Ruben Suykerbuyk - 9789004433106 Downloaded from Brill.com09/23/2021 12:19:32PM via free access Introduction The Matter of Piety in an Age of Religious Change

In 1566, a wave of violently swept away many a church interior in the . In August, the Beeldenstorm broke out in south-western , and by November, it threatened to spread to the southeastern part of Brabant as well. There, above the hilly landscape of the Hageland, arose the robust towers of Zoutleeuw’s collegiate church of Saint Leonard (figs. 1 & 2). Watchmen were in- stalled in the church both day and night, and messengers were con- tinually sent out to neighbouring towns in order ‘to have tidings from the ’.1 Indeed, there was much to protect. The town’s political and economical heyday may have been over, but it was still one of the seven chief-villes of the (fig. 3).2 The church itself, long since the seat of a deanery, retained its importance. In 1566, upon entering the building via the portal in the west front, pilgrims and parishioners saw a richly furnished sacred space (fig. 4). After being welcomed by a Marianum hanging from the vaults and crossing themselves at the brass holy-water font (fig. 5), they could walk along the eight side chapels distributed along both sides of the nave. Each was equipped with its own altarpiece. While most of the older works were carved in wood, the more recent pieces had been painted by important and still living masters such as or . The latter’s Saint Hubert altarpiece had only recently been installed, in December 1565, and a third triptych from his work- shop was soon to be added. The primary destination for pilgrims lay a little further on, in an annex to the southern transept. The wall above its doorway was covered with a monumental depiction of the Last Judgment. Through the doors they would enter Saint Leonard’s chapel, where a miraculous of the saint was placed in a tabernacle on top of a carved, gilded altarpiece. The ensemble was lit by an arched, brass candelabrum, which stood just in front of the altar, its shimmer honoring the thaumaturgic cult object, the very reason for the pilgrims’ visit. Parishioners, on the other hand, might Figure 1 have been drawn to the choir. The sanctuary was closed to laypeople Zoutleeuw, church of Saint by a rood loft carrying a monumental triumphal cross with life-size Leonard, façade of Our Lady and Saint John at either side (fig. 6), but © KIK-IRPA,

© Ruben Suykerbuyk, 2020 | doi:10.1163/9789004433106_002 This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license.

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Figure 2 Anonymous photographer, Church of Saint Leonard at Zoutleeuw, seen from the south, late nineteenth century, Ghent, University Library, BRKZ.TOPO.588.B.04

Figure 3 Jacob van Deventer, Map of Zoutleeuw, c. 1550, Brussels, KBR

Figure 2 Anonymous photographer, Church of Saint Leonard at Zoutleeuw, seen from the south, late nineteenth century, Ghent, University Library, BRKZ.TOPO.588.B.04

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Figure 3 Jacob van Deventer, Map of Zoutleeuw, c. 1550, Brussels, KBR

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Figure 4 Floor plan of Zoutleeuw’s church of Saint Leonard, with indication of the entrances (arrows), Saint Leonard’s chapel (A) and the churchwarden’s room (B) (based on Lemaire 1949, p. 199, fig. 197)

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Figure 5 Holy-water font, 1468– 1469, Zoutleeuw, church of Saint Leonard © KIK-IRPA, Brussels spying through the fencings, it must have been possible to catch a glimpse of the brass eagle lectern (fig. 7), or the more than five me- ters high Easter candlestand in the same material, cast in the 1480s by Renier van Thienen from Brussels. Arguably, the church’s most imposing structure stood a little further, in the northern transept. There, an 18-meter-high sacrament house of white stone of Avesnes, which had been carved only 15 years before by Cornelis Floris, was lighted by candles on a brass fence surrounding the venerable, micro- architectural monument. During liturgical services, this already rich set of objects would be supplemented by all sorts of vessels and implements in precious metal – monstrances, chalices, ostensories, censers – manipulated by clergymen dressed in rich fabrics, reading aloud from more or less decorated books with sacred content.3 Eventually, Zoutleeuw was spared from any iconoclastic attacks, and the subsequent absence of drastic refashioning in com- bination with the collegiate chapter’s pledge of allegiance to the French revolutionaries would further safeguard the church interior from significant losses. This combination of factors increasingly set it apart from other churches in the Low Countries, and would ul- timately give Saint Leonard’s church the exceptional status it now holds. Perhaps most famously, the prolific Leuven art historian

