AECOM Final Report Environment 4-1

4.0 ECOLOGY AND BIODIVERSITY

4.1 Introduction

This chapter describes the ecological features on the route and in the immediate vicinity of the Bosphorus Third Bridge and Northern Marmara Motorway and identifies the potential effects that the scheme will have on ecological receptors in the area. Proposals for mitigation are described and the residual impacts of the Project are discussed.

4.2 Ecological Impact Assessment

This chapter provides an assessment of the potential effects on sensitive ecological receptors of the Project. It identifies and assesses the potential construction and operational impacts of the development and formulates an appropriate mitigation strategy. In summary, the scope of this assessment is to:

• Provide baseline ecological data on the proposed road alignment corridor; • Examine and analyse these data with regard to the proposed development; • Identify the significance of any potential direct/indirect impact on the ecology of the proposed development site and its immediate environs; and • Identify appropriate and effective means of mitigating the potential adverse impacts arising from the construction and operation of the proposed Bosporus Third Bridge and Northern Marmara Motorway and associated infrastructure.

Impacts have been evaluated and assessed through using information derived from desk based studies and from site specific field surveys. Loss and/or fragmentation of habitats, focusing on potential impacts on important habitats and species has been considered within this assessment.

4.3 Methods

4.3.1 Scope of Assessment

This section summarizes the methods adopted for ecological desk study, habitat and protected species surveys. The general approach taken is a modified version of the guidelines published by the Institute of Ecology and Environmental Management (IEEM), July 2006. In addition, reference has also been made to the Turkish Environmental Legislation, Equator Principles (EP) and the International Finance Corporation (IFC) Environmental Performance Standards.

4.3.2 Ecological Surveys

Phase 1 Habitat Survey

In order to determine the habitat characteristic of the total route of Third Bosphorus Bridge and Connected Motorways project two field surveys were conducted in 12-21 March 2013 and 14-20 April 2013 by an AECOM team composed of a wildlife ecologist, environmental scientist and botanist from AECOM.

The Phase 1 Habitat Survey method was used to undertake the field surveys. This covered a survey corridor of 500m centered on the proposed route and was carried out following the method set out in the Handbook for Phase 1 Habitat Survey by the Joint Nature Conservation Committee (JNCC 2010). Target notes were made

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-2

to pinpoint features of interest, or locally occurring communities including particularly good habitats or where additional information was deemed necessary.

In order to navigate the route, particular points were assigned along the daily route and these points were located using Google Earth and a hand held GPS. The survey buffer zone was determined as 250 metres on either side of each of these points. These points and the habitat types in these buffer zones were defined, noted and marked on the 1:25000 scale maps.

The surveys started from the European side of the Bosphorus at the eastern most point in the vicinity of the bridge foundations at the edge of the strait. Construction activities were observed to have already started at these points and therefore it was not possible to determine what the habitat types had been at those points before works commenced, and therefore what habitats and plants had already been lost. The survey was then were conducted from east to west along the route on the European side. The survey was subsequently continued and completed on the Anatolian section.

Aquatic and Marine Habitats

The Project crosses or comes close to a number of watercourses, ponds and wetland, and where these were present within the 500m corridor, these were surveyed, habitats identified and any significant species noted. We were advised by ICA that no permanent works were proposed within the Bosphorus itself and that all structures would be positioned on the banks. However, it was noted that some temporary filling close to the shore had been undertaken, which will be removed once construction is complete. Therefore, no field surveys were planned or carried out in the aquatic environment although potential impacts on the marine environment are discussed in the ESIA. .

Other Species Surveys

Due to significant time constraints, no other dedicated species surveys were conducted during the Phase 1 survey. However, incidental species sightings, including signs of species, such as footprints, droppings, burrows and other signs were noted where relevant.

4.3.3 Consultations

Contact was made with the Forestry Department and useful information on the forests and woodland of Istanbul, and how they are currently managed was obtained.

