Findings Show Lesson Study Can Be an Effective Model for Professional Development of 4-H Volunteers

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Title Findings show lesson study can be an effective model for professional development of 4-H volunteers

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Journal California Agriculture, 67(1)

ISSN 0008-0845

Author Smith, Martin H

Publication Date 2013

Peer reviewed

eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California Research Article ▼ Findings show lesson study can be an effective model for professional development of 4-H volunteers

by Martin H. Smith

The 4-H Youth Development Program can help address low levels of scientific literacy among K-12 youth in the United States by providing opportunities to learn science in out-of-school settings. To help ensure quality program delivery, effective professional development for adult volunteers who serve as Program Development Youth 4-H Courtesy of the California 4-H science educators is essential. Lesson study, a constructivist-based professional development model, is one potential strategy to help meet this need. A sequential explanatory mixed-methods design was used to investigate the influence of lesson study on 4-H volunteers’ science content and pedagogical knowledge. In mixed- methods research, both quantitative and qualitative data are collected and analyzed in an investigation. Preserved specimens from the UC Davis Veterinary School give 4-H youth and volunteer leaders Survey data revealed improved a close-up view of livestock anatomy. Over 400,000 adult volunteers serve as 4-H educators nationwide. One-time workshops, common in volunteer development, have been shown to be less understanding and use of subject matter effective than professional development of longer duration involving communities of practice. knowledge among participants. Focus group interview data elaborated on participants’ understanding and use the largest youth organizations in the youth participation in 4-H programming world. Administered through the national in terms of their interest and engagement of inquiry processes. Results from this Cooperative Extension System, 4-H offers in science (Heck 2009; Heck et al. 2012; study could benefit 4-H volunteers, other curriculum projects and activities through Mielke et al. 2010). nonformal educators, and researchers. county-based programs in all 50 states Adult volunteers serve as the nonfor- as well as in the District of Columbia. mal educators in 4-H; they lead curricu- Internationally, 4-H is available to youth lum projects and activities with youth here is a documented need to improve through programs in American Samoa, (Stedman and Rudd 2006). Over 400,000 Tthe level of scientific literacy among Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, individuals function in this capacity the K-12 population in the United States Micronesia, Puerto Rico, and the United nationally, and approximately 17,000 in (e.g., Fleischman et al. 2010; National States Virgin Islands, as well as at United California (USDA 2010). To be successful Center for Education Statistics 2011). To States military installations around the in this role, 4-H volunteers must engage in achieve this improvement will require not world. Approximately half of all 4-H effective professional development oppor- only effective classroom-based instruc- curriculum offerings are science related tunities (Hoover and Connor 2001). To this tion, but opportunities for youth to learn (USDA 2010) and program delivery em- end, it has been suggested that episodic science in nonformal settings that occur phasizes pedagogical strategies that in- workshops that are used most frequently during out-of-school time (Bell et al. 2009). clude hands-on inquiry and experiential to train 4-H volunteers are inadequate The 4-H Youth Development Program learning (Enfield et al. 2007), approaches is one nonformal youth education orga- that have been shown to be effective in nization that has the potential to help advancing scientific literacy (Minner et Online: http://californiaagriculture.ucanr.edu/ address this area of concern (Kress et al. 2010). Furthermore, recent research has landingpage.cfm?article=ca.v067n01p54&fulltext=yes al. 2008). 4-H has developed into one of demonstrated positive impacts related to DOI: 10.3733/ca.v067n01p54

54 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE • VOLUME 67, NUMBER 1 to build their teaching and knowledge apart from traditional approaches to pro-

University of California capacity in science. Instead, alternative fessional development for educators (e.g., Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources models of professional development that one-shot workshops or seminars that lack http://anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu

Publication 8337 / are of longer duration should be explored sustained support or followup) in that the March 2009 Youth Development through v eterinar in order to provide volunteers with suffi- work is done “with” or “by” educators Behaving like animals!Y Science 1

