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Febata2012 Oct 2011 Translation and Interpreting on the American Frontier: Incidents and Issues By Eric A. Bye In the early centuries of this May of 1712, interpreted the terms of country, interpreters and translators an Indian treaty for several prominent played a crucial role wherever the Delaware chiefs, including Chief expanding colonial settlements Scollitchy6; and Eleazer Wiggan, who brought European Americans into con- resided among the Cherokee in eastern tact with Native American culture. Tennessee and acted as an interpreter American Indian nations belonging to for them in 1716.7 In May of 1728, different linguistic groups also Peter Bezaillion, a French Canadian employed interpreters in their dealings fur trader, served as an interpreter with with one another. Translating and Nicholas and John Scull at an Indian interpreting on the frontier sometimes conference in Philadelphia.8 I also posed challenges scarcely imaginable found a Mr. Blondo (or Blondeau), in today’s work environment. Those who was an interpreter for the Sac and providing language services had no Fox Indians in the 1830s.9 Further formal training, only hard-won skills details about these interpreters and that were often gained through cap- their work may be hard to come by. tivity, imprisonment, or adoption and Other references preserve slightly acculturation. There were drastic dif- more information. Martin Chartier ferences between the languages spoken (?-1718) came to Pennsylvania and by Native Americans and those of the Maryland in 1691, and worked as a European American colonists (who, at trader and interpreter. For a time, he that time, were principally English, was a coureur de bois (a woodsman Dutch, and German). The “highly sym- and explorer) with the French explorer bolic and poetic character of the Indian Robert de La Salle, and lived among languages”1 also complicated inter- the Shawnee, for whom he interpreted preting and translating. Not surpris- at Indian conferences in Conestoga, ingly, much of the work of these early Pennsylvania, in the early 1700s. linguists has been lost and their identi- Chartier lived in present-day Illinois ties obscured by time. Still, some fas- from 1684-1690, and was the agent for cinating remnants survive. the treaties William Penn (founder of Pennsylvania) drew up with the Fleeting Glimpses Indians of the Susquehanna.10 At one Despite the fact that the work of point he was accused of being a French early interpreters and translators often spy and imprisoned. Chartier’s son vanished once a parley concluded, Peter also worked as an interpreter. even cursory research turns up refer- In 1659, Jacob Young was an inter- ences to these linguistic pioneers. For preter in New Amsterdam, New York instance, there was Paxinosa, an 18th- (now Albany) and in Maryland. century Shawnee chief and interpreter Maryland Lieutenant Governor for the Delawares2; Sam, son of Colonel Henry Coursey wrote to Essapenawick3; Wowler, a Mohawk Maryland Governor Thomas Notley interpreter in Maryland4; Arnout in 1677, saying: “I … find a necessity Cornelisen Viele, an early resident of to carry Jacob Young along with me, Albany, New York, who interpreted for without whom I can do nothing, and the Shawnee5; Edward Farmar, who, in what truth is to be had is from · 17 Translation and Interpreting on the American Frontier: Incidents and Issues Continued him and none else.”11 Young was also esteemed as a leader and peacemaker. He spoke Susquehannock and Dela- ware fluently, and was the only one Translating and interpreting on the frontier qualified to act as an interpreter for Maryland authorities. Despite his sometimes posed challenges scarcely imaginable indispensable skills, he was accused of inciting Susquehannocks to kill in today’s work environment. Christians, charged with treason, and imprisoned. The Susquehannocks won Young’s release by threatening to attack colonial settlements. would later meet. She conversed day in council. We salute you as Tragically, the Susquehannocks were with the tribe and interpreted to the children of your Great Father decimated by intertribal wars, dis- Charbonneau in Hidatsa. Charbonneau the great Chief of the Seventeen eases, and raids by colonial militia. then relayed the message in French to Great Nations of America. We see The tribe and language became Drouillard or to René Jessaume, another around us a number of the Old and extinct around 1763. French-speaking expedition member. experienced, the wise men and Jessaume finally delivered the message women of the Soues [sic] nation.15 Interpreting on the to Lewis and Clark in English. This Journey of Discovery process was reversed when the expedi- The precise content of this speech Often the trail from source to target tion leaders had something to commu- was unknown until 2003, when a language was filled with twists and nicate. It was made even more complete text in William Clark’s obstacles. Consider, for