4.3.4 Conditions of Survey and Survey Limitations

There were certain limitations that applied to the surveys and to this assessment. The main issues were:

• The first Phase 1 Habitat survey was undertaken quite early in the season, although the second survey was late enough to identify most common herbaceous species and early flowering species; • Access to some areas was restricted periodically due to, dense vegetation and/or heavy rain and the resulting mud affected safe access on some of the forest roads; • Some parts of the route pass through military zones and in one case we were not permitted to enter and survey within a site. However, it was possible to view this site from its perimeter in order to identify the habitats present; • Hand held GPS was used to aid in locating areas of interest. The accuracy of GPS varies depending on the terrain in which it is used. Under trees or in highly urbanized areas the accuracy of the GPS can be adversely affected. This effect was minimized through the use of paper field maps to complement GPS.

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-3

4.3.5 Impact Assessment Methods

The stages in the impact assessment are outlined below. In summary, the process involved:

• Identification and evaluation of ecological receptors; • Consideration of the types of potential impacts on these receptors; • Description of the changes that these activities would have on receptors; and • Identification of the significance of the impact talking into account the effectiveness of mitigation measures.

Evaluation of Ecological Receptors

The assessment methodology is based on both experience gained by the consultants and guidance produced by such bodies as the Institute of Environmental Management and Assessment (IEMA) and the (recently) Chartered Institute of Ecology and Environmental Management (CIEEM).

For a full assessment it is necessary to have some concept of the value of the habitats present within the Project area as well as its value in context of the ecological receptors that it supports. The value or potential value of an ecological resource or feature is determined within a defined geographical context as follows (refer to CIEEM Guidelines for Ecological Impact Assessment, 2006):

• International; • Turkey; • Istanbul; • Local; and • Within zone of influence only.

Designated sites and features are taken into account where relevant. There are several designations which are relevant to Bosphorus Third Bridge and Northern Marmara Motorway; these are discussed below.

The biodiversity value of ecological resources and features is assessed on a range of criteria which take into account potential value, secondary or supporting value, social value and economic value. The CIEEM Guidelines advocate an approach to evaluation and impact assessment with less emphasis on conforming to tables such as 4-1 below and recommends an approach to valuation that involves teasing apart the different values that can be attached to the ecological receptors under consideration. The assessment has done this, therefore, whilst these tables offer a framework to rationalize evaluations in the first instance, professional judgment may vary from the criteria.

Table 4-1 Resource Evaluation Criteria

Value of Selection Criteria Resource

Very high Habitats or species that are cited as interest features associated with an internationally (International) protected site, such as those designated under the Bern Convention, Ramsar Convention, etc. An internationally designated site or candidate site (Ramsar sites, SPA, pSPA, SAC, cSAC or SCI) or an area that it has determined meets the published criteria for such designations, irrespective of whether or not it has yet been notified (e.g. IBA and IPA).

A viable area of a habitat listed in Annex I of the Habitats Directive or smaller areas of

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-4

Value of Selection Criteria Resource

such habitat which are essential to maintain the viability of a larger whole.

Turkish Red data book species or listed as occurring in 15 or fewer 10 km squares in Turkey, or of uncertain conservation status or global conservation concern in the Turkey.

A feature (e.g. habitat or population) which is either unique or sufficiently unusual to be considered as being one of the highest quality examples in an international/national context, such that the site is likely to be designated at an international level.

A regularly occurring, nationally significant population/number of any internationally important species.

A nationally designated site or a discrete area that meets the selection criteria for national designation irrespective of whether or not it has yet been notified. Habitats or species that are cited as interest features associated with a nationally designated site, such as a National Parks and Nature Parks. High (Turkey) A viable area of an identified priority habitat identified or smaller areas of such habitat, which are essential to maintain the viability of the whole.

Any regularly occurring population of a nationally important species that is threatened or rare in the area. A regularly occurring, regionally significant population/number of any nationally important species. Sites that exceed the regional area level designations but fall short of national selection guidelines, where these occur.

Viable areas of key habitat or smaller areas of such habitat, which are essential to maintain the viability of the whole.

Medium – Viable areas of key habitat identified as being of Regional Value in the appropriate Natural High Area profile. (Istanbul)

Any regularly occurring, locally significant population of a species listed as being nationally scarce which occurs in 16-100 10km squares in Turkey or relevant Natural Area on account of its regional rarity or localization.

