66 Sustainability has developed. areas ofnon-indigenouspeopleishighandtheminingindustry where theproportion use for ofthepopulation,whilechangeshave alarge beenrelatively proportion large in local areas where indigenouspeopleswhohave engagedintraditionalnaturalresource population. Through thisstudy, itwasshown thatchangeshave tended to besmallin of thesedifferences ontheuseofnaturalresources andtheethniccompositionof differencespopulation-dynamics-related thathave emerged intheregion andimpacts thepost-Soviet ()during period. Autonomous Okrug This paperdiscusstopics of ofthesechangesonpopulationdynamicsintheChukotka andtheimpact sector (RUSSIA) IN CHUKOTKA AUTONOMOUS OKRUG IMPACT ONPOPULATION DYNAMICS UTILIZATIONRESOURCE AND THEIR POST-SOVIET PERIODCHANGESIN who continue to utilize resources in indigenouspeoples presence of northern hand, some researchers believe thatthe 2006;PetrovMotrich 2010).Ontheother labourforces (Heleniak1999; of northern towns, highmobility andtheextremely that mosthumansettlements are company of mineralresources, extraction thefact for this are theregion’s dependence on the are unstable. extremely North The reasons The demographic economicsystems inthe DOI-10.24057/2071-9388-2017-11-3-66-86 (Russia).Geography,okrug Environment, (GES Journal), Sustainability Vol.11, No3,p. 66-86 autonomousresource onpopulationdynamicsinChukotka utilizationandtheirimpact differences, non-renewable mineralresources, renewable naturalresources. population dynamics, naturalresource utilization, humansettlements, intra-regional Key Abstract Introduction Citation * 2 Tamara Litvinenko 1 Hitotsubashi University,Hitotsubashi ofEconomic Research Institute Corresponding [email protected] author; e-mail: Institute ofGeographyInstitute RAS words : Tamara Post-soviet Kumo(2017) Kazuhiro Litvinenko, changes in period . This study examines changes that have occurred in the resource utilization : Chukotka Autonomous indigenouspeople, Okrug, non-indigenouspeople, Chukotka 1* , Kazuhiro Kumo 2 Union andhas seentheimplementationof which followed the collapse of the Soviet changesinthepost-SovietSocietal period, alsoremains unanswered.instability/stability regional or intra-regional level in of terms The questionofwhatdifferences existatthe have offactors affected thisstability.kinds stableonthewhole, andwhat in theNorth systems andsettlements demo-economic thelocal make fully clearwhatcharacteristics it is not yet 2013). Nevertheless, Khaknazarov 1991;Duerden andJacobs (Mulvihill 1992; traditional ways hasmaintainedlocalstability Tamara Litvinenko, Kazuhiro Kumo POST-SOVIET PERIOD CHANGES IN... market reforms, have resulted in clear and of the mineral resource industry in widening differences between regions in Chukotka (Lomakina 2002; Minakir 2006; the North, within individual regions, and Lomakina 2009), and characteristics of at the local level (Pilyasov 1996). Because the development of Chukotka from the demo-economic system in the North a sociodemographic perspective and is dependent on firms that utilize natural compared with other Far Eastern regions resources (Petrov 2010), to understand (Zheleznov-Chukotskiy et al. 2005; Motrich the aforementioned issues, it is necessary 2006; Sidorkina 2014). Despite the existence to identify spatial regularities concerning of such studies, Chukotka remains the Arctic S ustainability the ways that resource utilization affects region on which the least research has been population. Furthermore, with regard to conducted (Arctic Council 2013). This study, 67 ethnic regions, it is also essential to clarify therefore, is aimed at understanding what what sort of roles ethnic factors have played sort of interrelationships exist between the in this process of societal change. transformation of nature resource utilization at different local areas and population STUDY SUBJECTS, METHODS, AND DATA dynamics. In this respect, it supplements previous research by classifying This study covers the Chukotskii Autonomous transformation in settlements from the Okrug (Chukotka). Chukotka is located in impact of resource utilization and listing the far northeast of Eurasia, and juts out up criteria that constitute causes of stability between the Pacific Ocean and the Arctic and instability of local systems and human Sea. Around half of the Okrug is located settlements. Preliminary survey results from north of the Arctic Circle, and the climate the study have already been published is harsh. Chukotka contains 10% of Russia’s (Litvinenko and Murota 2008; Litvinenko estimated gold reserves, 16% of its estimated 2013). The goal of this paper is to analyze tin reserves, and unique biological resources. the empirical data obtained in more detail It also Russia’s most sparsely populated and draw out general rules and scientific region. Besides non-indigenous people, interpretations from the data. most of whom are Russian, the region is also home to 16 indigenous minorities of Besides official statistics, this study also the North, who possess distinctive cultures employs, as its data, documents in the and use the resources in a traditional way possession of regional or local government that has remained unchanged for centuries bodies, archives from companies and other (www.chukotka.org 2014). sources, and interviews carried out during on-site surveys of regional and local experts The objectives of the study are to shed and corporate representatives. The authors light on (1) the characteristics of changes in carried out on-site surveys in August 2007 population dynamics in the entire Chukotka in the Iultinskiy district and in August 2007 region and at the intra-regional level that and June 2016 in the town of and have occurred as a result of transformation Anadyrskiy district . of natural resource utilization in the post- Soviet period and are due to the impact of Our method to study the interrelationships existing objective and subjective factors, (2) between resource utilization and population the roles that ethnic factors have played in dynamics at the intra-regional and local this process, and (3) conditions that have levels consisted of several steps (stages): caused stability and instability of local socioeconomic systems and settlements. 1) Stage 1: Statistical survey. Included in this stage is the analysis of official statistics The Far-Eastern economists and economic for the purpose of shedding light on the geographers have conducted various interrelationships between population studies. These include studies on the natural dynamics at the regional, intra-regional, resource development process in north- and local levels and ethnic composition eastern Russia during the 1990s reform (indigenous peoples as a percentage of the period (Pilyasov 1996), the development total population) during the post-Soviet 68 Sustainability temporary workers’temporary settlementsemerged in the company to materials findoutnew and company representatives, we analyzed aforementioned regional andlocalexperts ofthe aquestionnaire survey performing been abandoned. Here, in addition to reasons why thesesettlements have maps,era with modern identify the maps ofsettlementsfrom theSoviet and comparing regional or local experts that have beenabandonedby surveying At thisstage, we identifysettlements dominant). indigenous orpeoplesare and ethniccomposition(whethernon- uses exhaustiblemineralresources) bioresources, which or the mining sector thatutilizetraditional industries renewable resource utilization(whetherbasedon dependingontheform of in impact was to show thatthere are differences residential dynamics. Anotherobjective have onpopulationdynamicsand enterprises changes inresource-utilizing that wasto shedlightontheimpact survey in company towns. ofthis The purpose settlements and dominant companies ofhuman 2) Stage2:On-site survey was investigated statistically. development ofresource utilizationsector fromand period 2009untilnow), andthe period, economic-growthcrisis period, wereperiods (economic- determined period. At thisstage, thepost-Soviet time GEOGRAPHY, F ig. 1.Ethnic composition population ofChukotka: census data ENVIRONMENT, SUSTA INABLTY for eachyear, % peoples (Fig. 1). populace were Evens, Chukchi, andEskimo outin1939,69%ofthetotal census carried (Vasil’ev et al. 1996).According to apopulation process thatwasalready completed by 1950 cooperatives,combined into a state-run by theindigenouspeopleswere gradually andnomadiceconomiespracticed sedentary Later,system wasestablishedinChukotka. the government management andtheSoviet-style the1920sthatSoviet was during It OVERVIE ERA: THE SOVIET DEVELOPMENT OFCHUKOTKA DURING systems andhumansettlements. inlocalsocioeconomic andinstability stability we present thatconstitute causesof criteria generalizing theresults oftheinvestigations, resource utilizationandemployment. By composition, (4)interrelationship between population migration process, (3)ethnic of populationdynamicsincludingthe points: (1) settlement status, (2) characteristics and produced the following lists concerning thepost-Soviet settlements during period region. We alsoclassifiedchangesinhuman population dynamicsthatoccurred withinthe we produced amapshowing differences in Herefrom Stage1and2isperformed. and generalizationoftheresearch findings 3) Stage3: dataare processed The survey migration thepost-Soviet during period. andlabour enterprises resource-utilizing withtheestablishmentofnew conjunction W 03 (11)2017 Tamara Litvinenko, Kazuhiro Kumo POST-SOVIET PERIOD CHANGES IN...