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Figure 6 Jan Mertens, Triumphal cross, 1480–1484, Zoutleeuw, church of Saint Leonard © KIK-IRPA, Brussels

Jan Karel Steppe referred to it as the ‘sanctuary of the Brabantine Late Gothic’, and in November 2016 – exactly 450 years after the Beeldenstorm – the Flemish Government definitively listed 18 objects from the ‘exceptionally rich, late medieval and renaissance furnish- ings’ of Zoutleeuw’s church as inalienable heritage.4 There is little reason to doubt that, at the moment of the iconoclastic threats, the objects were equally prestigious and valuable to visiting pilgrims and parishioners. Still, they were definitely less unique. Ornamentally elaborate objects such as the sacrament house, for instance, were crucial elements in lay devotional life in the Low Countries. Yet, the fact that they had to be protected in 1566 makes it clear that they had become highly controversial as well. They stood at the center of a heated public debate on the matter of piety. This book revaluates religious material culture in Netherlandish lay piety during the long sixteenth century (c. 1450–1620) by con- fronting devotional objects with practices and their surrounding controversies in a microstudy of Zoutleeuw’s unique church of Saint Leonard. As a crucial watershed in the history of the Low Countries, the Beeldenstorm dramatically reveals the issues at stake. Recent

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Figure 7 Eagle lectern, upper part bought in 1469, foot bought in 1480, Zoutleeuw, church of Saint Leonard © KIK-IRPA, Brussels studies of the events have firmly established that the actions were in essence about religious convictions, and that the breakings should be understood as a physical reaction against the physicality and materiality of traditional, Catholic devotion.5 Lavishly ornamented objects in precious materials and their ritual handling had grown to become a major point of contention in the turbulent decades of the sixteenth century, when different reformers stood up to preach that the Church of Rome had been wrong all along in its particu- lar way of worshipping God. Hence, religious material culture – the broad range of devotional and liturgical objects, from monumen- tal sacrament houses over cult statues and altarpieces to small vo- tive offerings or relics – formed the core of contemporary religious discussions, and therefore provides us with an ideal prism through which lay piety can be studied. This book takes Zoutleeuw’s excep- tional collection of highly contested objects as both a point of depar- ture and as its primary source in order to map their actual usage and understand their changing meanings.6 In doing so, it consciously bridges the gap between art history and history. Prime attention will

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not so much be paid to the signifying processes of artists, but rath- er to those of patrons and consumers. Whereas Michael Baxandall charted Patterns of intention of artists, this book will elucidate the intentions of patrons and the expectations of the communities they represented. This is not meant to discard the contributions of the executing artists, but rather to emphasize the significance of their patrons’ choices.7

A Pulverized Image? Status quaestionis

In his inaugural lecture from 1939 at the University of , wittily entitled ‘The pulverized image’ (Het vergruisde beeld), Dutch historian Jan Romein claimed that a surveyable comprehension of the causes of the – of which the Beeldenstorm is tra- ditionally seen as one of the starting points – was hampered by in- creasing specialization and fragmenting of research into the ­period.8 There is much to be said both in favor and against his argument, but the historiographical image of lay piety in the Low Countries in the long sixteenth century remains fragmented and incomplete. For a long time, it failed to include an in-depth study of the material culture that stood at the heart of the debates as well as an accom- panying appreciation of what it actually meant to contemporane- ous believers.9 Until late in the twentieth century, basic views were characterized by a largely negative appreciation, dominated by nar- ratives of decline and decay. In his Herfsttij der Middeleeuwen (1919), Johan Huizinga most famously described pilgrimages, processions and church visits as occasions of worldly amusement, characterized by excess and degeneration.10 His metaphor of the later Middle Ages as an autumn, an epilogue to what was considered a flourishing pre- ceding epoch, would later be incorporated in classic overviews of the religious history of the Low Countries, thus definitively estab- lishing a negative view on lay piety.11 It has been noted that such as- sessments either repeated topoi uttered by , or were firmly rooted in twentieth-century conceptions of Catholicism, projecting later concerns and debates onto the preceding period. As a result, several supposedly typical characteristics of late medieval piety and its Protestant critiques came to be seen in a causal rela- tionship, and the became a logical next step in a linear progression.12 All of these studies strongly depended on an analysis of either nor- mative or literary texts. Soon, however, the subject was approached

