Translation and Interpreting on the American Frontier: Incidents and Issues By Eric A. Bye

In the early centuries of this May of 1712, interpreted the terms of country, interpreters and translators an Indian treaty for several prominent played a crucial role wherever the Delaware chiefs, including Chief expanding colonial settlements Scollitchy6; and Eleazer Wiggan, who brought European Americans into con- resided among the Cherokee in eastern tact with Native American culture. and acted as an interpreter American Indian nations belonging to for them in 1716.7 In May of 1728, different linguistic groups also Peter Bezaillion, a French Canadian employed interpreters in their dealings fur trader, served as an interpreter with with one another. Translating and Nicholas and John Scull at an Indian interpreting on the frontier sometimes conference in Philadelphia.8 I also posed challenges scarcely imaginable found a Mr. Blondo (or Blondeau), in today’s work environment. Those who was an interpreter for the Sac and providing language services had no Fox Indians in the 1830s.9 Further formal training, only hard-won skills details about these interpreters and that were often gained through cap- their work may be hard to come by. tivity, imprisonment, or adoption and Other references preserve slightly acculturation. There were drastic dif- more information. Martin Chartier ferences between the languages spoken (?-1718) came to Pennsylvania and by Native Americans and those of the Maryland in 1691, and worked as a European American colonists (who, at trader and interpreter. For a time, he that time, were principally English, was a coureur de bois (a woodsman Dutch, and German). The “highly sym- and explorer) with the French explorer bolic and poetic character of the Indian Robert de La Salle, and lived among languages”1 also complicated inter- the , for whom he interpreted preting and translating. Not surpris- at Indian conferences in Conestoga, ingly, much of the work of these early Pennsylvania, in the early 1700s. linguists has been lost and their identi- Chartier lived in present-day Illinois ties obscured by time. Still, some fas- from 1684-1690, and was the agent for cinating remnants survive. the treaties (founder of Pennsylvania) drew up with the Fleeting Glimpses Indians of the Susquehanna.10 At one Despite the fact that the work of point he was accused of being a French early interpreters and translators often spy and imprisoned. Chartier’s son vanished once a parley concluded, Peter also worked as an interpreter. even cursory research turns up refer- In 1659, Jacob Young was an inter- ences to these linguistic pioneers. For preter in New Amsterdam, New York instance, there was Paxinosa, an 18th- (now Albany) and in Maryland. century Shawnee chief and interpreter Maryland Lieutenant Governor for the Delawares2; Sam, son of Colonel Henry Coursey wrote to Essapenawick3; Wowler, a Mohawk Maryland Governor Thomas Notley interpreter in Maryland4; Arnout in 1677, saying: “I … find a necessity Cornelisen Viele, an early resident of to carry Jacob Young along with me, Albany, New York, who interpreted for without whom I can do nothing, and the Shawnee5; Edward Farmar, who, in what truth is to be had is from ·