Between 1934 and 1937, vast deposits of tin constructing housing for Chukchi, Eskimo, and were discovered on the Peninsula. Tin Evens people after they settled (Vasil’ev et al. and tungsten deposits were also found in 1966). . Industry then began to be developed in Chukotka, with prisoners from the During the Soviet era, the population constructed in Chukotka during the 1950s of Chukotka, and the urban population, providing the main source of labour. During the in particular, climbed as a result of both Second World War, the region supplied metals population inflow and natural increase and other resources to the military industry, (because the age structure of the population S ustainability and mining continued to be the region’s main was relatively young, the rate of natural industry even after the war. increase was higher than that of other 69 regions), and reached a peak of 158,000 In 1958, the first gold was produced for industrial people in 1990 (Fig. 5 later in this paper). purposes, and a gold-mining industry emerged. With the influx of non-indigenous people, But it was not until the 1960s that the core the ethnic composition the population components of industry, namely GOKs (mining changed. According to the 1979 population and processing complexes), industrial firms, census, Russians as a proportion of the power stations, power transmission cables, and population had risen to 68% (the highest transportation infrastructure, were completed. percentage in the history of Chukotka), After the gulags were dismantled and their while the 1989 census put the figure at 66%. inmates pardoned in 1953, physical measures At the same time, the increase in Russians to encourage people to work in various districts coincided with a decline in the Chukchi and of the Far North were adopted as a means of other indigenous peoples as a proportion of attracting workers, particularly skilled ones. The the population (see Fig. 1). construction of new human settlements and the growth of the urban population gave a Natural resource utilization huge boost to the development of the regional and population dynamics of the economy and resulted in an inflow of people Chukotka Autonomous Okrug (Fig. 2). Widespread industrial development in during the post-Soviet period Chukotka continued from the 1970s until the 1980s. The economic-crisis period: 1990–1998

The period from the 1960s until the early The transition to a market economy proved 1970s marked the peak in the number of to be a painful experience for Chukotka. domesticated reindeer (Fig. 3). This was also This was because the situation in the a time during which the state was active in region was wholly and directly dependent

Fig. 2. Total population and urban population of Chukotka: population census data, people 70 Sustainability government wasunavailable, thedecline from theregionaland because support were 2013), worse than ever (Litvinenko economic conditions inRussiaasawhole by 1). 80%(Table To matters worse, make Fishingfrom state support. catch dropped nolongerbenefitteddeclined asthey also traditional forms of economic activity At thetimeofeconomiccrisis, and goldminesplunging by over 50%. power productionandtheoutputofcoal and theFar 2013),with East)(Litvinenko regionsand othereastern (Eastern much greater thantheRussianaverage decline inproductiontheregion was from theperiod 1990toDuring 1998,the gold miningcompanieswere shutdown. the1990s,during andmore thanhalfofthe GEOGRAPHY, the GOKs inPevek andIultin, whichhadbeen profitable, andasa result, operationsatthe economics, were theseindustries nolonger toAs market aconsequenceoftheshift suchasgoldandtinmining.major sectors severe asaresult ofadeclineinoutputfrom that swept theregion becameeven more on thecircumstances inRussia. The crisis the post-Soviet period the post-Soviet Natural resource utilization andpopulationdynamicsofthe Chukotka during Autonomous Okrug Okrug. Autonomous2015 are basedontheofficialdata from the Government oftheChukotka Source: Prepared by theauthorsbasedon(Gray 2000)andofficialstatistics. Figures for2013– F largest in Chukotka, were suspended largest inChukotka, ig. 3.Numberofdomesticated reindeer Autonomous intheChukotka Okrug: 150 000 300 000 450 000 600 000 0 ENVIRONMENT,

1958

1966

1980

1986 SUSTA INABLTY 1991

1993 1958–2015 1995

1997 the indigenous population increased thecensuses of1989 and2002, between 1990 and 1998 (Fig. 5). On the other hand, declinedby more than half between Okrug Autonomous population of the Chukotka thatthe behindthefact factor primary This massive populationoutflow wasthe oftheCIS(Fig.other parts 4). indrovesleft for European Russiaand many non-indigenouspeople support, anddueto theabsenceof stateOkrug, Autonomous outtheChukotka rippled the1990s, During the economic crisis dropped to 11.5% of the figure in 1992. in the mineral resource had mining sector the average numberofpeopleworking According to officialstatistics, by2000 (Fig.period 3). theentireas low asthisduring post-war hadnever been of reindeer inChukotka figure in1991, to just90,000. The number plummeted ofthe to lessthanafifth number of domesticated reindeer had any otherregion 2002,the ofRussia.By thanin inChukotka was more marked in thenumberofdomesticated reindeer 1999

2001

2003

2005

2007

2009

201 1 2013 03 (11)2017

2015 Tamara Litvinenko, Kazuhiro Kumo POST-SOVIET PERIOD CHANGES IN...

Table 1. Trend of natural resources production in the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, 1990–2015 Output Change in output Growth rate (%)

Year 1990– 1999– 2009– 1990– 1999– 2009– 1990 1998 1999 2008 2009 2015 1998 2008 2015 1998 2008 2015

Power output, bn 1,2 0,6 0,6 0,5 0,5 0,6 -0,6 -0,1 0,1 -50 -17 20 S ustainability kw/h 71

Coal mined, 1222 333 304 447 346 233 -889 -143 7 -73 47 -32,7 1,000t

Natural gas 26,3 extracted, 0 0 0 26,3 25,0 25,4 0 26,3 0,40 0 1.60 times million m3

Gold mined, 4 17000 6000 4700 20100 31200 31999 -11000 15400 799 -65 2.6 1,000t times

Fish and other marine 8.8 5,1 1 5,7 50,1 38,7 9,4 -4,1 44,4 -28,3 -80 -76 products times caught, 1,000t Marine 2265 mammals 0 0 0 2265 1955 2060 0 2265 10,5 0 5.3 times hunted, t Source: Prepared by the authors based on official statistics. 2015 figures and 1999–2015 data for catches of fish and marine mammals are based on information from the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug’s Department of Industrial and Agricultural Policy.