cient opportunities to develop the knowl- rather than being done “on” or “to” them martin h. Smith, Cooperative Extension Youth Cu cherYl l. meehan , Staff Research Associate, Universityrriculum of California,Development Davis; Specialist, Ju University of California versity of California, Davis; h. S teve , Davis; edge and skills necessary to effectively (Loucks-Horsley et al. 2003). Cooperative Extension, San Diego C DaSher, 4-H Youth and Community DevelopmentStine maAdvisor,, Program Univers Representative, Uni- sity of California Cooperative Exten ounty; Joe D. camarillo ity of California sion, Madera County; , 4-H Youth and Community Development Ad Undergraduate Student Curriculum Design Team Membe t iffan Y lau and visor, Univer facilitate science projects and activities As a professional development strat- JuStin liang - rs. , University of California, Davis, Subject Overview and Background Information (Barker et al. 2009). egy in school-based settings, lesson study By making careful observations and developing an Animals play important roles in the ethogram (a description of an anima lives of humans. Animals have been used for centuries for work learn to recognize the range of behaviorl’s behavior), we can has gained increasing recognition and helping to plow fields, providing a means , such as in different kinds of animals as well as s performed by The lesson study approach and aiding in search and rescue, and as a sof transportation of the same animal type. Through this by process different individuals food and other products for humans. Manyource of to understand how animals react or respond , we will come use in the United States in recent years companion animals—dogs and cats are amongpeople have University of California conditions (e.g., changes in weather) or stimuli to different the most popular—in their homes. Because Division of Agriculture and Naturalnoises), Resources and what types of beh (e.g., loud we depend upon animals in so many wa aviors might indicate that something is wrong with our ani One alternate approach to professional (Lewis and Baker 2010). In-service and it is important that we, as their caretake ys, http://anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu Sometimes symptoms of diseases ormals. in understand their biology and their behaviorrs, in not always obvious, and detection dependsjuries onare order to assess their health and well-being. development for 4-H volunteers who lead pre-service teachers from different disci- how closely we observe our While a normal part of responsible well we understand their behaanimals and how animal care involves preventative veterinary care, Publication 8339 / viors. March 2009 including annual exams with vaccinations and blood Activity Concepts and Vocabulary science projects and activities is lesson plines, including history, language arts, Y OUTH D EVELO tests, many common injuries and illnesses can be de pMENT THROU • g AnimalH V ETERINARY behavior just by noticing a chan : A branch S of biology that studies ge in the behavior of an animal.tected the behavior of animals. CIENCE 3 Because behavior is a primary me study (Smith 2008), a model that has long math, science, and social studies, have • Ethogram (ee-thuh-gram) change in an animal’s ac ans of communication, a : A description of the types of tivityThe level, eating habits, postureEyes, behaviors performedHave by the species you It!a or gait can often “tell” us something • re studying. important and be a Gait: The manner or style of clue to detect orMARTIN prevent H.an SMITHilln , Cooperativ walking. been the principal professional develop- made effective use of the process (Blum • Posture CHERYL L. MEEHANess or, Staffinjury. Researche Extension Ass Youth Curriculum Development: The way Specialist, someone Univers holds up his or her body, ociate, University ofespecially California, in Davis; a standing JUSTINE pos MA, Pr University of California, Davis; H. STEVE DASH ition.ity of California, Davis; ment model in Japan (Lewis et al. 2004). et al. 2005; Marble 2006; Ogden et al. 2008; Cooperative Extension, San Diego County; JOE D.ER C, 4-H Youth and Community Development Advisoogram Representative, sity of California Cooperat AMARILLO ive Extension, Madera County; , 4-H Youth and Community De r, University of California Undergraduate Student Curriculum Design Team Me TIffANY velopment Advisor, Univer LAU and JUSTIN - Grounded in constructivist thinking, Rock and Wilson 2005; Sibbald 2009). mbers. LIANg, University of California, Davis, whereby new experiences draw upon Specific to science, educators engaged in Subject Overview and Background Information and skin for cuts, abrasions, scratche The five senses—sight, hearing, taste, smell touch; and check an animal’s mouth s,and and tongue sensitivity to help animals collect information from the , and touch— cuts, and sores. If the organs of the sensory system for a odor, earlier experiences and modify them in lesson study have been shown to be ef- that aids in their survival. For example, sightir environments h working properly, the animal will not be able re not locate food and avoid danger; Universityhearing helps animaofelps California animals environment accurately. to assess its communicate with other animals;Division smell and of taste Agriculture ls and Natural Resources some way (Dewey 1933), lesson study in- fective in developing and implementing The eye, an animal’s organ of vision, fun are used to locate and choose foods; and touch http://anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu allowing light to enter through an openictions by helps animals detect different textures and ng called the temperatures in their environment. These pupil. Not only does the pupil allow li volves groups of educators who work col- science lessons (Marble 2006; Mutch-Jones ght to enter senses are part of the sensory syste the eye, it also regulates the amount of lig receives and processes information fromm, which t that passes through thePublication opening. Under 8340 /ht March 2009 environment. he light conditions, the pupil constricts (becbright laboratively to formulate learner outcome et al. 2012). Furthermore, lesson study Y OUTH D EVELOPMENT smaller) and allows less light to enter; underomes An important part of a routine medical THROUgH V light conditionsETERINARY it dilates (becomes larger) and checkup of any animal includes an examinat S CIENCE 4 dim allows more light to enter. goals associated with each specific lesson; exhibits certain characteristics of effec- organs associatedYou’ve with the sensory system. ion g of the ot To Have Heart look for discharges (color; consistency; textureVeterinarians The appearance and symmetry of the pupil MARTIN H. SMITH, Cooperative Extensio be important in determining an animal’s gen s can the eyes and nose; check eyes for color, clarity,) anfrom CHERYL L. MEEHAN, Staff Research Associate,n Youth Un CurriculumVeterinary Development practitioners Specialist, routinely University ch of Ca eral health. plan and implement the lesson with their tive professional development in science responsiveness of the pupils; examine ears for d the eck an animal’s pupils of California, Davis; H. STEVE DASHER, 4-H Youth andiversity Cfor of symptomsCalifornia, Davis; of underlying JUSTINE MA,eye diseaseProgram or Re discharge, inflammation, and scabs; inspe odor, lifornia, Davis; Extension, San Diego County; ommunityproblems Developmentsuch as head Advisor, or eye Universityinjury, ner of Califor other health ctJOE animal D. CAMARILLO coats presentative, University Cooperative Extension, Madera County; , 4-H Youthdisorders, and Community glaucoma, Development and diabetes. Adv vous system target audiences; collect and analyze data as outlined in the literature (e.g., Guskey nia Cooperative CARLIN E ELEANOR I. P isor, University of California Ng and REbEkk RACHT-SMITH A HAUERT, University of California, Davis, Undergraduate, Science Teacher, Tremont Elementary School, Dixon; Student Curriculum Design Team Members. on the desired results; and use outcomes and Yoon 2009; Loucks-Horsley et al. Subject Overview and Background Information going away from the heart are called arteries. O The cardiovascular system includes the heart to improve the lesson as well as subse- 2003; Penuel et al. 2007): It occurs within the blood and goes into the cells through very xygen leaves blood, and blood vessels. The heart serves , lungs, vessels called capillaries. At the same time, carbon small blood of the system by rhythmically contracting to aspump the “engine” must leave the cells through the capillaries and dioxide through vessels to the lungs and the rest of the b quent instruction (Lewis 2002). Taken authentic contexts over an extended du- blood blood stream. enter the heart in birds and mammals (reptiles, amphibia ody. The Oxygen enters the blood in the lungs. W fish differ) has four discrete chambers: the right at ns, and inhales, the chest expands and th hen an animal the right ventricle, the left atrium,University and th of California collectively, these