Ruben Suykerbuyk - 9789004433106 Downloaded from Brill.com09/23/2021 12:19:32PM via free access The Matter of Piety in an Age of Religious Change 9 from an entirely different angle. Of fundamental importance in the historiographic tradition, Le sentiment religieux en Flandre à la fin du Moyen-Âge (1963) by the French priest Jacques Toussaert offered an even more negative vision on devotional life in the County of Flanders between 1302 and 1526. Contrary to his predecessors, he heavily relied on a quantitative and statistical analysis of adminis- trative sources, mostly churchwarden accounts. Greatly influenced by Gabriël Le Bras’ sociologie religieuse, he tried to establish the precise number of practicing believers by studying the amounts of offered money, volumes of wine and numbers of hosts bought by the churchwardens. This radically new methodology notwithstand- ing, he basically posed the same questions and came to pretty much the same conclusions as the scholars before him. But this time, the methodology was fiercely criticized. Toussaert drew too heavily from summary data in accounts that had only been preserved fragmen- tarily, and he nearly completely neglected socio-economic factors. As a result, his calculations and conclusions were extremely unre- liable.13 This vast body of critique led Ludo Milis to postulate the existence of a ‘post-Toussaert syndrome’ in the historiography on the subject, leading to a long-lasting neglect.14 Insights from recent research on late medieval and early modern religion in Europe allow us to overcome this impasse. First of all, while scholars implicitly or explicitly started from a static concept of piety, it is now increasingly considered to be highly variable in time and space.15 Secondly, religious history has long been written from an official and orthodox point of view, often informed by modern religious standards. In recent years, however, scholars have increas- ingly devoted attention to popular piety. This considerably broad- ened the social spectrum of research, leading scholars to emphasize the strong communal values of devotion and adopt a framework of cultural negotiation in a local context.16 Natalie Zemon Davis, for instance, propagated a relational study of ‘religious cultures’, through which different social groups interacted.17 And perhaps most importantly, in his seminal study from 1992 on late medieval and sixteenth-century piety in England, Eamon Duffy demonstrated that the commonly perceived gulf between the ‘elite’ religion of the clergy and that of ‘the people’ was actually non-existent. Within the broad diversity of possible religious beliefs and ideas, he showed how there was a striking homogeneity throughout the social spec- trum. Therefore, Duffy preferred to speak of traditional rather than popular religion.18

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These recent, revisionist tendencies also represent a shift away from a predominantly spiritual approach to religion, increasingly taking its material context into consideration. After all, visiting a chapel, church or shrine was a particularly physical experience, in which all the senses were involved.19 For example, Reindert Falkenburg has shown how paintings or intricately carved prayer nuts functioned in devotional practice, and how such material ob- jects were crucial in a ‘complex synesthetic devotional experience’.20 The central role of the physical, exterior aspect for interior religious experiences has also been elaborated more recently by Caroline Walker Bynum in her book on Christian materiality. Contrary to the traditional view of medieval religiosity as spiritual process, she pos- ited that it was profoundly characterized by an internal contradic- tion, in which the importance of ‘holy matter’ grew in parallel with spirituality and mysticism. By focusing on materiality as one pole of this contradiction, she proposed a revaluation of what until then had been interpreted as superstitious and outward piety.21 In fact, contrary to predominant conceptions, there are no indications of any discrepancies between inward and outward piety. In the same vein as Walker Bynum, Anne-Laure Van Bruaene has recently ar- gued that the strict opposition between the material and the spiri- tual sphere was alien to medieval reality, and that it would be more appropriate to study religion within the framework of an ‘embodied piety’, whereby religious convictions and emotions are exteriorized, and had an important social dimension.22 Even though materiality is increasingly being incorporated into studies of lay piety, the applied chronological frameworks often remain problematic. While Walker Bynum has aptly mapped the dialectical relation between the material and spiritual aspects of de- votion, her study is limited to the period preceding the Reformation, and she even characterized this ‘Christian materiality’ as inher- ently late medieval. There is still no in-depth analysis of how the Reformation reacted to this phenomenon, and relevant observa- tions are mostly based on a priori assumptions. The chronological scopes chosen in studies often leave little room for long-term con- tinuity, or short-term idiosyncrasies. Yet, recent studies of piety in Europe have done much to emphasize continuity, and are framing the Reformation less and less as a definitive rupture with the past.23 Hence, a long-term approach to Netherlandish piety in the age of the Reformation is desirable. Toussaert had confirmed earlier narra- tives of the Reformation as a critical reaction against the late medi- eval practices that had been dubbed excesses or abuses. The portrait