17 Translation and Interpreting on the American Frontier: Incidents and Issues Continued him and none else.”11 Young was also esteemed as a leader and peacemaker. He spoke and Dela- ware fluently, and was the only one Translating and interpreting on the frontier qualified to act as an interpreter for Maryland authorities. Despite his sometimes posed challenges scarcely imaginable indispensable skills, he was accused of inciting to kill in today’s work environment. Christians, charged with treason, and imprisoned. The Susquehannocks won Young’s release by threatening to attack colonial settlements. would later meet. She conversed day in council. We salute you as Tragically, the Susquehannocks were with the tribe and interpreted to the children of your Great Father decimated by intertribal wars, dis- Charbonneau in Hidatsa. Charbonneau the great Chief of the Seventeen eases, and raids by colonial militia. then relayed the message in French to Great Nations of America. We see The tribe and language became Drouillard or to René Jessaume, another around us a number of the Old and extinct around 1763. French-speaking expedition member. experienced, the wise men and Jessaume finally delivered the message women of the Soues [sic] nation.15 Interpreting on the to Lewis and Clark in English. This Journey of Discovery process was reversed when the expedi- The precise content of this speech Often the trail from source to target tion leaders had something to commu- was unknown until 2003, when a language was filled with twists and nicate. It was made even more complete text in William Clark’s obstacles. Consider, for example, the cumbersome by the continual arguing handwriting was discovered in a pri- language issues on Meriwether Lewis of Charbonneau and Jessaume over the vate collection. and William Clark’s famed Journey of meaning of the French words they Discovery (1804-1806), the first used.13 Francis Labiche, another crew A Historic Misinterpretation transcontinental expedition to the member who knew French and English, Not surprisingly, convoluted inter- Pacific Coast to prepare the way for was also recruited for the French-to- pretations of the type described above the extension of the American fur English and English-to-French link in sometimes led to misunderstandings. trade and to advance geographic this interpreting chain. After the In 1832, a number of trappers and fur knowledge. George Drouillard, an explorers’ return to the East, traders gathered at a site known as interpreter and hunter for the expedi- Meriwether Lewis recommended extra Pierre’s Hole in present-day Idaho for tion, was doubly valuable because he pay for Drouillard and Labiche for their a summer rendezvous—an opportunity was fluent in French, English, and service.14 to sell the beaver pelts they had har- more than one Indian language. He Pierre Dorion (1740-1810) was vested and to stock up on supplies for was also a master of sign language.12 another interpreter with the Journey the next trapping season. They became Another crew member, Pierre of Discovery. He had lived with the engaged in a pitched gun battle with Cruzatte, knew French, English, and a Yankton Sioux in what is now South Gros Ventre warriors who had taken little Sioux. Dakota, and translated into their lan- refuge in dense cover. During a pause Most significantly, during their first guage Lewis’s “Children Speech.” in the battle, one of the chiefs was winter at Fort Mandan in North Dakota, Lewis used this address multiple heard to declaim in his language: Lewis and Clark met Toussaint times to impress the Indian tribes with Charbonneau, a French Canadian who the might and benevolence of the So long … as we had powder and offered to join the expedition. He was expanding colonies. It consists of ball we fought you in the open welcomed aboard principally because some 25 paragraphs, most of which field: when those were spent, we one of his wives—the acclaimed began in the same way as this excerpt: retreated here to die with our 15-year-old Sacagawea—was a native women and children. You may speaker of Hidatsa, the language of a Children — It gives us much burn us in our fort; but stay by our mountain tribe that the expedition pleasure to have met you here this ashes, and you who are so hungry

18 The ATA Chronicle n February 2012 Fort Necessity, in Farmington, Pennsylvania, marks the site of the first major event in the military career of George Washington. It was the only time he surrendered to an enemy. (Photo courtesy of Thomas Markwardt, National Park Service)

for fighting will soon have enough. French soldiers and ambushed them fainted from his wounds, so Van Braam There are four hundred lodges of in the early morning without provo- had to handle all of the interpreting, as our brethren at hand. They will cation, killing a dozen, wounding well as the task of translating the arti- soon be here—their arms are two, and capturing 21. One of the cles of surrender for Washington. The strong—their hearts are big—they slain was Joseph Coulon, Sieur de weather was very wet and the penman- will avenge us!16 Jumonville, a diplomat. ship under field conditions was poor, so Shortly after, Washington erected Van Braam may have relied on memory This speech was relayed between Fort Necessity in southwestern as he subsequently translated the arti- languages by a tag team of Nez Percé Pennsylvania to defend his soldiers cles of surrender for Washington. In the tribe and Creole interpreters among from the expected French reprisal and process, he translated the source’s refer- the trappers. By the time it reached to claim the region for the British. The ence to the earlier assassination of de intelligible English, it was taken to French quickly assembled a superior Jumonville simply as his death, thereby mean that the trappers’ camp at the retaliatory force and attacked overlooking or concealing the connota- other end of the valley was already Washington at Fort Necessity. The tion that painted Washington as a under attack. Some trappers hastened British under Washington fought wanton murderer. Ignorant of the sur- to investigate and found that all was valiantly, but their situation was unen- render document’s sinister implications, safe. By the time they returned to the viable: their earthworks filled with Washington signed it, secured a cease- battle scene the next day, the forted- rainwater, and during the nine-hour fire, and withdrew from the field with up Indians had made their escape battle they were sitting ducks for the his troops and most of their possessions. under cover of darkness. enemy forces. Upon demand by the French, two French commander Captain Louis British hostages were left behind. One George Washington’s Only Coulon de Villiers, brother of the slain was Van Braam, who then spent six Surrender, and a Matter de Jumonville, offered capitulation years in captivity in Canada, returned of Interpretation terms to the beleaguered fort. to fight for the British during the Central to the next story are some Washington’s troops included only Revolutionary War, and eventually serious blunders by then-Lieutenant two men who understood French: moved to France. He never told his Colonel George Washington. In the Ensign La Peyroney, who was seriously side of the interpreting controversy. prelude to this surrender on May 28, wounded, and a Dutch-born interpreter Washington’s initial attack on the 1754, a British force commanded by named Jacob Van Braam. These two unsuspecting French force had inter- the 22-year-old Washington sur- men proceeded to the French lines to national repercussions, for it was a rounded a wilderness encampment of negotiate for peace. La Peyroney catalyst in the French and Indian ·