6 000 Note: Since 2011 the definition of population migration changed. 4 500

3 000

1 500

0 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012

From Chukotka to other regions of Russia From other regions of Russia to Chukotka

Fig. 4. Population migration to and from Chukotka Autonomous Okrug: post-Soviet period Source: Internal data supplied by the Russian Federal State Statistics Service 72 Sustainability Source: Official statistics Source: Official GEOGRAPHY, of the Here we present insightsonthenature 2006). peoples expanded(Motrich Evens, ofChukchi, andEskimo proportion and Ukrainians, Tatars dropped, the non-indigenous peoplesuchasRussians, the 2002 census. of While the proportion by 5%to standat160,000thetimeof outflow wasinevitable. to theregion, meant thatthepopulation non-indigenous people without strong ties that the residentsclimate and thefact were and this, harsh coupledwiththe extremely real incomesofresidents dropped sharply, As fell. aresult, the numberofworkers The and wagesbeganto bepaidlate ornotatall. Complex dropped. This declinecontinued, end. For these reasons, theoutput of the cameto an deteriorate andstate support economic conditionssaw profitability Fromwithin Chukotka. 1991onwards, market wasorganized district 1954 theIultinskiy settlement wasestablishedinIultin,and 1953, an urban-type In dust in thatdistrict. mined andrefined tinandtungsten ore and Processing Complex wasacompany that and theSovietera,IultinMining During district. intheIultinskiy conducted insights were obtainedfrom surveys occurred.when theeconomiccrisis These the1990s,and humansettlementduring resource utilization,populationdynamics, 135 000 180 000 45 000 90 000 F ig. 5.Population Autonomous dynamicsintheChukotka 1939–2015 Okrug: interrelationships natural between 0 1939 ENVIRONMENT, 1959 1970 1979 1989 SUSTA INABLTY 1990 1992 1994 1996 of correlation theamount oftin between thatthecoefficient seeninthefact be clearly can district settlement,andtheIultinskiy type Complex, the populations of the Iultin urban- and Processing theIultin Mining between 61% (see Table 2). The closeinterrelationship population fellby 59%andthe urban by 1990 and1998,thetotal populationdropped a large outflow ofpeopleoccurred between inwhichitwaslocated. Because of thedistrict at theIultinGOKalsoaffected thepopulation ofresidentialthe registry areas. The situation abandoned, andin1998itwasremoved from settlementwasofficially the Iultinurban-type 1995, ofRussia.In relocating to otherparts to assisttheresidents ofthesettlementswith above were accompaniedby theobligation liquidated 2). (Table The decisions described Geologicheskiy, and Vostochnyy were also the settlements of Svetlyy,GOK, Tranzitnyy, to theIultin relied onsupplyingservices with theclosure ofthecompaniesthat people to continueto live there. Furthermore, and thatitwastherefore impossiblefor Processing Complex hadbeensuspended and that theoperationsofIultinMining settlementonthegroundsIultin urban-type 1995,itwasalsodecidedto abandonthe In to cover out. the costs of moving the workers wasobligated Autonomous Okrug Chukotka the Svetly andthegovernment Mines, ofthe andtheIultin operations oftherefinery Russian federal government to suspendthe 1994,thedecisionwasmadeby the In 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 03 (11)2017 2014 2015 Vostochnyy urban-type urban-type urban-type urban-type population population settlement settlement settlement settlement settlement 2008, the amount of coal mined increased average for 1999and Russia.Between eastern grew faster than the output in Chukotka theeconomicgrowthDuring period, the Economic-growth period:1999–2008 Administration). District theIultinskiy Archive Department, 1997 (calculation usingthe datafrom the of 1990– the economic crisis was 0.9 during district the populationofIultinandIultinskiy and tungsten minedat the Iultin GOK and Department Management Library Official District Source: Prepared by theauthorsbasedonofficial statisticsanddata from theIultinskiy Table 2. Population ofthe Tamara Litvinenko, Kazuhiro Kumo Egvekinot Note 1:Figures are for 2009 Svetlyy Urban Urban Iultin Total Year 21212 31661 5125 1990 5321 729 482 85 1998 2462 4912 8618 574 0 0 0 Population, people 1999 2348 4931 8619 617 0 0 0 ultinskiy district, Chukotka Autonomous Chukotka district, Okrug,Iultinskiy 1990–2015 (1) 2008 2390 3559 6127 492 0 0 0 2009 2346 2841 5775 492 0 0 0 2015 3034 3200 5122 435 0 0 0 -16300 -23043 -5125 -2973 1998 1990 -234 -112 Change innumberofpeople -85 – gold deposits, 2006 and 2008 the between However, withthe development ofnew 2013). East andRussia asawhole(Litvinenko 1999–2006 wasmuchslower thanintheFar was different. Growth of gold mined in the situation with the amount of gold mined local needs(see Table 1).Ontheotherhand, natural gascommencedin order to meet 2013). From 2006 onwards, of theextraction 13% on average in Russia) eastern (Litvinenko remained atthesamelevel (butdeclinedby was just3%). The amountoffishcaught by 47%(theaverage for rise Russia eastern -1372 -2492 2008 1999 -125 42 – – – – POST-SOV PER IOD CHANGESN... IET 2015 2009 -359 -653 688 -57 – – – – -18012 -26539 -5125 -2287 2015 1990 -234 -294 -85 – 1998 1990 -100 -100 -100 -15 -56 -77 -73 – Growth rate (%) 2008 1999 -20 -28 -29 1,8 – – – – 2015 2009 -12 -11 29 12 – – – – 2015 1990 -83,8 -100 -100 -100 -40 -43 -85 –