A regularly occurring, locally significant number of a regionally important species.

Locally important sites and other sites that the designating authority has determined meet the published ecological selection criteria for designation, including local nature reserves or protected areas. Sites/ features which are scarce within the locality or which appreciably enrich the local habitat resource. Semi-natural ancient woodland greater than Medium 0.25 ha. (Local)

A regularly occurring, locally significant number of a locally important species or any regularly occurring, locally significant population of a species that is listed in a local ‘red data book’ on account of its regional rarity or localisation. Areas of habitat considered to appreciably enrich the habitat resource within the context of Low the neighbourhood. (Within zone of influence only) Habitats or species that are cited as interest features associated with a local-level designated site and may be designated as a non-statutory.

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-5

Value of Selection Criteria Resource

A feature (e.g. habitat or population) that is of nature conservation value in a local context only, with insufficient value to merit a formal nature conservation designation. No significant ecological value. Negligible Common place feature of little or no significance. Loss of such a feature would not be seen as detrimental to the ecology of the area.

Impact Significance

Determining the significance of an identified impact is not always straightforward. The significance of the impacts of this scheme has been determined by considering the value of the resource affected and the following potential impact parameters:

• Positive or negative – positive impacts as a result of the development are also identified; • Magnitude – determined quantitatively where possible; • Extent – the area over which the impact will be felt; • Duration – time until recovery or replacement; • Reversibility – permanent or temporary impact; and • Timing and frequency.

The most recent guidelines produced by the CIEEM advocate a less rigid approach to the assessment of impacts than was previously the case, with more emphasis on expert opinion and the merits of each ecological receptor in its own context. This is because the rigid use of matrices widely used until now can actually devalue the significance of local biodiversity, which has been recognized to lead to a gradual erosion of the local biodiversity resource which consequently affects national biodiversity.

The approach used in this assessment is therefore to describe the impacts and state if the impacts are significant or not significant on each particular receptor. Where residual impacts are predicted to be absent, the distinction is made by determining a neutral impact.

4.3.6 Regulatory Framework

Prior to undertaking ecological field surveys it is essential to understand the regulatory framework within which the assessment should take place and also to find out what protected or important habitats and species may be present in a particular area and therefore what should be looked for during a survey. Therefore, baseline information on legislation, protected habitats and important species recorded as being present in the Istanbul area has been collated.

The following sections set out the legal and policy designations and protection afforded to ecological sites and protected species in the national and local context.

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-6

International Conventions Adopted by Turkey

Turkey has signed many international conventions and agreements to protect its environment and biodiversity. International conventions related to the Project are given below:

• Convention on Biological Diversity, approved by 4177 numbered Law dated August 29, 1996 and published in the Official gazette No. 22860 and dated December 27, 1996, Ratified 1997; • Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES), published in the Official Gazette No.22672 and dated June 20, 1996, Ratified 1996; • Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife And Natural Habitats (Bern), published in the Official Gazette No. 18318 and dated February 20, 1984, Ratified 1984; • Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar), published in the Official Gazette No. 21937 and dated May 17, 1994, Ratified 1994; • International Convention For the Protection of Birds, published in the Official Gazette No. 12480 and dated December 17, 1966, Ratified 1967; and • Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, published in the Official Gazette No. 17959 and dated February 14, 1983.

Habitats

Legislation relating to the identification and management of the protected areas in Turkey is mainly the responsibility of the Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs (MoFWA) and Ministry of Environment and Urbanization (MoEU). The main laws and regulations related to identification and management of protected areas in Turkey are discussed below.