Ruben Suykerbuyk - 9789004433106 Downloaded from Brill.com09/23/2021 12:19:32PM via free access The Matter of Piety in an Age of Religious Change 11 he painted was damning, and he could not but conclude that the Reformation had been smoldering for a long time, and that it was in- evitable and a necessity.24 However, similar studies with a long-term set-up remained rare.25 In fact, short-term quantitative analyses that pursued and refined the methodologies introduced by Toussaert have almost unanimously confirmed his negative views and collec- tively contributed to what has come to be known as the ‘1520-thesis’, which posits a sudden devotional decline after the introduction of Protestant thought in the Low Countries.26 A bottom-up, lay Catholic perspective is very rare in the study of piety and religious material culture in the sixteenth-century Low Countries. Scholarly literature on religious developments has largely focused on the origins and development of different Protestant groupings.27 The situation has recently been revaluated, but to a large extent only for the later sixteenth century. Koenraad Jonckheere and Andrew Spicer, for instance, each assessed the in- fluence of the Beeldenstorm, in artistic practice and central politics respectively.28 Other important recent contributions to the study of the broad range of Catholic visual culture primarily focused on theoretical, theological and spiritual features of devotion, most no- tably the post-Tridentine influence of the Jesuits.29 Thus, the situ- ation before the Tridentine reforms and the Beeldenstorm remains understudied. Most scholarly attention went to the apparent lack of action and militancy of the clergy in the earliest years.30 The per- spective of the ‘Catholic commoner’ within its material context re- mained conspicuously absent, with the notable exception of Judith Pollmann. She has given the lay Catholic a voice by a close reading of a rich corpus of ego-documents, including diaries, chronicles and poems.31 By supplementing such testimonies with an interdisciplin- ary microstudy of Zoutleeuw’s church of Saint Leonard and its ma- terial culture, the present book fills the silence regarding Catholic agency that Pollmann encountered in her material.

Sources, Methodology and Set-up

Rather than the usual focus on one source type, this book pres- ents an integrated, long-term study of religious material culture by analyzing a combination of material, written, and visual sources. Zoutleeuw’s church of Saint Leonard serves as the point of depar- ture, precisely because it allows for the unique possibility of con- fronting selected objects from its exceptional interior with a rich