73 Sustainability 74 Sustainability domestic andforeign companies to explore foreign andsecondly, markets, of theluring would increase inbothdomesticand would and that gold demand prices rise gold based onthepredictionthat world gold thatwasalmostcompletely exhausted) deposits (whichdiffered from theplacer were, firstly, thedevelopment ofgoldore What proved policies to be effective market investment. component of the to as an important of windpower stationscanalsobepointed www.chukotka.org, 2014). The construction used to operate thepower station(http:// of this pipeline enabled the gas field to be power plantinAnadyr. The construction gasfieldandagas-turbine Zapadno-Ozerny the waslaidbetween total lengthof104.2km and restructured. a gas pipeline with a Next, coal-mining companieswere modernized details of this investment are as follows: First, in 2001–2003. Autonomous Okrug The made by thegovernment oftheChukotka of developing thefuelandenergy complex resources wasinvestment for thepurpose management basedonthelocalnatural One exampleofefficient regional 2013). residents in2000(Litvinenko increase inthetaxrevenues received from the regional coffers resulted in5.5-times addition ofthegovernor’s incometaxto that the governor (it has been reported of theincometaxpaidpersonallyby the revenues alsorose significantly asa result increased dramatically.Okrug The Okrug’s therevenues ofthe subsidiary), a Sibneft close to Abramovich (andespeciallythatof ofseveral companies thatwere Okrug Autonomousregistration in the Chukotka measuresa result (the of pseudo market significant inthis As respect. particularly was Autonomous Okrug of theChukotka Abramovich ofRoman asgovernor election invigoration ofeconomicactivity, andthe played factors Subjective a major role in the 2006. climbedby 2000and sector 12%between inthemineralresourceworkers mining official statistics, the average numberof (see Table 1).Furthermore, according to amount ofgoldminedmore thandoubled GEOGRAPHY, ENVIRONMENT, SUSTA INABLTY him thatwere registered there. From 2006, governor himselfandcompanies closeto wasthetax revenue fromOkrug the Autonomous finances ofthe Chukotka The mainrevenue source for theintegrated themselves declinedin importance. markets for regions wasextensive, andtherole of administrative, andstatemarket, support At thebeginning ofthe2000s, pseudo- 2010). region (www.rkopin-chukotka.ru, of food consumedthatisproduced inthe achieved inraisingto 25%theproportion a profit from thisindustry, successwas resource cannotearn utilizationsector and cooperatives inthetraditionalnatural and 2006. Even thoughthe companies in fishingincreased fivefold 2000 between annual average numberofpeopleengaged licenses. According to officialstatistics, the catch fish withoutthe need to apply for to mammals and the right hunt marine organized. residents acquired Indigenous for mammalswere thehuntingofmarine the coastalethnicsettlements, cooperatives processing plantswent into operation,andin marine-product state-run new two district, the Anadyrskiy animals. of marine In take catch quotasandincreases inthemaximum sector. includedtheexpansionof This support for thetraditionalnatural resource utilization from thefederal andregional government explained by thepresence ofstate support animals(see and marine Table 1)canbe Meanwhile, theincreases incatches offish by 1999and2008(Fig. 82%between 3). number ofdomesticated reindeer increased the development ofreindeer husbandry, the region-specific program to stabilize andspur And asaresult oftheimplementationa domesticated reindeer (Fig. beganto rise 3). Furthermore, from 2003thenumberof substantially (Table 1). substantially (Table and silver produced intheregion increased commenced in2008,theamountofgold After miningatKupol capital to theOkrug. thefirstattempt to attractmarked Western in 2002 Autonomous Okrug the Chukotka that wasreached withthegovernment of Canadian miningcompany Gold Bema to goldmineto sell75% oftheKupol a promising mining areas. The agreement 03 (11)2017 Tamara Litvinenko, Kazuhiro Kumo POST-SOVIET PERIOD CHANGES IN... however, this situation began to change. gold prices in global markets declined, and The market mechanism began to function economic growth in Russia slowed. Despite more effectively in the development of the this, the amount of gold mined in Chukotka region’s economy, and the fiscal revenue of remained stable (Table 1). Gold refineries the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug started were also constructed at the Kupol, Mayskoe, to be augmented by taxes collected in and Valunistoe mines. conjunction with new gold mining projects. S ustainability 75

Fig. 6: External appearance of urban streets in Anadyr. Everything has been repainted and roads have been improved. The photos taken by the authors.

When Abramovich was governor, housing As a result of the success of the development was refurbished or replaced, new housing of the gold-mining sector, from 2010 was built, and public infrastructure was onwards the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug reconstructed. The external appearance of stood in second or third place in Russia in residential areas was also improved (Fig. 6). In terms of gold production. The number of ethnic settlements, housing was completely indigenous and non-indigenous people rebuilt, and new public infrastructure of Chukotka working for gold-mining buildings were constructed. companies more than doubled between 2008 and 2013 (Russia’s Arctic… 2016). Despite the success of the resource However, in contrast to the success of the utilization sector, the population outflow gold-mining industry, the profitability of the continued (Fig. 4), though at a far slower Nagonaya mine deteriorated, and the mine pace than had been the case in the 1990s. was eventually closed in 2015. This caused a Between 1999 and 2008, the population of decline in the amount of coal mined (Table 1). the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug dropped by 25%, but this was only half the rate of the Aggressive preparations for the decline seen in 1990–1998 (Fig. 5). development of new natural-resource- producing areas were made. Among them, From 2009 until now priority has been given to the development of the Beringovskiy coal field, which was From 2009 onwards, resource utilization in a favorable geographic situation as it has been developing in two directions. was located near an unfrozen stretch of The first was the mining of mineral the coast. The resources from resources (particularly gold and silver) the Beringovskiy coal field are in demand and the preparation of new mineral on world markets and from Asia-Pacific resource deposits for development. The countries. This is because the coal has high development of the largest gold deposits calorific value, the reserves are enormous, by attracting Russian and foreign capital and most of it is coking coal. (Dvoynoy, Kupol, Karal’veem, Mayskoe and Valunistoe) constituted the basic policy for Because of market conditions, there are the economic development of the region at also plans to resume the mining of tin and this time and remains so today. After 2011, tungsten at the Pirkakayskoe deposits in 76 Sustainability settlements intheChukotsky, Providenskiy, cooperatives in14 marine-mammal-hunting Autonomous in2015there Okrug, were eight data from thegovernment oftheChukotka indigenous minorities. According to the cooperatives forneighboring-territorial mammal huntingwasprovided through governments. The state fundingfor marine by thefederal government andregional agriculture. These programs were funded a 2010–2012 program for of state support and Autonomous Okrug in theChukotka for mammalhunting marine state support with specificgoals:a2009–2012program of regional is two programsof state support regardless ofitsprofitability. Anexample significant development ofthissector establishing conditionsfor achieving governments have of adopted a policy The federal government andregional on theregional food safety andsecurity. to becomeself-reliant, andhasabigimpact of asystem for enablingindigenouspeople isvitalto providethis policy thefoundation government of theOkrug. The reason is that This of the has become a strategic policy of thetraditionalnaturalresources sector. traditional way oflife, i.e., onthesustenance their indigenous peoplesandsupport economic, andculturaldevelopment by resources to promote independent social, on theutilizationofrenewable natural The otherdevelopmental direction isbased deposits andtheirfuture extraction. mineralresourcethe development ofnew states will provide the main workforce for other regions ofRussia,andfrom otherCIS from fromthat migrant Chukotka, workers isexpected It district. in theBilibinskiy golddeposits andKekura develop theKlen From 2020,meanwhile, there are plansto with miningsetto commencein2025. zone (Peschankacopperfield), the Baimka in district mine copperintheBilibinskiy hasalreadywork begunonaprojectto Autonomous design Okrug, of theChukotka According to from materials thegovernment Olovo,Severnoe apubliclytradedcompany). largest (in 2008, the license was obtained by which is Russia’s district, the Chaunskiy GEOGRAPHY, ENVIRONMENT, SUSTA INABLTY small margin (Fig. 5). with thetotal populationdecliningonly by a has beenlargely offset by naturalincrease, Population outflow to other regions (Fig. 4) orthecenter of theOkrug. of districts mainly beenfrom to the centers dynamics. withintheregion Migration has not have onpopulation amajor impact did thisperiod thatoccurred during sector The changesintheresource utilization regional development. forcomponent ofthestrategic policy remainsutilization sector an important this indicates that thetraditionalresource hasbeenadopted,Autonomous and Okrug produce andfood products intheChukotka forand regulating agricultural themarket and isaimed at developing agriculture goalsthatrunsfromterm 2013to 2020 A regional program withspecificlong- amount ofreindeer meatproduced. forperiod slaughter andanincrease inthe for this, includingthescrappingofgrace 2006 (Fig. 3). There are anumberofreasons domesticated reindeer hasdeclinedsince to thenumberof provide state support, (Russia’s Arctic… 2016).Despitethedecision increased that until2012butdeclinedafter the financesof Autonomous Okrug for reindeer herding thatare paidoutof The amountof state subsidiesprovided provided through publiclyruncompanies. for reindeerState support herding hasbeen oftheFarzones inotherparts East. fishing were registered inspecialeconomic all thecompaniesthathadbeenengagedin from four that in 2008 to and the fact two in thenumberofcoastalfishingcompanies Policy revealed thatthiswasdueto adecline andAgricultural ofIndustrial Department Autonomous Okrug’sof theChukotka inJune2016withthehead conducted dropped by 1).Aninterview 80%(Table mammal hunting, fishcatches have contrast to the situation with marine In 1). (Table to increase mammalhunting marine served has State support districts. and Iultinskiy 03 (11)2017 Tamara Litvinenko, Kazuhiro Kumo POST-SOVIET PERIOD CHANGES IN...