National Parks Law No. 2873

The National Parks Law No. 2873 (MoFWA, General Directorate of Nature Conservation and National Parks) was issued in the Official Gazette No. 18132, dated August 11, 1983. This is one of the major laws which provide protection to particular protected areas such as National Parks, Nature Parks, Nature Monuments and Nature Reserves. Descriptions of these different designations are given below:

• National Park (Milli Park): A National Park is a reserve of natural or semi-natural land, declared or owned by the government, set aside for human recreation and enjoyment, animal and environmental protection and restricted from most development. National Park defines the nature components for the national and international natural and cultural resource values and protection, recreation and tourism areas, from a scientific and aesthetic perspective. National Parks are extensive tracts of country that are protected by law for future generations because of their natural beauty and for the opportunities they offer for open air recreation. • Nature Park (Tabiat Parkı): A Nature Park is defined as a natural area containing characteristic vegetation and wildlife features, integrity of the landscape and is suitable for recreational activities. These sites receive protection because of their recognized natural, ecological and/or cultural values. There are several kinds of protected areas, which vary by level of protection. • Nature Monument (Tabiat Anıtı): Natural sites and assets with extraordinary characteristics and scientific value resulting from natural events. These assets may also possess unique or rare geological and geomorphological formations as a result of natural events and flora species of national importance. • Nature Reserve (Tabiatı Koruma Alanı): Nature Reserves are described as "natural areas that contain rare, threatened or vulnerable ecosystems and species of significance for scientific and educational purposes. Nature Reserves refer to areas which contain rare, endangered or vulnerable ecosystems,

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-7

species and outstanding examples produced by natural events. Nature reserves designated as particularly important for nature conservation including special protection areas and sites of special scientific interest.

Terrestrial Hunting Law No. 4915

The Terrestrial Hunting Law No. 4915 (MoFWA, General Directorate of Nature Conservation and National Parks) was issued in the Official Gazette No. 25165, dated July 11, 2003. The areas protected under Terrestrial Hunting Law are Wildlife Improvement Areas.

Wildlife Improvement Area (Yaban Hayatı Geliştirme Sahası): These areas are reserved in order to protect the wildlife whose populations are decreasing in their natural habitats and to avoid adversely influencing the area’s ecosystem. In some sites there are breeding areas for the endangered species. These protected areas have defined boundaries and receive protection under the law.

In addition, through annual Central Hunting Commission (CHC) Decisions which provide protection for some species and areas, sites can be permanently or temporarily closed to hunting. CHC declares “Areas prohibited for Hunting” annually.

Forestry Law No. 6831 (as amended)

The Forestry Law No. 6831 (MoFWA, General Directorate of Forestry) was issued in the Official Gazette No. 9402, dated September 8, 1956 and subsequently amended by the Revision in Forestry Law No. 5192 in the year 2004. The Forestry Law defines and regulates the use of forests. Through Forestry Law and its related regulations, forests are managed and protected under the following categories:

• Conservation Forests • National Parks (already described under National Parks Law) • Seed Gardens • Seed Stands • Biogenetic Reserve Areas (Gene Courts) such as Gene Conservation Areas, Clone Parks and Trial Areas • Recreation Areas (Urban Forests, Picnic Areas)

Conservation Forests (Muhafaza Ormanı)

Conservation forests are intended to prevent natural disasters such as landslides, erosion; to protect human health from dust emissions, and to regulate surface water regime such as dam reservoirs, lakes and streams.

Seed Gardens (Tohum Bahçesi)

Seed gardens are areas where a seed supply system is used to enhance seed source security and conservation of agri-biodiversity. These areas contain selected clones or families and are isolated from undesired sources of pollen. These plantations enable frequent and extensive seed production. The seed gardens can also generate high quality seeds through grafting with host trees.

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-8

Seed Stands (Tohum Meşceresi)

Seed stands are intended to produce seeds for forest trees and shrubs. The selection and establishment of seed stands represents a quick and inexpensive method of obtaining seeds of improved genetic quality.

Biogenetic Reserve Areas (Gene Courts) (Gen Sahaları)

Biogenetic reserves are protected areas enjoying legal status which are characterized by one or more typical, unique, endangered or rare habitats, biocenosis (a balanced community of plants and animals inhabiting a given environment and their interaction) or ecosystems.

