Vlakno on the island of Dugi Otok are the only sites with are almost no differences in environment management cultural layers from these periods. At the peak of the from the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic. Occasionally Last Ice Age (20,000-19,000 BP) most of the European there are differences in the position and selection of central latitudes were deserted (Mussi 2001: 273). The locations (Miller and Barton 2008: 1435-1436). In Italy situation was the same in the territory of Slovenia and

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Dario Vujević: Adriatic Connections northern Italy. Around the Late Glacial Maximum, At first sight, the great plain, rich in water brought by the north-eastern Italy was not densely populated. Most Paleo-Po, with an exceptionally rich biotope inhabited probably it was visited by smaller hunter groups and by herds of herbivores, represented an ideal region for during the forthcoming millennia (18-14 kya) evidence Epigravettian populations (Shackelton et al. 1984: 312; of presence disappeared almost entirely (Mussi Miracle 2007; 1995: 45; Whallon 1999: 338). On the 2001: 312). However the existence of a small number of other hand Mussi (2001: 311) assumes that the glacial sites indicates that the Adriatic region was not an empty swamps of the northern Adriatic were not very attractive space at the time of the Ice Age climax, but it offered places. The Northern Adriatic plain, enclosed by its opportunities for the survival of human communities. surrounding mountains, was subjected to strong seasonal Furthermore, later increases in the number of sites and winds. These winds still blow today, reaching speeds of population movements towards the mountainous regions, over 100 km/h, with high pressure concentrated along which coincide with the Bølling-Allerød interstadial can the Alpine glaciers, and they would only have been be explained only with the hypothesis that the former stronger in the past. The lack of natural shelters in a plain Adriatic plain was previously populated by Upper exposed to cold winds, and the potential lack of suitable Palaeolithic hunters and gatherers (Vukosavljević 2012: raw material for producing stone artefacts, represented 282) who started to settle on what were once peripheral additional problems for communities. Therefore it is parts of their territory due to reductions in living space. In reasonable to expect that during the peak of the Glacial contrast to central and western Europe the Epigravettian they used caves in the mountains bordering the plain, populations adapted to areas dominated by discontinuous at least seasonally. However except perhaps for Vlakno permafrost and seasonal freezing, and thus faced lover and Vela Spila there are no other traces therein. Even in levels of ecological risk (Banks 2008: 487-488). Better Šandalja II, which is situated on a pronounced ridge over planning, organizational skills, specialization and a great northern plain, there is an hiatus during the LGM the logistic mobility noticeable in Upper Palaeolithic (Mussi 2001: 312). communities additionally increase chances for survival (Phoca-Cosmetatou 2006: 40-41). Regardless of various opinions, and bearing in mind the existence of cultural deposits in Vela Spila and Vlakno, The assumed sphere of all the events in the wider Adriatic we have to assume low population densities in the Ice region in the Epigravettian period is the presently sunken Age climax at least. Considering the geomorphology valley of the northern Adriatic. Certainly the narrow of the region it is possible to recognize two main corridor of the Adriatic and Mediterranean coasts environmental zones: the northern Adriatic plain and the available to communities was an obstacle to maintaining karst hinterland. The plain was limited to the northern firm cultural and linguistic connections between the part of the present-day Adriatic Sea and it represented regions. But these limits are less pronounced along a grassy habitat with occasional woody cover near river the Adriatic coasts due to the wide valley which flows and in protected valleys. On the other hand, the made contacts in this region more frequent than in the hinterland was a mosaic of karst zones with woody surrounding area (Banks 2008: 489). The creating of the regions grouped at altitude zones from 500 to 700 masl North Adriatic plain was a consequence of the lowering (Miracle 1995: 486). The hypothesis of Shackleton et al. of the Adriatic Sea during the cold periods of the last (1984) concerning the existence of main habitats on the Glacial. Although, due to the seismic instability and present-day Adriatic islands would correspond to such alluvial deposits of the River Po, a total reconstruction an environment, with a situation that overlooked the is impossible, the general opinion is that the boundary Adriatic plain. This thesis was additionally reinforced by should be the sudden fall at the line of present-day recent analyses (Vukosavljević 2012). Ancona (Mussi 2001: 222). The Adriatic was reduced to a semi-closed basin in the Jabuka (central Adriatic) In the eastern Adriatic region there are about ten valley, while the northern part of the Adriatic basin was a Epigravettian sites that have been well explored. spacious valley of the Po and Apennine rivers, as well as Šandalja II is the most famous site, where Karavanić Dinaric water flows, whose paleo-riverbeds can be traced proved the existence of two chronologically different on the present-day seabed. Pleistocene eolian deposits on phases of the Epigravettian on the eastern Adriatic, the eastern Adriatic islands and littoral testify to this land which may be differentiated on the basis of typological environment (Surić 2006: 187). According to Miracle and technological characteristics (Karavanić 1999). In (1995: 117-118) the Adriatic plain was at its largest Istria Pupičina peć corresponds to the second stage of the during Dryas I and it did not decrease significantly in Epigravettian, and Vešanska peć contains Epigravettian size until 12,500 BP. After the climate warmed and the industry dated to the period between 13,400 and 11,230 sea level rose, the north Adriatic plain reached only 17% cal. BC (Komšo and Pellegati 2007: 30-35). The of its former area around 9,000 BP, and was reduced to situation is similar in Nugljanska peć (Karavanić 1999: a narrow belt in the Gulf of Trieste. Such interpretations 102). Larger groups of Epigravettian sites can be found correspond well to sea level curve being -41m before 9,2 on the Kvarner islands. The site of Lopar is situated on ka, and -10m before 7,8 ka (Surić 2006: 182). the island of Rab. This is an open-air site, located on a