Interrelationships between other districts to this day (Table 3 and Fig. 7). intra-regional differentiation The indigenous population of the Iultinskiy in population dynamics, changes district is just over 30% (Table 3). Companies in human settlements, natural such as the Pevek, Polyarnyy, and Iultin mining resource utilization, and ethnic and processing complexes closed their doors composition in the 1990s, and because there were no other places to work, most of the settlements Differentiation in population dynamics were abandoned between 1995 and 1998, with the remaining residents moving out. In S ustainability Changes in natural resource utilization and these districts, the population decline was the differences in ethnic composition that occurred steepest between 1990 and 2002 (Chaunskiy: 77 during the post-Soviet period had an impact 77%, Iultinskiy: 79%). The population outflow on population dynamics at the district level continued between 2002 and 2015, and the (Table 3 and Fig. 7). Two districts, Chaunskiy populations of the districts kept falling, with in the north of the Chukotka Autonomous that of Iultinskiy dropping by 22% and that of Okrug and Iultinskiy in the northeast, saw the Chaunskiy declining by 17%. However, with the maximum depopulation (80% or more). Most creation of new jobs in the energy, gold-mining, of the settlements in these districts came and construction sectors, the population into existence during the 1950s and 1960s became stable compared with the 1990s. in conjunction with the development of the mining (gold and tin) industry. Most of the Figure 7 Intra-regional population dynamics residents were Russian people. Indigenous and its link to the ethnic breakdown of the peoples as a proportion of the population of population in the Chukotka Autonomous, the Chaunskiy district remains lower than in 1990–2015 Table 3. Population and ethnic composition in the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, 1990–2015 Indigenous peoples Population (number of people) Population change, % as a proportion of the population, %

1990– 2002- 1990- 1990 2002 2015 2002 2010 2002 2015 2015

Chukotka 158056 53824 50759 -66 -5,7 -67,9 31,3 33,4 Autonomous Okrug

Anadyr town 17509 11038 14326 -37 29,8 18,2 16,9 17,8

Anadyrskiy district 32609 11169 8788 -65,7 -21,3 -73,1 36,3 39,7

Bilibinskiy district 27956 8820 7825 -68,5 -11,3 -72 21,6 23,3

Iultinskiy district 31661 6634 5122 -79 -22,8 -83,8 308 31,2

Providenskiy district 10019 4660 3737 -53,5 -19,8 -62,7 52,2 56,2

Chaunskiy district 31348 6962 5774 -77,8 -17,1 -81,6 13,1 19,4

Chukotskiy district 6954 4541 4510 -34,7 -0,6 -35,1 82,6 80,4

Note 1: Calculated based on the 2015 district borders. Source: Based on official statistics. Figures for 2002 and 2010 are based on population census data. 78 Sustainability GEOGRAPHY, stayed relatively close to the average. Ten thepost-Soviet decline during period the population theProvidenskiyIn district, products, andfood withintheregion. supplyingpower,in industries agricultural goldminesandthesubsequentgrowthnew outflow asa result ofthedevelopment of earlier, this wasdueto adrop inpopulation population stabilized. As was explained the rate ofdeclinefell significantly, andthe (see the2002–2015period during Table 3), Although thepopulationdeclinecontinued by over 1990 and 2002. 65% between plunged districts andAnadyrskiy Bilibinskiy for goldminers, the populationofthe people and the closure of the settlements As aresult oftheoutflow ofnon-indigenous 3andFig.39% ofthepopulation(Table 7). indigenouspeoples account fordistricts, 21– these In west, andsouthoftheOkrug. whicharedistricts, located inthenorthwest, andAnadyrskiy 72–73% were theBilibinskiy the populationdeclinewasprecipitous at the group comprising The in which districts F ig. 7.I ntra-regional population dynamicsandtheirlinkto ethnicbreakdown ofthe Changes inindigenouspeoplesasaproportion of thepopulation population Autonomous intheChukotka Okrug, 1990–2015 ENVIRONMENT, 2002 populationcensus 2010populationcensus SUSTA INABLTY they arethey engagedin traditionalnatural Yukagir, Evens, peoples, and andItelmens ishometo Chukchi, district The Chukotskiy factor.can beregarded asan explanatory peoples dominate theethnicstructure that indigenous thefact district, Chukotskiy thecaseof (34%fall). In district Anadyr town (37%fall)and theChukotskiy thepost-Soviet weredeclines during period withthesmallestpopulation The districts traditional natural resource utilization sector. inthe the indigenouspeoplesworking thanks to thepopulationtrend among large drop in populationcouldbeavoided were spursfor nonew economic growth, a fall, 2002–2015: 19% fall).Althoughthere and natural decrease (1990–2002: 53% been causedby bothpopulationoutflow isthatthedeclineinpopulationhas district ofthepopulationin the One characteristic more thanhalf, 3andFig. (Table infact 7). relatively ofthepopulation, highproportion form andthey a reside inthisdistrict, North indigenous small-numbered peoplesofthe 03 (11)2017 Tamara Litvinenko, Kazuhiro Kumo POST-SOVIET PERIOD CHANGES IN... resource management related to utilization central role in these local areas. Examples of of renewable biological resources. The such settlements in the Iultinskiy district are indigenous population of this district is the indigenous settlements of Amguema, over 80% (Table 3). Furthermore, the district , Nutepelmen, Konergino, and contains no settlements that have been Uelkal. Indigenous residents typically closed and are no longer inhabited. In the comprised 74–96% of the residents of these case of Anadyr town, on the other hand, there settlements. For example, the population of is another factor behind the relatively small Amguema declined by 40% between population decline (though the population 1990 and 2015, a rate of decline that was less S ustainability actually increased by 29% between 2002 and than half that of the Iultinskiy district as a 2015). This is that the town is the capital of whole (Table 2). Table 4 Types of post-Soviet 79 the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug. Although transformation of human settlements in the the indigenous population of the town is not Chukotka Autonomous Okrug particularly high as a proportion of its total population, the outflow to other regions (2) The second type is Soviet-period of Russia has been offset by an inflow from settlements, mainly enjoying the status of other parts of Chukotka. This influx has a district or Okrug center, inhabited mostly probably occurred because of the high by the Russians. Their population has likelihood of obtaining employment in the declined, but they have been maintained town and because the social infrastructure is as residential areas. Because they have of high quality. witnessed large population outflows, mainly by non-indigenous people, the population Transformation of human sattlements of such settlements declined during the 1990s. For example, the population of the Spatial transformation of natural resource Egvekinot urban-type settlement, which is use caused the differentiation of settlements. the center of the Iultinskiy district, dropped Currently, five types of transformation of by 56% between 1990 and 1998, yet a look human settlements can be observed in the at the entire post-Soviet period reveals studied region (Table 4). (1) The first type that the total decline was only 43%, having are ethnic rural settlements (villages) that been softened by a moderate recovery in emerged during the Soviet era as a result of population since 2000 (see Table 2). What the transition by indigenous peoples from played an active role in maintaining the pursuing a nomadic existence to living in a Egvekinot urban-type settlement and other fixed location, and are still inhabited today. district centers was the inflow of people The population of these villages changed from nearby villages, who were attracted (declined) as a result of natural decrease, by the possibility of securing jobs created the outflow of minority non-indigenous by government-funded organizations. The peoples, and a small outflow of indigenous population of Egvekinot stabilized as a peoples (mainly young ones) to the centre consequence of employment by the sea of the district or Anadyr town. However, port, construction, and the mining- and compared with settlements where most energy-resource-utilizing companies serving of the residents were Russian, the rate the local population. of decline was low, especially during the 1990s. As they had during the Soviet era, the (3) The third type are settlements inhabited residents of indigenous settlements mainly by Russians where the population declined worked for companies utilizing renewable dramatically. These residential areas contain bioresources or self-employment utilizing both abandoned and still active subdistricts. these resources. Despite changes in the form One example is the Ugolnye Kopi settlement, of management of natural-resource-utilizing which includes a residential zone that has companies (in the Soviet era they were now been abandoned but that used to be mainly sovkhoz (state-owned farms) whereas home to military families and employees of now most of them are publicly run single companies providing services to the military. farm enterprises or cooperatives), traditional Because the army was disbanded in the 1990s, resource utilization continues to play a a large population outflow occurred, but 80 Sustainability GEOGRAPHY, Table 4. Types of post-Soviet transformation of human settlements in the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug

Characteristics of Population dynamics Relation to resource Type of Status of Ethnic population migration in the post-Soviet use through Examples Photographs transformation settlement composition in the post-Soviet

period employment ENVIRONMENT, period Mainly work for The population is Soviet-period Some non- renewable-resource- declining, but the settlements, indigenous peoples utilizing companies margin of decline Amguema inhabited largely by Mainly left during the 1990s. (fishing, marine- is considerably village in the I indigenous peoples, Village indigenous Some indigenous mammal hunting, smaller relative to Iultinskiy district whose numbers have people peoples left for the reindeer herding, SUSTA INABLTY settlements with (photograph) not changed very Okrug or district etc.) or utilize these mainly Russian much center. resources on a self- inhabitants employed basis Soviet-period Mainly work for settlements, publicly-financed Anadyr town considerably Center of the Significant outflow to organizations or (photograph), depopulated and Okrug or the Mainly Russian other parts of Russia Significant population companies that Egvekinot urban- II mainly enjoying the centers of 16,9 people and CIS states during decline utilize non-renewable type settlement, status of a district administrative the 1990s mineral and energy center of the or Okrug center, districts resources to meet Iultinskiy district inhabited mostly by local needs the Russians

During the Soviet Considerably era, companies Ugolnye Kopi depopulated that supplied the urban-type settlements, with Urban-type Significant outflow to army. During the settlement. There essentially Russian settlement with Mainly other parts of Russia Significant population post-Soviet period, was once an

III population, where the status of the 36,3 03 (11)2017 Russian people and CIS states during decline publicly-funded army barracks there co-exist district center the 1990s organizations, airport here but it has abandoned and since 1992 services, and lignite- been abandoned preserved residential mining company that (photograph) neighborhoods meets local needs Tamara Litvinenko, Kazuhiro Kumo Characteristics of Population dynamics Relation to resource Type of Status of Ethnic population migration in the post-Soviet use through Examples Photographs transformation settlement composition in the post-Soviet period employment period

Before abandonment of the residential Significant outflow toSignificant population Iultin urban- Settlements, Used to areas, the inhabitants Abandoned other parts of Russia decline during the type settlement, IV urban-type be mainly Russian worked mainly in the settlements and CIS states during 1990s. Currently no Iultinskiy district settlements people resource-extraction the 1990s permanent residents. (photograph) sector

Temporary residential area Temporary workers’ Working temporarily for migrants settlements Temporary inflow of mainly for resource- established near established in the Mainly Russian migrant workers from No permanent V None extracting (chiefly the gold mine post-Soviet period people other parts of Russia residents gold and silver) in the Valunistoe (during natural- and CIS states companies deposit in the resource extraction)

Anadyrskiy district POST-SOV PER IOD CHANGESN... IET (photograph) Source: Prepared by the authors