• Gene Protection and Management Zones (GMZ) are defined as being "the natural and semi-natural areas protected with the purpose of maintaining genetic diversity in target species". GMZ's are in-situ gene conservation areas where the evolutionary processes take place in populations of endangered or economically important plant species as well as species with high potential for genetic diversity and differentiation. • Gene Conservation Areas (Gen Koruma Alanı): For forest plants, the applicable technique for in-situ conservation is genetic reserve conservation that includes the location, management and monitoring of genetic diversity in natural populations within defined areas designated for active long-term conservation. The majority of forest genetic resources can be protected in managed natural forests, specifically designated genetic conservation areas. • Clone Parks (Klon Parkı): A method of seed breeding/harvesting programs. They consist of pure plant strains. • Trial Areas (Deneme Alanı): Trials Areas comprise gene conservation plantations (nurseries). They are used in assessing the performance of different tree species, determining the appropriate treatments to enhance tree growth, especially in degraded areas.

Recreation Areas (Mesire Yerleri)

These are picnic areas within forests and urban forests with recreational and aesthetic values, intended to utilize social, cultural and aesthetic functions of the forests. There are two kinds of recreation areas in accordance with the Turkish legislation that are managed by the General Directorate of Forestry: Picnic areas (Type C) and Urban Forests (Type D).

• Picnic Areas (Orman İçi Dinlenme Yeri, Piknik Alanı): Areas in the countryside where people can have picnics and go for day trips due to the scenery and natural resources. • Urban Forests (Kent Ormanları): Forests in the vicinity of the settlements which can be used for social functions such as health, sports and cultural activities as well as to introduce the public to technical forestry issues and local flora and fauna elements.

Regulation on the Protection of Wetlands

The Regulation on Protection of Wetlands (MoFWA, General Directorate of Nature Conservation and National Parks) was issued in the Official Gazette No. 25818, dated May 17, 2005. The legal basis of the regulation is the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention, see below).

Wetlands are defined as areas of marsh, fen, peat lands or open water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-9

water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six metres. Wetlands constitute a resource of great economic, cultural, scientific, and recreational value, the loss of which would be irreparable.

The regulation also sets buffer zones restricting the projects to be developed around these wetlands. According to this regulation, all surface waters (lakes, streams, rivers and creeks) are defined as wetlands and the 2,500 m area from a wetland is defined as a buffer zone. If a facility/activity is planned to be carried out within this buffer zone, the project owner is required to secure a wetland permit for the operation of the facilities.

Ramsar Sites

Ramsar sites are wetlands of international importance designated under The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (the Ramsar Convention). This convention is an intergovernmental treaty that provides the framework for national action and international cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources.

Desiring to stem the progressive encroachment on and loss of wetlands now and in the future, the first Ramsar convention was held in 1971. The mission of the convention was “the conservation and wise use of all wetlands through local and national actions and international cooperation, as a contribution towards achieving sustainable development throughout the world”.

The Convention uses a broad definition of the types of wetlands covered in its mission, including lakes and rivers, swamps and marshes, wet grasslands and peat lands, oases, estuaries, deltas and tidal flats, near- shore marine areas, mangroves and coral reefs, and human-made sites such as fish ponds, rice paddies, reservoirs, and salt pans.

Turkey became a contracting party of the convention in 1994 and currently 13 wetlands are listed in the conservation list of Ramsar. However, none are located within or close to the Project route.

Sensitive Areas

In addition to the protected areas given in the previous section, there are other areas not designated by national legislation but considered to be sensitive and ecologically important. These areas have generally been identified and described by Turkish conservation organizations in coordination with the international environmental organizations.

Key Biodiversity Areas

Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs) are places of international importance for the conservation of biodiversity at the global level. The concept of KBAs has been developed by conservation organizations including BirdLife International, Conservation International, and PlantLife International. The scientific studies used to determine the KBAs in Turkey were carried out by Nature Society (Doğa Derneği) with the support of the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) and Birdlife International.

In 2006, the Nature Society published the book “Key Biodiversity Areas of Turkey” which is also available in the Official Website of the Nature Society. This book identifies 305 KBAs which cover 20,280,149 hectares, equivalent to Turkey’s 26% surface area. However, of these only 19% of KBAs are under protection.