steps set lesson study ration; it fosters communication among rium, The oxygen-rich air in the lungs enterse lungs into fill t up with air. ventricle. The right atriumDivision receives ofe leftAgriculture and Natural Resources through the capillaries. Carbon dioxidehe al blood the body. The blood then flows into bloodthe from blood through the capillaries in the lungso leaves the ventricle, where it is pumpedhttp://anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu to the lun right the animal exhales, carbon-dioxide-r s. When The blood enters the left atrium when itgs. expelled. ich air is returns from the lungs. The blood then flow into the left ventricle, where it is pumped ts The respirationPublication rate is the 8341 number / of breaths taken in 1 minute. It can be determin March 2009 rest of the body. Y OUTH D EVELOo the pMENT THROU by watching the rise and fall of an an ed . . . recent research has demonstrated positive impacts related to The purpose of the blood is to carry oxygen a gH V ETERINARY imal’s chest or by moistening one’s finger and holdi nutrients to all parts of the body. Oxygen is neede S CIENCE 5 nd of the animal’s nose to feel the exhaled a ng it in front break downDem nutrients for energy. The Bones,waste productd to breath. Dem The heart rate is the number Bones of he ir from each process is carbon dioxide, which must be of this minute. One can count heartbeats by listeninartbeats per the body throughMARTIN the lungs. H. SMITH, Cooperative removed Extension from Yout youth participation in 4-H programming in terms of their interest and with a stethoscope. Another way is to fin g to the heart CHERYL L. MEEHAN, Staff Research Associate, hU Curriculum Development Specialist, University of Cal Blood flows through pathways called blood ves rhythmic throbbing of the arteries cause d the pulse, the University of California, Davis; H. STEVE DASH niversity of California, Davis; JUSTINE MA, Program Repre Vessels going toward the heart are ca sels. d ifornia,by the Davis;heartbeat. Cooperative Extension, San Diego County; ER, 4-H YouthIn humans, and Community one can Development feel the pulse Advisor, on Un lled veins, and vessels sentative, of California Cooperative Extension, Madera JOE County; D. CAMARILLOwrist or on either side of the neck. the palm side of the , 4-H Youth and Community Developmentiversity Advi of California engagement in science . . . Curriculum Design Team Member. JUSTIN LIANg, University of California, Davis, Undergraduatesor, StUniversity udent Subject Overview and Background Information: the knee or the elbow). This action is called flexion. Movement is essential to animals, and almost muscle has the opposite effect on a limb. Extensor mus An extensor daily activities are dependant on the movementall of of m an animal’s extend a limb (e.g., straightening a leg or arm), thus increasingcles 8 bones. Animals need muscles and bones to find and uscleseat and 5 YouthFur, Feathers, Development s kin, through and scales v the angle. This movement is called extensi cales • anr 8338 ...... eterinarY Science 2 • anr 8338 ...... kin, and s eterinarY Science 2 YouthFur, Development Feathers, through s kin, and v scales 11 move from one place to another, and to interact with ea food, to Fur, Feathers,Youth Development s through v eterinarY Science 2 Other animals’ muscles are configuredon. • anr 8338 ...... and the environment. • anr 8338 ...... Fur, Feathers, s kin, and s ch other similar to humans, but unlike humans, most othein ways that are Y Science 2 cales 16 eterinar Animals’ bodies are configured for a wide different means of locomotion. For example, st r animals have Youth Development through v range of movements, from simpleUniversity to of California muscles and hollow, lightweight bones alrong breast accomplish these actions, musclesDivision movecomplex. of To Agriculture and Natural Resources to low most birds contracting, or shortening. When muscles bones m by fly. Horses, dogs, cats, and many other animals http://anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu are they pull bones in specific directions, and i ove, quadrupedal, meaning they move on four legs (humans are bipedal, moving on two legs) simple concept that allows the limbs and bodiet is this fish Scales bird feathers and their muscles and bones must be configu , animals to move in precise ways. Without muscls of Mammal accordingly. Furthermore, snakes an red Reptile Scales fur bones would not be able to move, and without bones, Publication 8338 / legs or wings but are able to wriggle theird fish bodies have March in no 2009 muscles would have little shapeY andOUTH have n es, D EVELO a serpentine othing to pull.pMENT THROU fashion to provide locomotion in their Where muscles are located on an animal’s body environments.gH V ETERINARY where movement occurs is not necessarily obvio S CIENCE and Observing an animal for changes in its no 2 for example, fthe musclesur, that allow f us eathers,to move o Skin, and Scales us. In humans, of movement is important and may provide veterinrmal patterns upward, bending at the elbow, are located in the uru lower arm critical information relative to the animal’s health. Abarians with MARTIN H. SMITH, Cooperative Extension Youth Cu and the muscles that provide for the movement of pper arm, movements (e.g., limping), or lack of move CHERYL L. MEEHAN, Staff Research Associa normal arm are located in the shoulder. A flexor muscle is thea upper rriculumto move Development a limb), may Specialist,be a symptom University or an injofment Califo (e.g., inability University of California, Davis; H. STEVE DASHEte, University of California, Davis; JUSTINE MA, Program the skeleton that decreases the angle of a lim muscle of rnia, Davis; Cooperative Extension, San Diego County; Whenever a caretaker notices these or other chaury or disease. b (e.g., bending R, 4-H Youth and Community Development Advisor, Univers Representative, of California Cooperative Extension, Madera JOE County D. CAMARILLOwith an animal’s muscles or bones, it is importantnges associated consulting, 4-H a veterinarian. Youth and Community Development Advisor,ity of U California University of California, Davis, Undergraduate Stude ; CELESTE to consider ALLAbAND niversity , JEAN ALUpAY nt Curriculum Design Team Members. , and JENNIfER TECHANUN, Subject Overview and Background Information protect the skin that lies underneath. Fish All animals, including humans, are affected as a protection against physical harm; in snakesscales serve mainly environment and require some type of outerby pr their Andre Magill also help prevent water loss. When fish grow, th , the scales tos/amagill/2963840608/ layer. This outer covering, regardless of whethe otective http://www.flickr.com/pho material to existing scales; “age rings” can be coey add new fur, scales, or feathers, serves as a means of physica r it is skin, individual scales to determine how old a fish is.unted When on protection against injury, germs that may l grow, they develop a new layer of scales snakes disease, and changes in temperature from morncause a one, which they then shed. This process isbeneath cal their old http://www.publicdomainpictures.net/view-image.php?image=124&to nightPetr Kratochvil or from one season to the next. In s ing large=1 Birds and mammals are warm-bloodedled molting ani . cases, the outer covering of an animal has ome and use their coats (feather for birds and fur for specific markings or colors that may attract a mals mammals) to insulate their bodies. Fur and Sherri Hogue mate, defend its territory against others, or http://www.publicdomainpictures.net/view-image.php?image=823 feathers also help keep the animals dr serve as a type of camouflage to help it h Corrie Barklimore in birds, the light weight and special shy, and from other animals. ide 7/ http://www.flickr.com/photos/corrieb/285539621 the feathers helps them fly. Many birds apea of More specialized functions of skins or c mammals live all year in environments thatnd are seen in some animals. Frogs, for example,oats mus cold and snowy in the winter but warm a are live near lakes, streams, or ponds in order to kee t in the summer. As a form of protection, thes nd colorful skin moist. The function of a frog’s skin is to regulat p their have one type of coat for the winter (gen e animals transfer of moisture and fluids, and frogs are also ablee the white) and another type of coat for the suerally thick and to take in some oxygen across the moist skin more varied in color). Both types of coats hemmer (thinner and called cutaneous gas exchange (frogs also have in a process the animals, and the process of shedding partlp camouflage which to breathe). lungs with fur and feathers and replacing them with a new or all of the The scales of fish and reptiles serve as a typ molting, just like in reptiles. coat is called “armored coat” that is very strong. The sca e of Many health problems can be detected by obs les overlap and changes in an animal’s skin or coat. Paras erving ites (small Courtesy of UC ANR Publications