81 Sustainability 82 Sustainability mineral-resource miningsector, but non-indigenous peoplesemployed inthe once mainly inhabited by Russian and other (4) are type settlementsthat wereThe fourth company.and employment by lignite-mining thanksto employment attheairport survive organizations, andthesettlementmanagedto was provided by government-funded Employment centre district. for theAnadyrskiy from 1992onwards itacquired thestatusasa GEOGRAPHY, comfortable permanent accommodation for permanent comfortable year round. This residential area provides where place all mining takes district, the Valuninstoe goldmineintheAnadyrskiy residence near be thetemporary-worker settlement would beKupol. Anotherwould workers’ oftemporary An exampleofthistype gold andsilver miningprojects are underway. have inareas beenconstructed where new Since 2006,suchmigrant workers’ residences ofmineralresources).labour (for extraction thepost-Soviet toduring housemigrant period settlements, whichhave beenestablished (5) workers’type are Thetemporary fifth (Fig. 7). andProcessing Mining Polyarninskiy Complex theclosurethat wasmadeafter ofthe decision by theRussianfederal government which wasabandonedfollowing a1995 companies. AnotherexampleisPolyarnyy, andProcessingMining Complex andrelated with the suspension of operations by the Iultin Vostochnyy. These settlementsdisappeared Iultin, Svetlyy, Tranzitnyy, Geologicheskiy, and Examples ofsuchsettlementswould be as could becharacterized “company towns.” involved inthemining of tinand gold andthat numerous settlementsthathadenterprises where there district, wereand Bilibinskiy are district most numerous in the Chaunskiy (Fig. 7). These abandonedresidential areas thepost-Sovietbeen liquidated during period method, itwasfound that31settlementshad investigations usingthemapping performing and process on-site surveys ofconducting by the theRussiangovernment. During these settlementswere officiallyabandoned of the formeror countries Soviet Union, and away, mainlyto centralRussia,RussianFar East, did nothave strong tiesto theregion, moved closed down in the 1990s, the residents, who have noresidents. After thelarge companies oftheirstatusastownsbeen stripped andnow ENVIRONMENT, SUSTA INABLTY have the people, has declinedsignificantly, with natural resource utilizationby theChukchi herding, which forms the basis of traditional the post-Soviet asawhole, period reindeer occurred 2003and2009,during between had beeninitially. Despite thegrowth that for theregion halved compared to whatit and powerto less than a fifth, generation ceased completely, coal-mine output shrank tin andtheproduction oftungsten products intra-regional andlocallevels. The miningof that occurred inresource utilizationatthe themultidirectional changes by observing The post-Soviet canbesummedup period as providing for thesparks growth. resource canbeidentified utilizationsector agricultural companies inthetraditional and theestablishmentofpubliclyrun cooperatives of neighboring-territorial natural gas were launched, andcreation projects to minegoldandsilver andextract flowed in for adecade. As a result, new Abramovich proved successful, and money other hand, theadministrationofRoman ofthe1990s.the economiccrisis Onthe hit during and goldminingtook aserious that theprofitability ofnonferrous-metal economiccooperationmeant international capital inflows, of in terms and weakness infrastructure, inadequate transportation the remote location,thelackof transformed. The harsh natural conditions, and theirresidential areas were completely development, peoples alsounderwent ofindigenous traditional economicactivities with goldminingproving successful. The targetbecame anattractive for investment, of any Russian region. However, it then a result ofthelargest populationdecline the region’s economy suffered the most as human settlementswere abandoned, and a large number ofminingcompaniesand the1990s, thepost-Sovietduring period. In followed process adistinctive ofchange has Autonomous Okrug The Chukotka SUMMARY OF THE DISCUSSION expanded and new onesareexpanded andnew launched. projectscontinuetoresource-utilization be workers’ asexisting settlements isontherise up to 300 people. The numberoftemporary number ofdomesticated reindeer more 03 (11)2017 Tamara Litvinenko, Kazuhiro Kumo POST-SOVIET PERIOD CHANGES IN... than halving. On the other hand, fish catches crisis, this correlation was 0.9). The higher and marine-mammal hunting have increased the proportion of indigenous peoples at the dramatically thanks to state support (Table 1). In local area, the smaller the population decline 2002, wind power began supplying the local has been during the post-Soviet period. area for the first time, and in 2006, natural The change has been the smallest in local gas also started to be used. During the areas where indigenous peoples engaged post-Soviet period, new mines have been in traditional resource utilization make up developed, which has increased the amount a large proportion of the population, while of gold and silver being extracted. As a the rate of population decline has been S ustainability result, precious-metal mining now accounts the highest in local areas where the mining for around 80% of the total mining output, industry is highly developed and non- 83 and has established itself as a key industry indigenous people form a large proportion for the regional economy. Between 1990 of the population. and 2015, the total population declined to a third of its former level (Table 3), while During the post-Soviet period, changes in indigenous residents as a proportion of population dynamics have been akin to a the population increased (Fig. 1). Since mosaic, with some residential areas being 2002, however, there has hardly been completely abandoned and the exteriors any change in the population (Fig. 5). The of ethnic settlements and the Okrug’s and biggest reason for the population decline districts’ centers being remodeled. Unlike was changes in the situation with mining other parts of eastern Russia, where ethnic companies, and especially their closure Russians make up the overwhelming during the economic and political crisis of majority of residents, in the Chukotka the 1990s, which precipitated a large drop Autonomous Okrug, differentiation in spatial in incomes. State support was no longer changes between settlements with mainly available, and the chances of finding jobs indigenous residents (all of them have been were slim. This made living in this northern maintained) and settlements with mainly region incredibly difficult, and led to a large Russian residents (most residential areas population outflow. have either been abandoned or have been maintained but the population has fallen This study has explored the interrelationships dramatically) were observed. between resource utilization and population dynamics at the local level throughout the Examination of changes in population post-Soviet period. The interrelationships dynamics in the Chukotka Autonomous between the two were particularly close Okrug at the regional, intra-regional, and during the 1990s. At this time, the close local levels that have occurred in conjunction of a large number of mining companies with changes in resource utilization during triggered a population outflow and a the post-Soviet period, allowed confirming decline in the total population. In contrast, the conclusions of previous research that the period from 2002 has been marked has indicated that the demographic and by the success of the resource utilization economic systems in the Arctic regions are sector, and this has played a key role in unstable (Heleniak 1999; Petrov 2010). Factors, stabilizing the population of the Chukotka such as settlements dependent on a single Autonomous Okrug. company, settlements without the status of a district or regional centers, non-indigenous Ethnic factors have played an extremely residents with weak ties to the region, and the important role in the process of employment in the non-renewable mineral interaction between resource utilization resource utilization sector under the market and population. In every administrative economic system, have caused the population district, with the exception of the Okrug’s outflows and the abandonment of residential center, population dynamics has been areas, and Chukotka’s experience makes it characterized by a strong correlation with clear that this results in the destabilization of indigenous peoples as a proportion of the the sociodemographic systems and human population (at the time of the economic settlements in the Arctic regions. 84 Sustainability

2000, however, thedevelopment ofnew, infrastructure that accompanied them. From and processing complexes andthescattered areas disappeared alongwiththemining the1990s,settlement. During residential the Chukotka’s economy andhuman isthegeographicalperiod structureof thepost-SovietWhat haschangedduring natural resources markets). inworld suchasdemandforglobal economicfactors aswellpolitical andeconomicfactors as (especially national-level factors by external by butalso naturalandethnoculturalfactors areas canprobably beexplainednotonly of thenon-indigenouspeopleresidential region. On the other hand, the instability natural resource utilization)withinthe forcomposition andtendency traditional zones) (ethnic andethnoculturalfactors renewable resources inthetundraandtaiga explained by(thepresence naturalfactors of traditional naturalresource utilizationcanbe indigenous peopleswhoare engagedin in thedevelopment ofsettlementsfor ofthepopulation. proportion The stability large upanoverwhelmingly make sector traditional renewable resource utilization inthe the indigenouspeoplesworking More stableare thelocalsystems where GEOGRAPHY, References Post-Soviet Geography andEconomics, 40:3, pp. 155-205. Heleniak, T. the1990s, during oftheRussian North (1999)Out-Migration andDepopulation sociological analysis]. Vestnik ugrovedeniya.. №4(15).pp. 118-124.(inRussian). theoretical minorities: and analiz[Sustainabledevelopment of northern sociologicheskii Haknazarov, malochislennyh narodov S.(2013).Ustoichivoe teoretiko- Severa: razvitie 19 (1),pp. 31-37. Gray, P. inthepost-socialist transition.Polar reindeer husbandry Research, (2000)Chukotka (Ed.) (Pod1991 .E.Kozlovsky redakcieiE.Kozlovskogo). Vol 2(Tom 2.)(inRussian). 1984— enciklopediya, — M.: Sovetskaya encyclopedia]. [Mining ehnciklopediya Gornaya Vol.ARCTIC, 45,No. 3pp. 219-225. Duerden, F. Look (1992) Critical in the Canadianat Sustainable Development North. Centre, Resilience andStockholm Stockholm. Institute Environment 2013.Stockholm Report Arctic Council. Interim (2013).ArcticResilience Press, University Cambridge New York, 2005. Assessment. 2005.PublishedArctic Climate Impact intheUnited by States ofAmerica ENVIRONMENT, SUSTA INABLTY 03-00740 a (T. 03-00740 a(T. V. Litvinenko). Foundation for BasicResearch, project 15- research by the Russian was also supported (2017). University Research, Hitotsubashi The Program ofEconomic by theInstitute UsageandResearchthe Joint Centre Cooperationfor (2017),and International Foundation Corporation Banking Mitsui 26245034), a grant-in-aid from Sumitomo andCultureEducation, Science (# inJapan of in-Aid forResearchMinistry Scientific (A), This research by theGrant- wassupported progress. mineral resources thatare currently in projects influence ofthenew to extract to change, thistimeasaresult ofthe economy andhumansettlementcontinue the geographical structure ofChukotka’s were alsoconstructed. Justasitalways has, settlements for needednow theworkers existing residential zones. Temporary in geographical locationsaway from the from scratch. started They alsoappeared reincarnations oftheoldones. They were companies. These companieswere not resource-utilizing ofnew has led to thebirth non-labour-intensive mining technology A cknowledgements : 03 (11)2017