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trove of archival sources.32 Most important is the church’s uncom- monly comprehensive series of churchwarden accounts (Appendix 1), a source type of administrative nature that is of prime importance for the study of lay piety.33 These accounts were drawn up yearly by the representatives of the fabrica ecclesiae, i.e. the independent ad- ministrative organ that was responsible for the construction of the church, embellishing its interior and providing the necessary mate- rial provisions for the liturgy.34 In Zoutleeuw, as elsewhere, three to four members of the local elite were yearly appointed as churchwar- dens (momboren der kercken or fabrijckmeesters). Operating in sup- port of clergy and liturgy, but with important affiliations with the civic government, they formed a middle group of crucial importance for local devotional life.35 It was they who bought the wax, incense, wine and hosts for the services and the badges for the pilgrims. It was they who discussed church construction with the master build- er and kept his designs. And it was they who contracted the most important commissions for the embellishment of the parish church, and were thus in contact with the artists and artisans in question. All these activities and purchases were diligently recorded in the churchwardens accounts, which means that they allow us to track developments on the lowest level, from the front rank, in a manner of speaking, before being processed in other source material such as miracle books or judicial dossiers. The Zoutleeuw accounts are well-known: Steppe had selective transcriptions made, and Lieve De Mecheleer’s publication of the ‘entries with art-historical significance’ in 1997 further facilitated the use of this rich source material.36 De Mecheleer’s edition, however, left out important parts of the accounts that contain valuable con- textualizing information, such as the sections recording the offerings or the income from burials. Furthermore, ‘art-historical significance’ is a notion open to interpretation, and many entries documenting the acquisition of wax, candles, wine, hosts and incense, or the pay- ments related to foundations, restorations and maintenance, were left out. Also, since the subtotals per section and totals per year are not included, the edition does not allow for a financial analysis, which precludes the possibility of assessing the relative value and importance of the acquisitions. For all of these reasons, the present study draws on a new, integral study of the original accounts. An in- depth analysis of the series from 1452 to 1578 served as the backbone of parts 1 and 2 of this book, whereas for part 3, sample surveys were

Ruben Suykerbuyk - 9789004433106 Downloaded from Brill.com09/23/2021 12:19:32PM via free access The Matter of Piety in an Age of Religious Change 13 taken, since the period under scrutiny here is documented more fragmentarily. Since they have been compiled for administrative reasons by local elites, churchwarden accounts are biased to a certain extent. For this reason they will be supplemented with data from other archival sources. This includes the vast charter collection of the Zoutleeuw collegiate chapter, which contains almost 1.600 deeds from 1235 to 1680, including various foundation charters.37 The reg- isters of the prebends also include information on foundations, but other sources from the collegiate chapter – notably their accounts and proceedings – have not been used due to their fragmentary ­preservation.38 To these were added the decanal visitation reports of the church, preserved from 1600 onwards.39 Finally, Zoutleeuw’s civic accounts and aldermen’s protocols provided important addi- tional data.40 Source material on the town’s confraternity life is un- fortunately limited: at least four confraternities are documented, but no accounts or membership lists are available.41 Religion was, to an important extent, a local matter, influenced by particular, local or regional dynamics.42 But Zoutleeuw also existed within a wider context. In order to balance expanding conclusions to a more encompassing level, while at the same time avoiding overly broad generalizations based on just one case, this book emphatical- ly combines a microhistorical focus with a comparative approach. Therefore, findings on Zoutleeuw will be contextualized by source material and case studies from elsewhere in the Low Countries, pre- dominantly in Brabant. A significant set of miracle collections of in- dividual shrines in the Low Countries has been preserved, providing unique insight into the experiences of pilgrims and the evolution of piety and its expressions.43 Exceptionally rich information is also available in the many sources written in response to the religious debates, including polemical treatises from various confessions as well as a range of narrative sources from laypeople who recorded their observations and fears during this tumultuous period.44 Precisely because the subject of material piety became so contro- versial, these writings contain unique information on traditional practices not usually commented upon. The same also holds for the documents from the archive of the (1567–1576), a tribunal created specifically to punish offenders who had revolted against Church and King during the Beeldenstorm. The documents have already been used for various reasons, but up until now, they