The ATA Chronicle n February 2012 19 Translation and Interpreting on the American Frontier: Incidents and Issues Continued

War (1754-1763). He was also in hot water for admitting to the assassina- tion of de Jumonville. He attempted to foist responsibility for this misunder- At least two famous frontier interpreters have come standing onto Van Braam: down to us as scoundrels and traitors. That we were willfully, or igno- rantly, deceived by our interpreter in regard to the word assassination, I do aver, and will to my dying figures such as William Ashley, Shawnee. He interpreted at Fort Pitt in moment; so will every officer that Colonel Henry Atkinson, and Andrew , and served the British in was present. The interpreter was a Henry. In chapter 24 of Astoria, their dealings with the Dutchman, little acquainted with Washington Irving’s history of the fur Confederation (the Mohawk, Oneida, the English tongue, therefore might trading colony in the American Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, and not advert to the tone and meaning Northwest, he paints Rose as treach- Tuscarora nations). He was present at of the word in English; but what- erous and dishonest. most Native American conferences in ever his motives were for so doing, Simon Girty (1741-1818) was the Detroit Region during and after certain it is, he called it the death, reputed to be the most hated man on the Revolutionary War. He translated or the loss of Sieur de Jumonville. the frontier. A renegade interpreter the famous lament that Mingo Chief So we received and so we under- who rejected European American cul- (Native American name: stood it, until to our great surprise ture to side with the Native Tahgahjute), a leader of the Native and mortification we found it other- Americans, he was considered a lit- Americans on the Ohio and Scioto wise in a literal translation.17 eral embodiment of traduttore tradi- Rivers, prepared in response to the tore. A contemporary who met him murder of his entire family by It has been suggested that since the described him as follows: Virginians. The speech was also Dutch language, in contrast to French written as a letter to Lord Dunmore, and English, did not make the crucial … his dark shaggy hair, his low the last royal governor of Virginia. distinction between assassination and forehead; his brows contracted and Logan declaimed this lament to an death (at least in 1754), Van Braam meeting above his short flat nose; audience under an elm that stood until may have routed his translation his gray sunken eyes, averting the 1964. The following is reported to be through the Dutch in his head on its ingenuous gaze; his lips thin and Girty’s translation into English: way to the English version. compressed, and the dark and sin- Unfortunately, all of the blame he ister expression of his countenance, I appeal to any white man to say, if received for the rendering of one to me seemed the very picture of a he ever entered Logan’s cabin word overshadowed the credit given villain. He wore the Indian cos- hungry, and he gave him not meat; him previously for his good work. tume, but without any ornament; if he ever came in cold and naked, and his silk handkerchief, while it and he cloathed him not. During Villainous Characters supplied the place of a hat, hid an the course of the last long and At least two famous frontier inter- unsightly wound in his forehead. bloody war Logan remained idle in preters have come down to us as On each side, in his belt, was stuck his cabin, an advocate for peace. scoundrels and traitors. Edward Rose a silver-mounted pistol, and at his Such was my love for the whites, (1780-1833) had been a river pirate left hung a short knife.18 that my countrymen pointed as before moving inland to work as a they passed and said, “Logan is the trader and interpreter. He had a repu- Girty, who was born in friend of white men.” I had even tation as a violent, fearless brawler Pennsylvania, had been captured and thought to have lived with you, but and a strident companion. Still, in the adopted by the Senecas. As an adult, for the injuries of one man … early 1800s, his interpretation of the he served as an interpreter for the Colonel Cresap, the last spring, in Crow and Arikara languages was Continental Congress. He spoke cold blood, and unprovoked, mur- helpful to major American Seneca well, along with Delaware and dered all the relations of Logan,