These KBAs are the outcome of scientific studies carried out within the scope of the Natura 2000 network for Turkey’s EU accession process. The Natura 2000 is an ecological network of protected areas in the territory of the European Union (EU). There are two EU Directives that form the basis of the Natura 2000 network. These are the Birds Directive (Council Directive 79/409/EEC on the conservation of wild birds) and the

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-10

Habitats Directive (Council Directive 92/43/EEC on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora).

In order to meet the potential future requirements of these directives, Doğa Derneği and the MoEU are carrying out studies in cooperation. The revision of the book “Important Bird Areas in Turkey” and the publication of the book “Key Biodiversity Areas of Turkey” by Doğa Derneği can be considered within this context.

Important Plant Areas

Important Plant Areas (IPA) are defined as "areas very rich in plant diversity, rare and / or endemic species, rich communities and habitats (natural habitats)". The concept of the IPA was developed under the leadership of three-organizations co-operating in order to protect the natural flora in Turkey: DHKD (Nature Conservation Society), FFI (Fauna & Flora International) and ISTE (Istanbul University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Botany) in the early 1990s. In the same period, it gained an international dimension with PlantLife International's coordination in the UK and the criteria were established.

IPAs provide a very important infrastructure that will contribute to the implementation of international conventions, strategies and programs to which Turkey is a party. IPAs include botanical and scientific data about protecting nature which will be used for compliance and implementation of international environmental protection conventions, networks of protected areas, biodiversity conservation strategies and policies.

IPAs within Turkey were first promoted at the first Planta Europe conference held in 1995. Turkey is the first country to have completed the IPA survey in accordance with the IPA criteria and has identified 122 candidate IPA, where an IPA is defined as “a natural or semi-natural site exhibiting exceptional botanical richness and/or supporting an outstanding assemblage of rare, threatened and/or endemic species and/or vegetation of high botanic value.” (Byfield et al., 2010).

Important Bird Areas

The European Important Bird Area (IBA) Programme is implemented through national IBA Programmes in 29 countries with the support and co-ordination of the European Division of the Bird Life Secretariat. The IBAs in Turkey were identified by the Society for the Protection of Nature (Doğal Hayatı Koruma Derneği) and BirdLife International and are described in a book called “Important Bird Areas in Turkey” in 1997. This book was revised in 2004 by the Doğa Derneği and Birdlife International with additional support from the RSPB.

IBAs are therefore key sites for ornithological conservation that meet one or more of the following criteria:

• They hold significant numbers of one or more globally threatened species. • They are one of a set of sites that support a suite of restricted-range species or biome-restricted species. • They have exceptionally high numbers of migratory or congregator species.

A site is recognized as an IBA only if it meets these criteria, based on the occurrence of key bird species that are vulnerable to global extinction or whose populations are otherwise irreplaceable. An IBA must be amenable to conservation action and management.

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-11

Protected Species

In addition to statutory and non-statutory sites of importance to biodiversity, a number of species have now become so rare that they are afforded protection, or at least recognition, through international conventions and national law. Other species are considered to contribute to our ‘quality of life’.

Although these species do not benefit from legal protection, and may not be directly associated with identified or protected sites, they can be key considerations in the planning process. Proposed development must be able to show that all reasonable measures have been taken to ensure that protected species are not subject to disturbance. A list of the international conventions which apply in Turkey is given in Appendix 4.

Invasive Species

When non-native species become invasive they can transform ecosystems, causing a variety of problems including seriously threatening native and endangered species. These problems are acknowledged in several international treaties, European Union Directives and also in domestic legislation. However, on the basis of the surveys undertaken no invasive species other than feral dogs was observed to threaten native species and therefore this issue is not discussed further in this assessment.

Forestry Management Plans

The Habitat Action Plans and Species Action Plans can be used to aid the impact assessment. In the first instance, they assist in evaluating ecological receptors that are not protected. Secondly, they can assist in assessing potential impacts, both negative and positive against national targets.

The project route passes from Alemdağ, Kanlıca, Beykoz, Sultanbeyli, Kurtboğazı, Ömerli, Sarıyer, Kemerburgaz, Fenertepe and Riva sectors of Istanbul Forestry Department. The latest management plans General Directory of Forestry which were prepared by the Ecosystem Based Multifunctional Forest Management Plan approach are used in the evaluations.