The Youth Development through Veterinary Science series is a 4-H curriculum that introduces youth to many aspects of veterinary science. It includes 11 modules, each with background, subject-specific concepts and vocabulary, an activity with procedures, and an appendix with further reading.

http://californiaagriculture.ucanr.edu • January–MArch 2013 55 participants; it involves active learning where participants challenge their existing ideas about teaching and learning; and it develops new knowledge and skills among educators, informed by data collected through implementation of lessons (see page 47). Pilot study in 4-H This small-scale pilot study used a sequential explanatory mixed-methods design (Creswell and Plano Clark 2007) Program Development Youth 4-H Courtesy of the California to investigate the use of lesson study on 4-H volunteers’ understanding and use of inquiry strategies and subject matter knowledge related to the Youth Development through Veterinary Science curriculum (Smith et al. 2009). The investigation occurred within the context of 4-H club-based settings in rural California. In mixed-methods research, both quantitative and qualitative data are collected, analyzed, and mixed within an investigation (Creswell and Plano Clark 2007). The first phase of this inquiry was quantitative, using survey data to measure the influence of lesson study on the pedagogical and subject matter knowledge of the participating 4-H volunteers. The second phase of the investigation was qualitative, drawing upon focus group interview data from study participants to expand upon the survey outcomes. Participants. Study participants included 16 4-H adult volunteers from three county 4-H programs in California: Lake, Animal and veterinary science projects have large enrollments in California 4-H. Professional Marin, and Siskiyou. Fifteen of the par- development opportunities for 4-H volunteers that improve their teaching skills and subject matter ticipants (94%) were female and one (6%) knowledge help enhance youth experiences in these projects. was male. Fourteen of the participants (88%) resided in rural areas and two (12%) lived in small towns. All participants not enough to make them effective: which consists of 11 inquiry-based activ- had a minimum of 1 year of experience Participating educators also require ity modules. leading 4-H animal or veterinary sci- “models, tools, and structures from which Project implementation. The lesson ence projects with 4-H youth members. to work” (Wiburg and Brown 2007). Thus, study groups in this investigation met Specifically, nine participants (56%) had 4-H volunteers who participated in this on a regular basis over a period of sev- between 1 and 5 years of experience as inquiry were provided an overview of the eral months. The lesson study group in 4-H volunteers, three (19%) had 6 to 10 lesson study process and received neces- Lake County met seven times at 3-week years of experience, three (19%) had 11 to sary support and materials. Instruction intervals (four meetings were in person, 15 years of experience, and one (6%) had on the lesson study process included one three others were held via teleconference), more than 16 years of experience serving face-to-face workshop as well as follow-up the lesson study group in Marin County in this capacity. conference calls with each lesson study held five face-to-face meetings at 3-week The 4-H volunteers were subdivided group. Materials supplied to participat- intervals, and the lesson study group into three lesson study groups based on ing 4-H volunteers included resources in Siskiyou County met seven times in county of residence. The lesson study that outlined the procedures of the lesson person at 3-week intervals. During this groups in Lake and Marin counties had study process (Lewis 2002) and additional period the 4-H volunteers also held regu- five members each; the lesson study group information on inquiry-based teaching. lar meetings with their 4-H youth groups in Siskiyou County had six members. Each participant also received a copy of to implement the veterinary science ac- Process and project materials. Simply the Youth Development through Veterinary tivities. Meetings with 4-H youth in all organizing lesson study groups is Science curriculum (Smith et al. 2009), counties were held, on average, every 3 to