20 The ATA Chronicle n February 2012 not even sparing my women and children. There runs not a drop of my blood in the veins of any living Often the trail from source to target language was creature. This called on me for revenge. I have sought it; I have filled with twists and obstacles. killed many; I have fully glutted my vengeance; for my country I rejoice at the beams of peace. But do not harbor a thought that mine prints are visible on important events, 12. Ambrose, Stephen E. Undaunted is the joy of fear. Logan never felt and some messages they made acces- Courage (New York: Simon and fear. He will not turn on his heel to sible will long be remembered. Schuster, 1996), 119. save his life. Who is there to mourn for Logan? Not one.19 Notes 13. Ibid., 187. 1. Kawashima, Yasuhide. “Forest Girty is credited with having trans- Diplo mats: The Role of Inter - 14. Ibid., 114. lated the most striking speech deliv- preters in Indian-White Relations ered on the frontier. It should be noted on the Early American Frontier 15. www.nps.gov/mnrr/planyourvisit/ that the authenticity of the speech and (American Indian Quarterly, upload/L&CSpeech.pdf. the identity of the orator are disputed volume 13, Winter 1989), 1. by some. Thomas Jefferson memo- 16. Irving, Washington. Astoria, Salma - rized the lament and reproduced it in 2. Hanna, Charles A. The Wilderness gundi, Captain Bonneville (Chicago: his Notes on the State of Virginia in Trail, or the Ventures and Adven- Donahue, Henneberry, not dated), 1781. About it he wrote, “I may chal- tures of the Pennsylvania Traders 58. lenge the whole orations of on the Allegheny Path (New York: Demosthenes and Cicero, and of any Knickerbocker Press, 1911), 80. 17. Marshall, John. Life of George more eminent orator, if Europe has Washington, Volume II (online furnished more eminent, to produce a 3. Ibid., 100. EBook #18592 at www.gutenberg. single passage superior to it.”20 org/files/18592/18592-h/18592-h Incidentally, Jefferson, the motive 4. Ibid., 103. .htm), Note number 2. force behind the Journey of Discovery, had more than a passing 5. Ibid., 141. 18. Spencer, O.M. The Indian Cap - interest in indigenous languages. He tivity of O.M. Spencer (New York: hoped Lewis and Clark would bring 6. Ibid., 101. Citadel, 1968), 92. back linguistic evidence supporting the conjecture that North American 7. Arnow, Harriette Simpson. Seed - 19. Jefferson, Thomas. Notes on the Indians were descended from the lost time on the Cumberland (New State of Virginia (New York: Library tribes of Israel. York: MacMillan, 1960), 85. of America, 1984), 188-189.

Not Forgotten 8. Hanna, 170. 20. Ibid., 188. The pioneer interpreters and trans- lators who facilitated trade, negotia- 9. Larpenteur, Charles. Forty Years a tions, war, and peace on the American Fur Trader, Volume I (New York: frontier are largely invisible today— Harper, 1898), 5. just as their modern counterparts ATA’s Honors and Awards sometimes vanish behind the suc- 10. www.bluerockheritage.com/Martin Information cessful products of their work. Still, %20Chartier.htm. even if their utility is not conspicu- www.atanet.org/membership/ ously acknowledged, their finger- 11. Hanna, 64. honorsandawards.php

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