4.4 Ecological Baseline

4.4.1 Introduction

The section describes the potential ecology and biodiversity receptors that may be affected by the Project. These are based on the results of the desk studies undertaken and on the result so the field surveys carried out in March and April 2013.

4.4.2 Statutory Sites

The following Statutory Protected Sites are located either on or close to the project route and may be subject to environmental impact as a result. These sites are shown in Appendix 4 (Figures C-1 and C-2).

National Parks Law No. 2873

There are no national parks, nature monuments or nature reserves within the Project alignment and its vicinity in accordance with the National Parks Law. However, there are several Nature Parks on the European and Anatolian side of Istanbul that may be affected by the Project.

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-12

The closest nature park to the Project is Şamlar Nature Park located on the European side and 880 m to the west of the route. The area was designated as a nature park on July 11, 2011 and has an area of 335 ha. It is the largest Nature Park on the European side and includes middle aged coniferous trees such as black pine (Pinus negra), stone pine (Pinus pinea) and Turkish pine (Pinus brutia) (also called Calabrian pine). It is mostly used for recreational purposes (Official Website of Istanbul Provincial Directorate of Forestry and Water Affairs, 2012).

Due its location and distance from the Project, Şamlar Nature Park is not expected to be adversely impacted by the Project either during the construction or operational phases.

Terrestrial Hunting Law No. 4915

The route will pass directly through a Wildlife Improvement Area (WIA) on the European side, namely Sarıyer Feneryolu WIA. Approximately 2.8 km of the Project route passes through this WIA. The area was designated to protect roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) in 2005 and has an area of 1,440 ha. It is forbidden to hunt game animals within this WIA (Official Website of Istanbul Provincial Directorate of Forestry and Water Affairs, 2012).

The main threat to the WIA is urban development nearby: for example, although the WIA is protected, a university campus has recently been constructed within the WIA.

In addition, there is an area forbidden for hunting in accordance with the 2012-2013 period CHC decisions in the vicinity of Polonezköy. Approximately 5.5 km of the route passes through this area. The area covers a large region and located between Reşadiye at the east, Polonezköy at the north, Çekmeköy at the west and Sarıgazi at the south.

Forestry Law No. 6831

In accordance with the Forestry Law, there are no seed stands and biogenetic reserve areas (gene courts) such as gene conservation areas, clone parks and trial areas within the Project site and its vicinity.

However, there are some conservation forests, seed garden and recreation areas such as urban forest and picnic along the route. These are briefly discussed below:

• Belgrat Conservation Forest: The route passes through the northern border of the forest which is located at the European side of İstanbul. The main tree species of the forest is oak (Quercus sp.) covering 75% of the whole forest. There are beech trees (Fagus sp.) in the northern parts, hornbeam trees (Carpinus betulus) in the inner parts and chestnut trees (Aesculus hippocastanum) (in the southern parts). • Elmalı Bendi Conservation Forest: A part of the route passes through this forest located at the Anatolian side. It should be noted that İstanbul Highway (E-80) connecting to the Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge already passes through Elmalı Bendi Conservation Forest. • Seed Garden: There is a seed garden at the Anatolian side located between Reşadiye and Alemdağ Nişantep. The seeds of Black pine are produced in this seed garden. It should be noted that the black pine is the most abundant species in Turkey and forms large communities in the western Anatolia. • Urban Forest (Recreation Area): There is an urban forest in Ümraniye nearby the existing İstanbul Highway (E-80). There tree species within the forest are walnut, elm, stone pine, acacia and oak. • Picnic Areas (Recreation Area): There are several picnic areas located within the route and its vicinity. These are briefly given below: o Picnic area at the northeast of Şamlar: The route is located 1.6 km east of the picnic area. o Picnic area at the southeast of Poyraz: The route is located 210 m north of the picnic area. o Picnic area at the north of Alibahadır: The route is located 1170 m north of the picnic area.