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Croatia at the Crossroads

Figure 4. Epigravettian sites

peninsula with a source of drinking water. The presence Excavations in the cave started in 2004 (Brusić 2005). By of microgravettes, backed bladelets, points and 2013 a depth of 5m was reached, revealing continuous circular segments indicates the late Epigravettian phase cultural layers that can be traced back to 19,500 cal. BP (Malez 1979: 241). Vela jama near Osorčica, on the (the lowest layer was dated to 17,530 cal. BC), bearing island of Lošinj, also contains finds that can be ascribed in mind that this depth does not represent the last of the to the Epigravettian, and the situation is similar at the cultural layers. site of Jami na Sredi on the island of Cres (Malez 1979: 264). In the region of Dalmatia mention can be made In the explored area there are various deposits separated of the thick deposits rich in material from cave Vlakno by interlayers of ash and burnt and compressed soil on Dugi otok (Vujević and Parica 2011), the Vela spila which, represent the walking surfaces from the time of on the island of Korčula (Čečuk and Radić 2005; Radić the cave’s use. At a depth of approximately 200cm there et al. 2008), as well as the Zemunica cave, which can is a layer of tephra which was used as a chronological be dated with certainty to the Late Epigravettian on point of reference for the 14C dates. This is a layer of the basis of 14C dates (Vukosavljević 2012: 277). Neapolitan yellow tuff 5cm thick which erupted onto Epigravettian finds were provided by the Kopačina cave the Phlegraean fields in the vicinity of Naples. Analyses on north-western side of the island of Brač, and the dates indicate that this layer was formed 14,500 years ago indicate a chronological range from 13,000 to 11,888 BP (Vujević and Parica 2011: 26). Almost identical deposits (Vukosavljević et al. 2011). were found in Vela spila, where dates put the tephra layer into a very broad range from 13,500 to 11,900 cal. BC The Vlakno cave, in the Dugi Otok interior, half way (Radić et al. 2008: 17). At a depth of 350cm there is a between the settlements of Luka and Savar, is one of layer of reddish/brown soil with a large concentration of the most prominent Epigravettian sites discovered cryoclastic debris, 60cm thick. Finds were very scarce recently. The inner cave space is around 40m2 and its in this layer; only some faunal finds and certain tools or opening is oriented towards the south-east. It served flakes indicate sporadic and short-term visits by , as an ideal location for small communities of hunter- and great quantities of cryoclastic debris indicate a cold gatherers during the Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic. climatic episode close to LGM. Although there are only

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Dario Vujević: Adriatic Connections

Figure 5. Vlakno - stratigraphic profile

a few finds, they indicate that groups sheltered in caves Through all the explored layers of the Late Palaeolithic, in the period when most of the European continent was faunal remains dominate with significant amounts of under constant ice. Probably these were smaller groups bones of large land ruminants. In the later layers of the of hunter-gatherers who visited this region occasionally, Upper Palaeolithic large quantities of tools were using this cave as a temporary shelter or camp. The found, while in the lower levels of the cave the amount of diversity of raw materials found in the layer might be flint artefacts decreases, but their average size increases. another indicator of the greater mobility of communities. The typological and technological characteristics of the Below the 350cm-layer it was again possible to trace tools throughout the period indicate an Epigravettian older phases of settlement from the Early Epigravettian origin, with deepest layers probably belonging to the period. early phase.