56 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE • VOLUME 67, NUMBER 1 4 weeks; one or two curriculum activities alpha scores were 0.7495 and 0.7358 for the knowledge. All interviews were recorded were implemented during each meeting. Use of Inquiry Practices Survey and the and transcribed. Agendas for lesson study group meet- Veterinary Science Content Knowledge Data analysis ings were set by the participating 4-H Survey, respectively, verifying the internal volunteers in each county. The goals for consistency of the survey items in relation Phase 1: Quantitative data analysis. these meetings were to review and dis- to their constructs. Survey data were analyzed using a re- cuss curriculum activities, plan lessons, Focus group interviews. The second peated measures general linear model and reflect on data collected during pre- phase of this investigation was qualita- (GLM) (Hill and Lewicki 2007) and vious curriculum implementations (e.g., tive, drawing upon focus group interview MiniTab software. The factors in the observations and authentic work from data from study participants to assist in model for this analysis were time and 4-H youth). Curriculum revisions and the interpretation and explanation of sur- county of residence. Data analysis exam- adjustments to instructional strategies vey outcomes. Focus group interviews are ined the interactions of these factors on were based on volunteers’ interpretation appropriate for explanatory studies and the dependent variable, which was the of their data and applied, as appropriate, are frequently used to supplement quanti- overall score for each survey. A signifi- to the planning and implementation of tative data (Hatch 2002). cance level of P ≤ 0.05 was established for subsequent activities. Two focus group interviews were all analyses. conducted separately with each lesson Use of a repeated measures GLM Data sources study group at the conclusion of the in- requires that the sample distribution be Surveys. Two retrospective surveys vestigation. The first interview addressed normal and that it exhibit homogene- were administered at the completion of the lesson study process as it pertained ity of variance (i.e., the variance within the lesson study intervention: the Use to participants’ understanding and use populations must be the same, which is of Inquiry Practices Survey and the of inquiry-based methods; the second important for meaningful interpretation Veterinary Science Content Knowledge concentrated on perceived changes in of data). A Goodness of Fit test (Gravetter Survey. These instruments were adapted participants’ veterinary science content and Wallnau 2008) was used to determine from self-report questionnaires used in if data were normally distributed. In situ- previous studies (Gejda and LaRocco ations where the data were not distrib- 2006; Smith and Meehan 2007). The Use TABLE 1. List of interview codes and descriptions* uted normally, a Box-Cox Transformation of Inquiry Practices Survey included 20 (Hill and Lewicki 2007) was applied. Likert-type questions that aligned with Homogeneity of variance for the data sets Code Description indicators of respondents’ understand- was determined using the Bartlett’s Test, CBN Collective benefits ing and use of inquiry-based instruction. a measure used to determine whether CFD Improved volunteer confidence Three categorical questions that requested multiple samples are from populations demographic information were also in- DCON-V Discussing science content – Volunteers with equal variances (Snedecor and cluded. The Veterinary Science Content NCON-V New science content – Volunteers Cochran 1983). Knowledge Survey included 11 Likert- PCON-V Prior science content knowledge – Phase 2: Qualitative data analysis. The type questions that measured veterinary Volunteers long-table approach (Krueger and Casey science content knowledge as it pertained CON-Y Science content gain – Youth 2000) was used to categorize results ger- to the Youth Development through Veterinary SPS-Y Science process skills gain – Youth mane to the investigation through the Science curriculum (Smith et al. 2009) and DC Data collection strategies development and execution of an initial three categorical questions that were de- DDD Data-driven decision making coding scheme (table 1). Data were then mographic in nature. DLRN Distance learning analyzed inductively using the con- A retrospective design was chosen for stant comparison method (Hatch 2002), DUR− Duration – Negative both surveys because it can mitigate the whereby themes emerged from the coded DUR+ Duration – Positive risk of response-shift bias, a threat to in- data, as opposed to assigning a priori ternal validity that can occur when using LGO Lesson study group organization categories (Patton 1990). Where relevant, a pre-/post-survey design. Specifically, PED-AP Pedagogy – Application some codes were combined based on response-shift bias can occur when partic- PED-EX Pedagogy – Exploration generalizations during data analysis ipants have limited knowledge or skills to PED-LI Pedagogy – Learning inquiry (Hatch 2002). The interpretation of focus respond accurately to questions asked on PED-RI Pedagogy – Reinforcing inquiry group interview data placed an empha- a pre-survey and overestimate their abili- PED-LE Pedagogy – Learning environment sis on how frequently codes occurred ties in advance of participation in a pro- (Sandelowski et al. 2009). PED-LS Pedagogy – Learning styles gram (Pratt et al. 2000). In such instances, PED-Q Pedagogy – Questioning strategies Results pre-test/post-test comparisons can be misleading because participants’ frame of RFP-I Reflective practice – In action Quantitative findings.Scores on the reference has changed subsequent to pro- RFP-O Reflective practice – On action Use of Inquiry Practices Survey improved gram intervention (Pratt et al. 2000). STF 4-H staff involvement significantly. Data analysis revealed a sig- The correlation of related survey items * The second step in the analysis of the focus group interview was nificant effect of time. The resulting Least on both instruments was tested using to identify themes and categorize results. The table includes the Squares Means (LSM) and Standard Error initial coding scheme used during the analysis. item analysis. The resulting Cronbach (SEM) for post-survey scores were n = 16,