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have attracted little or no attention in the study of traditional reli- gious practices. Particularly interesting are the often highly detailed ­sentences.45 Finally, these data are supplemented with contempo- raneous visual representations of church interiors and the practices associated with them. Miniatures and paintings provide a wealth of information which can be used to cross-check the data drawn from the other sources.46 The combination of all this material allows us to study the foundations and donations of wealthy parishioners along- side the acts of ‘common’ pilgrims and those of iconoclasts. As such, lay piety can be addressed in a highly pluriform way. The interdisciplinary character of this book also applies to the analysis. A study of written sources will be combined with icono- graphical and visual analyses. Most importantly, qualitative methods will be supplemented by quantitative methods. Up until now, the debate surrounding the ‘1520-thesis’ has mostly been based on quan- titative parameters, in line with Toussaert’s groundbreaking work. This book partly pursues these methods, but it adds the equally im- portant qualitative analysis of data. While quantitative analyses are definitely an indispensable tool to chart long-term evolutions, they unintentionally neglect more subtle nuances and transformations, as well as the meanings attached to the objects that were central in the debates. Thus, this approach responds to Jacques Chiffoleau’s call to supplement statistical, ‘economic’ treatments with anthropo- logical, symbolical readings.47 Finally, in line with Duffy’s seminal book, this broad set of source material will be analyzed over a long-term period. Because the later Middle Ages and the Reformation are all too often treated separate- ly, even placed in strong opposition to each other, a broad chrono- logical scope that encompasses both allows us to double-check such theoretical observations with the actual facts. Studying lay piety in the long sixteenth century shows continuities as well as periodi- cal idiosyncrasies.48 The chronological boundaries of this book are 1452, the date of the earliest preserved churchwarden account from Zoutleeuw’s church of Saint Leonard, and 1621. The latter date has not only been chosen because it marked the end of the Twelve Years’ Truce, which saw an important Catholic réveil, but also because, after this particular point in time, Zoutleeuw and the surrounding Hageland region would enter a period of dramatic socio-economic crisis.49 The chapters of this book are grouped into three chronological parts, each revolving around a distinct object from Saint Leonard’s

Ruben Suykerbuyk - 9789004433106 Downloaded from Brill.com09/23/2021 12:19:32PM via free access The Matter of Piety in an Age of Religious Change 15 church that is both revelatory for what was at stake in Zoutleeuw and characteristic of contemporaneous religious trends in the Low Countries. In part 1, the carved altarpiece of Saint Leonard from 1476–1478 is looked at to place late medieval piety in perspective (c. 1450–1520). Chapter 1 discusses the origins, developments and importance of the cult of Saint Leonard at Zoutleeuw, and functions as a stepping stone for a sketch of a revised image of Netherlandish piety at the dawn of the age of iconoclasm (Chapter 2). Rather than a withered tail of the Middle Ages, the decades preceding the Reformation are characterized as a period of intense and dynamic piety. Drawing on these insights, part 2 gives central stage to Cornelis Floris’ 1550–1552 sacrament house as a means to turn to Catholic piety in the period between the introduction of Protestant thought and the actual breakings in the Beeldenstorm (c. 1520–1566). Questioning 1520 as a definitive rupture for religious life and its material culture, Chapter 3 argues for continuity and the persistence of traditional religion. The subsequent chapters elaborate this argument by fo- cusing on various groups of religious agents: pilgrims (Chapter 4), parishioners (Chapter 5) and patrons (Chapter 6). A focus on the ac- tual opposition against iconoclasm in 1566 further elucidates exist- ing resistance (Chapter 7). This mapping of Catholic agency in spite of Protestant critiques allows us to reassess traditional views on the Counter-Reformation and the Catholic réveil around 1600 in part 3. Zooming in on a peculiar votive painting from 1612, it discusses the survival of late medieval miracle cults into the seventeenth century. Like so many other shrines around 1600, Zoutleeuw again saw a daz- zling miraculous activity that significantly harked back to the popu- larity of a century before (Chapter 8). Now, however, these local cults engaged in devotional negotiations with the archducal government, as they became key features of their religious politics (Chapter 9). In conclusion, by privileging a long-term approach, this study challenges persisting negative views and contends that the Reformation by no means paralyzed Catholic culture in the Low Countries. Instead, it was one of several surges in the continuity of devotional evolutions that incited engaged counterinitiatives. The vitality of late medieval devotion in particular is highlighted as the fertile ground from which the Counter-Reformation organically grew under Protestant impulses. Rather than illustrating the tenac- ity of what Duffy labelled as ‘traditional religion’, this book shows how thin the line was between tradition and transformation.

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