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Croatia at the Crossroads

Technological analysis of debitage reveals the presence of being more frequent in the Early Epigravettian. The three basic phases of tool production (chaine operatoire). reduction in microgravettes corresponds to changes in The presence of corticated debitage indicates the first fauna (Janković et al. 2012: 114). phase of core formation, which will be further shaped into real flakes, blades and bladelets of better quality In Vela spila on the island of Korčula enscrapers provide and more regular forms, purposefully knapped in order the largest category of finds, but there are also geometric to produce tools of various types. This second phase of . On the other hand, micro-burins and backed the process is testified by the scarcity of core renewal bladelets are very rare. The situation in Badanj, near flakes, crested forms and core fragments. True cores Stolac (Whallon 1989), and Crvena Stijena (Mihailović were found in the Upper Epigravettian layers, while 2009) is similar but with somewhat greater amounts of in the layers under the tephra there were no cores. It is backed bladelets. On the other side of the Adriatic, in difficult to understand the reasons for this considering the Epigravettian layers of the Paglicci cave (Apulia, the small area excavated. Other categories from the Italy), backed bladelets and blades are the most frequent second phase are present in large numbers, so it is highly finds and there are less endscrapers (Mussi 2001: 293- unlikely that the processes related to obtaining flakes, 294). Parallels can be made with the lithic industry from blades and bladelets were performed far from the site. It Riparo Tagliente (Mussi 2001: 291). is possible that core shaping took place elsewhere within or in front of a cave. In any case, the final treatment, i.e. Similarities in the material culture can be ascribed the production of tools, happened inside the cave as is to the communication networks of the communities, testified by the finds of small retouch flakes. while certain differences are probably more to do with the function of a site rather than of the production Among the technological categories in all layers there processes and raw material selection (Janković et al. are similar percentages of flakes and bladelets, with a 2012: 120). However any technological and typological slight emphasis on flakes, but with a noticeable increase differences between the sites may also be a consequence in percentage of bladelets towards the earlier horizons of of the territorial organization, as proposed for the Late the cave. Typological analysis of the material indicates Epigravettian by Whalon (2007). Certain regions in Italy the dominance of backed bladelets as well as other tools indicate the existence of various settlement systems made from bladelets (again with an increase towards the characterized by the presence of more complex sites, earlier layers), and tools on blades appear moderately with numerous camps distributed over wider regions, in all layers. Large numbers of retouched pieces are which were used for specialized tasks so as to utilize evident. The quantities of tools on flakes vary through various resources (Romandini and Bertolini 2011: the layers, although there are larger numbers in the later 96). Similar systems can be established for the eastern layers at Vlakno. Various types of endscrapers are most Adriatic regions. On the basis of the presence/absence frequent among the tools on flakes, while the number of several technological and typological characteristics, of burins varies. Smaller points such as Azilian and Whallon (2007) proposed a zonal system for the social microgravettes appear in all layers, and true Gravettian territories of the Epigravettian communities. His four points are rare. zones include southern Apulia, central and northern Apulia, the central part of the eastern Adriatic coast and Bone tools are rare, only a few punches or retouchers Epirus (Whallon 2007: 62). According to Vukosavljević made of deer antler. Artefacts found to date with an (2012: 278-284) Vlakno may belong to unique social aesthetic or symbolic character include some perforated region of the central part of the eastern Adriatic coast, deer teeth and flint flakes with incised lines on the together with Kopačina, Vela spila, Badanj and Crvena cortex (Vujević and Parica 2011). In Croatia a similar stijena. fragment from an engraved pebble has only been found at Šandalja II (Karavanić 1999: 136, T.45, 40), while a One of indicators of communication and community number of finds of this type have been found in Italy: movements in the wider Adriatic zone is the presence of Grotta Romanelli, RIparo Tagliente, Riparo Maurizio, stone raw material that originates from greater distances. Grotte Paglicci, etc. (Mussi 2001: 266-268). Preliminary analyses by Z. Perhoč of lithic material from Vlakno indicate that red cherts are probably of Italian If we compare finds from Vlakno with other sites from origin. Although analyses are in the initial stage, it seems the Adriatic zone, while remarking that comparisons can that these cherts come from the region of Marche, with only be made for the period of the Late Epigravettian secondary sources from the neighbourhood of Ancona because of the small number of sites, the greatest and primary sources from the hinterland of the same similarities can found at Šandalja II. In all the layers area. Initial researches indicated that communities from from complex B flakes represent the most abundant Vlakno may have procured this raw material from the category, but blades and bladelets are quite frequent. banks of the PaleoPo, but recent findings do not support Differences can be noticed between the Early (C/d) this: they indicate the procurement of material through and Late Epigravettian (B/s) finds, with microgravettes movements or exchanges between the communities