http://californiaagriculture.ucanr.edu • January–MArch 2013 57 LSM = 3.32, SEM = 0.74. The Least Squares Means and Standard Error for pre-survey scores were n = 16, LSM = 2.92, SEM = 0.74. The difference between post-survey and pre-survey scores was significant: GLM F(1,31) = 13.71; P < 0.01. There was no interaction of county of residence on the dependent variable: GLM F(2,31) = 2.50; P = 0.10. Scores on the Veterinary Science Content Knowledge Survey also improved significantly. Analysis of the data revealed Program Development Youth 4-H Courtesy of the California a significant effect of time. The resulting Least Squares Means and Standard Error for post-survey scores were n = 16, LSM = 3.65, SEM = 0.13. The Least Squares Means and Standard Error for pre-survey scores were n = 16, LSM = 3.09, SEM = 0.13. The difference between post-survey and pre-survey scores was significant: GLM F(1,31) = 9.87; P < 0.01. There was no interaction of county of residence on the With guidance from experienced, trained volunteer leaders, 4-H members learn how to prepare a dependent variable: GLM F(2,31) = 2.27; steer for an auction or livestock show. Subject matter knowledge is key to volunteer development. P = 0.12. Knowledgeable educators encourage youth questioning and discussion, essential features of the Qualitative findings.Emergent themes inquiry process. from the analysis of focus group interviews were based on highest frequency to commit to it because I didn’t un- several times during focus groups about of occurrence of qualitative codes. These derstand it as well as I could have. how they used facilitation strategies that themes included understanding and use focused more on youth exploration than of inquiry, duration of professional de- A number of focus group responses on providing direct instruction. Among velopment experience, reflective practice, were congruent with Use of Inquiry the participants’ responses were data-driven decision making, and collec- Practices Survey questions and exhibited tive benefits to 4-H volunteers. study participants’ knowledge and ap- I try to incorporate hands-on [ac- Theme: Understanding and use of plication of specific strategies associated tivities] for the kids to explore and inquiry. Several lesson study group mem- with inquiry, such as open-ended ques- ask questions and have them for- bers for whom inquiry-based teaching tioning. For example, interview responses mulate the answers and have me was a new strategy revealed that the from 4-H volunteers provided numerous guide them. lesson study experience helped them un- references to the benefits they saw in us- derstand the process and apply it to their ing open-ended questions during curricu- [Using inquiry has] completely practice. For study participants who indi- lum implementations. In particular, study flipped the way we’ll run our meet- cated they had some prior knowledge of participants noted that they observed ings. [We are] seeing how letting inquiry, lesson study served to reinforce how open-ended questions engaged their [youth] explore on their own can be their understanding and increased their youth audiences in the learning process a better [experience] than having confidence to use it. Focus group inter- and promoted independent thinking. someone stand up there and throw view responses included Representative focus group interview re- facts and figures at you. sponses included I would say that it really helped The application of knowledge was also me because I’m kind of a “tell-you- The open-ended questioning . . . addressed through the Use of Inquiry how-to-do-it person,” . . . so I think allowed the [youth] to discover an- Practices Survey and emerged as a it helped me tremendously to find swers and discover questions. theme from the focus group interviews. out what inquiry-based learning Interview data revealed how, through the was and to help me be way open to The open-ended questions were lesson study process, several of the 4-H it now. good because they made [our 4-H volunteers had incorporated knowledge members] think. application into curriculum activities I felt that participating in the lesson they were leading with 4-H youth, while study group kind of crystallized Another key element of inquiry in- others had made concrete plans for their and fine-tuned a teaching technique cluded on the Use of Inquiry Practices youth participants to apply their learning I knew was available, but I myself Survey was learner-centered instruction. in real-life settings. Interview responses didn’t feel like I had the confidence Participating 4-H volunteers commented included