Tamara Litvinenko, Kazuhiro Kumo conditions and resources of the Chukotka Peninsula].conditions and resources -M.:GEOS.p503. (in Russian). ofthe Chukotka Lozovskaya S.(2005)Prirodnye poluostrova usloviya i resursy [Natural Chukotskogo N.,Astahova, N., Sekretareva, Zheleznov-Chukotskii, T., A.I., Zhukova, Tihomirov YU. and population inasparselypopulated region]. p. Dal’nauka. : 240(inRussian). v slabozaselennom regione. of organization andsocialself-organization [Territorial Z.(2014) Sidorkina, Territorial’naya organizaciya isocial’naya samoorganizaciya naseleniya 272 p. (inRussian). RAN.) —M.; SPb.: Nestor-Istoriya. etnologii i antropologii(Institut im. N. N. Mikluho-Maklaya ofEthnologyandAnthropology, Institute RAS development]. (2016) Miklukho-Maklay obshchei redakciei V. A. [Russia’sTishkova Arctic: indigenouspeoplesandindustrial korennye narody ipromyshlennoe Arktika: osvoenie / Rossiiskaya V. A. (Ed.)Tishkov Pod retrospective and forecast]. view RAN.p. SVKNIIDVO 145(inRussian). : (retrospektiva iprognoz) [Patterns andfeatures ofRussia’s development; a North-East Pilyasov, i osobennostiosvoeniya Severo-Vostoka Rossii A.(1996) Zakonomernosti pp. 39–61. Polar inanarcticeconomymine demographic shifts (Yukon), Geography, Vol. 33,No. 1–2, Petrov, A.(2010)Post-staple bust:modelingeconomiceffects ofmineclosures andpost- URL: http://www.rkopin-chukotka.ru Kopin’s Governor Roman Autonomous Okrug Chukotka officialsite]. Sobytiya. 05.02.2010 [The Kopina Romana avtonomnogoOficial’nyj okruga Chukotskogo saitgubernatora (inRussian). .07.05.2014.URL:http://www.chukotka.org Autonomous Okrug] site oftheChukotka [Official avtonomnogoOficial’nyi okruga saitChukotskogo issledovanii. ehkonomicheskih RAN.p.Vladivostok-: DVO 224(inRussian). P.A.Minakir Dal’nevostochnoe nauk, otdelenie, Akademiya Institut (ed.) Rossiiskaya E.(2006)NaselenieDal’nego RussianFar-EastMotrich, population]. Vostoka [The Rossii Canada. Alternatives 10(2).pp. 34-39. Mulvihill, P. andJacobs, P. (1991). Towards development trategies in south/north new Grinberg (Ed.) (Otv. red. A.G.Granberg).] M.:ZAO Izdatel’stvo p. 848(inRussian). Ekonomika, Minakir, P. regionov. (2006)Ekonomika Dal’nii Vostok [Regional economy. Far-East. A.G. RIOTIP,Khabarovsk: p. 240(inRussian). RussianFar-Eastern mineralresources [The complex:developmental potential]. razvitiya N.(2009)Mineral’no-syr’evojLomakina, Dal’nego kompleks Vostoka potencial Rossii: resources complexintheFar-Eastern economy]. p.135 Dal’nauka,. Vladivostok: (inRussian). Dal’nego N.2002Mineral’no-syr’evoiLomakina, vekonomike kompleks Vostoka [Mineral (Keizaigaku-Ronso). EconomicVol. Review 60.No. 3.pp. 83-101. Autonomous University Russia.Doshisha natural resources Okrug, utilizationinChukotka Litvinenko, T. and Takeshi, consequencesofpost-Soviet M.(2008)Social transformation of RAN.Ser. geogr.. Izvestiya Okrug]. №2.pp. 30-42.(inRussian). Autonomous onpopulationdynamicsintheChukotka anditsimpact of resource-use avtonomnom[Post-Soviet okruge. naseleniyavChukotskom dinamiku transformation Litvinenko, T. (2013).Postsovetskaya transformaciya resursopol’zovaniya ieevliyaniena POST-SOV PER IOD CHANGESN... IET

85 Sustainability 86 Sustainability Received onJuly04 GEOGRAPHY, Sovetskaya ehtnografiya. №1.pp.Sovetskaya 9-22.(inRussian). minorities’narodov [Aspects Severa ofreconstructionnorthern livingconditions] Vasil’ev, V., Simchenko, YU. Z.(1966)Problemy andSokolova byta malyh rekonstrukcii ENVIRONMENT, th , 2017 Transition StudiesReview, 2016”. ofPoverty, onChangesinthe Determinants A Meta-analysis in (co-authored)”, “Research onPoverty in Transition Economies: From thePast to thePresent, Palgrave 2017 UK, Macmillan, latest publicationsare:Soviet Union.His “Demography ofRussia: demography andmigration analysisin Russia andtheFormer areas ofresearch are regional economy, economicgeography, ofOxford,University UKin2013-2014asavisitingscholar. His UKin2007-2008andatthe ofBirmingham, at theUniversity his professional2016. During career, he engaged in his research of the Center IER since for at Hitotsubashi Economic Institutions Russian Research Center IERsince2014andthat atHitotsubashi from Kyoto University. HehasbeentheResearch Director ofthe degree HeobtainedhisDoctoral Japan. inEconomics in2002 IER), (Hitotsubashi University Research, Hitotsubashi Tokyo, Kazuhiro Kumo RussianAcademyPlekhanov ofEconomics (2006). Russian Academy (1999) and Honored of Sciences diploma of in Kyoto, Shewasawarded Japan. by Honored diplomaofthe (2007) andvisitingprofessor (2010-2016) university atDoshisha research fellow for attheResearch andNature Institute Humanity Research, andPresidium ofRАS. Tamara wasinvited Litvinenko Scientific Fund for HumanStudies, Russian Foundation for Basic and Sciences Technology Government,Russian ofJapanese Global Ecological Fund, for Education, Culture, Ministry Sports, by the numerous projects supported national andinternational investigator asprincipal orcollaborator participated in Litvinenko the author of more than 90 scientific publications. Tamara relationship Sheis inRussiaandJapan. development andenvironment Russiaandtourism in Eastern Her research areas includesocialproblems ofnaturalresource geography,of socio-economic ofGeography Institute RAS. Tamara Litvinenko SUSTA INABLTY is Professor ofEconomic attheInstitute (PhD) isaseniorresearcher atthedepartment Accepted onAugust 10 03 (11)2017 th , 2017