example, the cumbersome by the continual arguing handwriting was discovered in a pri- language issues on Meriwether Lewis of Charbonneau and Jessaume over the vate collection. and William Clark’s famed Journey of meaning of the French words they Discovery (1804-1806), the first used.13 Francis Labiche, another crew A Historic Misinterpretation transcontinental expedition to the member who knew French and English, Not surprisingly, convoluted inter- Pacific Coast to prepare the way for was also recruited for the French-to- pretations of the type described above the extension of the American fur English and English-to-French link in sometimes led to misunderstandings. trade and to advance geographic this interpreting chain. After the In 1832, a number of trappers and fur knowledge. George Drouillard, an explorers’ return to the East, traders gathered at a site known as interpreter and hunter for the expedi- Meriwether Lewis recommended extra Pierre’s Hole in present-day Idaho for tion, was doubly valuable because he pay for Drouillard and Labiche for their a summer rendezvous—an opportunity was fluent in French, English, and service.14 to sell the beaver pelts they had har- more than one Indian language. He Pierre Dorion (1740-1810) was vested and to stock up on supplies for was also a master of sign language.12 another interpreter with the Journey the next trapping season. They became Another crew member, Pierre of Discovery. He had lived with the engaged in a pitched gun battle with Cruzatte, knew French, English, and a Yankton Sioux in what is now South Gros Ventre warriors who had taken little Sioux. Dakota, and translated into their lan- refuge in dense cover. During a pause Most significantly, during their first guage Lewis’s “Children Speech.” in the battle, one of the chiefs was winter at Fort Mandan in North Dakota, Lewis used this address multiple heard to declaim in his language: Lewis and Clark met Toussaint times to impress the Indian tribes with Charbonneau, a French Canadian who the might and benevolence of the So long … as we had powder and offered to join the expedition. He was expanding colonies. It consists of ball we fought you in the open welcomed aboard principally because some 25 paragraphs, most of which field: when those were spent, we one of his wives—the acclaimed began in the same way as this excerpt: retreated here to die with our 15-year-old Sacagawea—was a native women and children. You may speaker of Hidatsa, the language of a Children — It gives us much burn us in our fort; but stay by our mountain tribe that the expedition pleasure to have met you here this ashes, and you who are so hungry 18 The ATA Chronicle n February 2012 Fort Necessity, in Farmington, Pennsylvania, marks the site of the first major event in the military career of George Washington. It was the only time he surrendered to an enemy. (Photo courtesy of Thomas Markwardt, National Park Service) for fighting will soon have enough. French soldiers and ambushed them fainted from his wounds, so Van Braam There are four hundred lodges of in the early morning without provo- had to handle all of the interpreting, as our brethren at hand. They will cation, killing a dozen, wounding well as the task of translating the arti- soon be here—their arms are two, and capturing 21. One of the cles of surrender for Washington. The strong—their hearts are big—they slain was Joseph Coulon, Sieur de weather was very wet and the penman- will avenge us!16 Jumonville, a diplomat. ship under field conditions was poor, so Shortly after, Washington erected Van Braam may have relied on memory This speech was relayed between Fort Necessity in southwestern as he subsequently translated the arti- languages by a tag team of Nez Percé Pennsylvania to defend his soldiers cles of surrender for Washington. In the tribe and Creole interpreters among from the expected French reprisal and process, he translated the source’s refer- the trappers. By the time it reached to claim the region for the British. The ence to the earlier assassination of de intelligible English, it was taken to French quickly assembled a superior Jumonville simply as his death, thereby mean that the trappers’ camp at the retaliatory force and attacked overlooking or concealing the connota- other end of the valley was already Washington at Fort Necessity. The tion that painted Washington as a under attack. Some trappers hastened British under Washington fought wanton murderer. Ignorant of the sur- to investigate and found that all was valiantly, but their situation was unen- render document’s sinister implications, safe. By the time they returned to the viable: their earthworks filled with Washington signed it, secured a cease- battle scene the next day, the forted- rainwater, and during the nine-hour fire, and withdrew from the field with up Indians had made their escape battle they were sitting ducks for the his troops and most of their possessions.
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