58 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE • VOLUME 67, NUMBER 1 Our goal for the [4-H] group was Additionally, some volunteers commented individual curriculum activities or how that when we finished this the kids that through reflection they had begun they were taught; the lesson study group would be able to call the vet and to contemplate changes to their teaching members in Marin County shared infor- answer the first five or six questions practices and organizational strategies mation on curriculum implementations that the vet would ask them. That with respect to other 4-H projects they that helped lead them to combine youth was our goal. lead. Relevant quotes included members from three smaller 4-H clubs into one larger group for curriculum [Our lesson study group] talked As far as how the lessons were pre- implementations, a change in practice that about visiting a vet clinic where you sented, if we thought that the kids they found to be effective. Representative can learn more by observing the had not picked up on the curriculum focus group interview responses included actual live animals. And [our youth] the way we presented it we would could apply what they’ve learned to bounce ideas off on how we could We talked [about our observations] actual live animals. make it better for those of us who afterwards. We wrote everything maybe had not gotten to the level down and summarized it to bring to Theme: Duration. When discussing that other group members had. each meeting, which I think helped the organization and functioning of their all of us to hear what everyone lesson study groups, 4-H volunteers com- I think that we all had things to had done. mented numerous times on the benefits bring back and improve upon every of having a professional development op- time that we met because we were It was nice to get input from [other portunity that included multiple meetings talking about our process, working lesson study group members] on over an extended period. Participants in- with different ages and stages vs. what worked and what didn’t work dicated that meeting regularly was a chal- just the curriculum. because I could kind of readjust or lenge, but worth the effort. Specifically, think about what things to put out volunteers expressed that these meet- Theme: Data-driven decisions. Data- for [the youth] to touch and feel ings helped them improve their time driven decision making also emerged or that type of stuff. . . . I think it management and meet their goals, and as a theme from focus group interviews. helped a lot. also provided them time to review and Participating 4-H volunteers collected a discuss curriculum materials, reflect on variety of types of data (e.g., observations, Theme: Collective benefits.Beyond their prior work with youth and make authentic youth work) and used those their roles as individual educators, par- instructional modifications they thought data to inform their practice. The lesson ticipating 4-H volunteers commented fre- necessary. Specific comments related to study groups in Lake and Siskiyou coun- quently on collective benefits they derived the duration included ties used the data to inform modifications from the lesson study process. Benefits in- with respect to adapting or modifying cluded working cooperatively to develop Regular group meetings helped a lot. Absolutely! Sometimes the logis- tics of [meeting] are difficult. It is a big time commitment, but I think in the long run it’s definitely worth the time put into it.

We [volunteers] talk about the lack of time for planning when using a new curriculum. Lesson study helped. Meeting every 3 weeks or so helped with preparation and lesson planning.