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Dario Vujević: Adriatic Connections

Figure 6. Vlakno - Epigravettian tools (Late Epigravettian 1-15, Early Epigravettian 16-22)

Figure 7. Vlakno - engraved nodules

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Croatia at the Crossroads

(personal communication with Z. Perhoč). The material originating from greater distances, now becomes presence of artefacts made of red and pinkish in the only raw material available for the production the Epigravettian layers of Šandalja II, very similar to of tools. Movements towards the hinterland can be the ones from the Lessini mountains and the Apennine recognized by the formation of habitats in the Velebit Scaglia Rossa formation, also suggests their acquisition mountains (Forenbaher and Vranjican 1990) and by via medium or long range movements (Cancellieri 2010: exchanges of shell (Komšo and Vukosavljević 255-256). 2011: 117-118). Contacts with the western coast of the Adriatic gradually intensified with the development of Movements of communities need not be restricted solely sailing techniques, so that in the following periods of to the northern Adriatic plain and areas on the opposite it is again possible to trace intensive contacts coast. Communities from the edges of the Adriatic plain between Adriatic communities. also exploited the continental hinterland, as is confirmed by analyses of raw materials (Vukosavljević 2012: 284). References The Epigravettian layers from Zala (Karavanić et al. 2010) also show that such connections existed. Andrefsky, W., 1998. Lithics: Macroscopic approaches to analysis. Cambridge manuals in Archaeology, The final formation of the eastern Adriatic coast occurred Cambridge. 10,000 years ago when the Ice Age ended. Climate Aureli, D., Giaccio, B. and Federico Rolfo, M., 2011. warming and the flooding of the northern half of the The open air Pontinian: Technological variability, Adriatic put Epigravettian sites on the edge of the territory geomorphology and settlement dynamics. Il of Mesolithic communities, limiting at the same time Quaternario (Italian Journal of Quaternary Sciences) their movements. 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Sarajevo: Svjetlost. affected mobility towards mountainous areas in search Batović, Š., 1988. Paleolitički i mezolitički ostaci s of new hunting regions. It is possible that the Upper Dugog otoka. Poročilo o raziskovanju paleolita, Palaeolithic groups were simply pushed northwards as a neolita in eneolita v Sloveniji XVI: 7–53. result of the rise in sea level, which forced them to settle Batović, Š., 1990. Rekognosciranje otoka Paga u 1989. in the hilly regions and change their food procurement godini, Obavijesti HAD, XXII (1): 26–32. strategies (Boschian 2003: 99, Miracle 2007). During Bordes, F., 1961. Typologie du Paléolithique ancien et deglaciation more intensive movements of communities moyen. Bordeaux: Delmas can be detected towards mountain areas, as is confirmed Boschian, G., 2003. Environment and Hunters-Gatherer by a fair number of sites, as well as the existence of an Mobility in the Northern Adriatic Region. Preistoria entire settlement system that includes a greater diversity Alpina 39: 91–102. of site activities. Brusić, Z., R. 2005. Br. 98 - Pećina Vlakno, Hrvatski arheološki godišnjak, 1/2004: 197–199. A rapid rise in sea level and the disappearance of the North Burroughs, W. J., 2005. Climate change in prehistory: Adriatic plain changed the orientations of communities. The end of the region of chaos. Cambridge: Main communication routes between the communities of Cambridge University Press. the Adriatic coasts were lost, and contacts between the Čečuk, B. and Radić, D., 2005. Vela spila – višeslojno two regions focussed on the Caput Adriae region, where pretpovijesno nalazište. Vela Luka: Korčula. the Alps taper towards the west and create a less severe Debenath, A. and Dibble, H., 1994. Handbook of landscape with lower mountains. In the central parts of typology, Vol 1: The Lower and Middle the eastern Adriatic coast the reduced territories of the Paleolithic of Europe. 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