Theme: Reflective practice.Having opportunities to reflect on their practice through interactions with other 4-H volunteers during lesson study group meetings was another theme that emerged from focus group data. Systematic reflection helped participants target strategies to improve the learning of their youth

audiences by discussing data they had Program Development Youth 4-H Courtesy of the California collected and making modifications to 4-H members and volunteer leaders learn about animal jaw function and characteristics of animal their practice and curriculum activities teeth at the UC Davis School of Veterinary Medicine. This knowledge helps them understand feeding prior to subsequent implementations. preferences and nutritional needs of different animals.

http://californiaagriculture.ucanr.edu • January–MArch 2013 59 skills, feeling empowered (as opposed changes in study participants’ content and made modifications to the curriculum to isolated) through collective work, and knowledge. Although a few individuals activities and their teaching that were in- working toward common goals that ben- commented on specific science content formed by data they had collected during efit not just the youth members but also they had learned, the majority of study curriculum implementations. their county programs. Examples of focus participants believed their educational Although no prior research had been group responses included and practical backgrounds in animal and done on lesson study in nonformal educa- veterinary science were already sound, tion settings, outcomes from this study I thought it was great that we could and that the lesson study group process were consistent with research in school- all come together and actually work was most beneficial in influencing their based settings where in-service and toward a common goal instead of pedagogical skills. pre-service teachers who participated in being so segregated all of the time. lesson study groups improved their teach- Interpreting the results ing skills and subject matter knowledge I think our goal to function as a Constructivist-based professional (Lewis et al. 2004; Marble 2006; Perry team worked for the betterment not development models like lesson study and Lewis 2003; Rock and Wilson 2005). only of the lessons that we were help advance educators’ knowledge and Specifically, both quantitative and qualita- teaching and for each other, but also skills by engaging them in the process of tive data from this investigation revealed for the county. inquiring into their own practice (Loucks- improvements in participating 4-H vol- Horsley et al. 2003). The 4-H volunteers unteers’ knowledge and use of inquiry- Analysis of the qualitative data from who participated in this investigation based teaching strategies, methods that this study afforded a more comprehen- formed lesson study groups and took an are important to the advancement of sci- sive understanding of participating 4-H inquiry stance with regard to their prac- entific literacy (Minner et al. 2010). volunteers’ lesson study experience. In tices, investigating strategies that targeted Gains in science content knowledge particular, focus group interview data improved learning among their 4-H youth among 4-H volunteers were shown corroborated the outcomes from the Use audiences, and did so in a collabora- through the analysis of survey data; how- of Inquiry Practices Survey with respect tive manner. Through active reflection, ever, these findings were not well sup- to participants’ understanding and ap- a strategy whereby educators challenge ported by focus group interview data. A plication of key inquiry processes. In their thinking and gain new insights into possible explanation for this discrepancy contrast, data from focus groups did teaching and learning (York-Barr et al. is that the Veterinary Science Content not provide strong support for quan- 2005), participating volunteers systemati- Knowledge Survey questions targeted titative outcomes from the Veterinary cally developed learner outcome goals, subject matter that was specific to the Science Content Knowledge Survey discussed data they collected during a Youth Development through Veterinary that revealed statistically significant sequence of curriculum implementations, Science curriculum (Smith et al. 2009) as opposed to broader animal and veterinary science content knowledge conveyed by study participants during focus group interviews. Participating volunteers had considerable prior knowledge and experience related to animal and veterinary science and may have been considering this when responding to more general focus group questions. Thus, specific changes in their content knowledge related to the curriculum may have been underreported during the qualitative phase of this study. Implications and recommendations There is a need to explore alternative models of professional development for 4-H volunteers who facilitate science projects and activities with youth (Barker et al. 2009). Results from this study provided some evidence that lesson study has potential as an alternate strategy. However, Guskey and Yoon (2009) cautioned against embracing new approaches to profes-

Courtesy of the California 4-H Youth Development Program Development Youth 4-H Courtesy of the California sional development without thoroughly vetting them. New professional develop- Learning livestock anatomy — including the function and normal appearance of internal organs — is a critical part of animal science education. 4-H members and volunteer leaders alike gain from ment strategies “should always begin their participation in Future Day at the UC Davis School of Veterinary Medicine. with small-scale, carefully controlled pilot

60 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE • VOLUME 67, NUMBER 1 studies” to evaluate their effectiveness volunteers’ understanding and use of ef- 2007), results from this investigation may within specific contexts. For this reason, fective pedagogy and some gains relative not translate directly to lesson study use it is recommended that efforts be made to to science content knowledge. However, in other settings. For this reason, the use investigate lesson study in 4-H through it must be noted that the broad applica- of lesson study with volunteers involved long-term, coordinated efforts that are tion of these results is limited by the size in other 4-H program-delivery modes systematic in nature. The research design and scope of the investigation. Only 16 (e.g., after-school programming, camp set- used in this pilot study would be recom- volunteers from rural, club-based 4-H tings) also warrants investigation. Science mended as a strategy to consider. programs participated in this study. It is subject matter beyond the scope of veteri- Results from this investigation pro- recommended that additional research nary science should also be explored. vided early evidence for the promising be carried out on the use of lesson study nature of lesson study as a professional with other 4-H volunteers involved in development model for 4-H volunteers club-based programs. Additionally, be- who lead science projects and programs cause lesson study experiences are unique with youth audiences. Specifically, data to the particular context within which M.H. Smith is Cooperative Extension Associate showed improvements with respect to they are situated (Wiburg and Brown Specialist, Youth Science Literacy, UC Davis.

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