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-13

o Picnic area at the south of Bozhane: The route passes through the picnic area. o Picnic area at the north of Alemdağ Nişantep: The picnic area is surrounded by the routes. The closest point is 60 m to the picnic area. o Picnic area in Çekmeköy: The route passes 230 m to the south of the picnic area. o Picnic area in Taşdelen: The route passes 640 m to the north of the picnic area. o Picnic area in Ümraniye: The route passes through the picnic area.

Approximately 3,320m of the route passes through areas of a Conservation Forests, 184m through seed gardens and 94m through recreational areas.

Regulation on the Protection of Wetlands

In accordance with the Regulation of Protection of Wetlands (issued in the Official Gazette No. 25818 and dated May 17, 2005) all surface waters (lakes, streams such as rivers and creeks) are defined as wetlands. There are several water bodies within the vicinity of the route. The details of these are presented in the Hydrology section of the report; however, such water bodies may have ecological importance so they are mentioned below:

• There is a small pond at the north of Habibler at the European side. The pond is located 1.4 km to the east of the route. • There are several small artificial and natural ponds located in northern and northeastern parts of Odayeri and south of Çiftealan at the European side. Some of these were formed in former quarries which is highly common in this region. The closest one is 100 m to the north of the route. • On the Anatolian side, the most significant water body is Ömerli Dam Lake. Although the main part of the lake is nearly 6 km east of the reservoir, the branches of the lake extents to 2 km close to the route.

None of these wetlands are designated as Ramsar sites in accordance with the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance.

4.4.3 Non-Statutory Sites

The following Non-Statutory Sites are located either on or close to the project route and may be subject to environmental impact as a result. These sites are shown on Appendix 4 (Figure C-3).

Key Biodiversity Areas

The Bern Convention represents one of the most significant international legal instruments for the protection of species and habitats within Turkey. This is particularly important where habitats and species are not protected directly through Turkish Environmental legislation. Therefore particular emphasis has been placed on Bern Convention species and the habitats they depend on (which may not be designated or protected themselves) in this assessment.

A number of sites in the Istanbul area have been identified as Key Biodiversity Areas (KBA). This non- statutory designation covers habitats, plants and other areas important for certain species, particularly birds. As the KBA cover a wide range of biodiversity interest features, there are therefore other areas, which could be regarded as sub-sets of the KBA, which are identified as being Important Plant Areas (IPA), Important Bird Areas (IBA) or both. These areas are located within the wider KBA and may overlap to a greater or lesser extent.

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-14

Details of the KBA present in the Istanbul Area and the IPA and IBA within them that may be affected by the Project are discussed below.

Bosphorus Key Biodiversity Area

The majority of the route (nearly 35 km) passes through the Bosphorus Key Biodoversity Area (KBA) which lies along the length of the Bosphorus strait and extends from European side to the Asian side.

The KBA comprises a wide range of habitats including sand dunes at the coastline, rocks, maquis communities, pasture lands, forests and lakes. The area also includes an IBA due to forested areas west and east of the strait which are known to be important for migratory birds. There are good view points to observe the massive migration in spring and autumn at the hills in Sarıyer (on the European side) and the two hills at Çamlıca (on the Anatolian side). The details of this IBA are discussed below.

There are several vulnerable habitats supporting rare plant species within this KBA and some of these areas have been identified as IPA, which are discussed further below. These are (from west to east for the IPA):

• Ağaçlı Kumulları (Dunes) IPA • Kuzey Boğaziçi (Upper Bosphorus) IPA • Kilyos Kumulları (Dunes) IPA • Ömerli Havzası (Basin) IPA • Bosphorus IBA

The main threat to this KBA is the rapid expansion of İstanbul. Several thousand houses are built annually as the city expands. In addition large industrial areas are being constructed. Other loss to natural habitat is caused by mining and road building and large tracts of Istanbul forest and other habitats have disappeared during recent decades. This has resulted in migrating birds being forced to find other routes several kilometres away from the strait. The conservation of the current forests on both sides of the Bosphorus is very important in order to conserve raptor roosting sites.

Ağaçlı Kumulları (Dunes) IPA

This is a composite site comprising three surviving fragments of sand dune on the Black Sea coast between Terkos and Kilyos. It covers a total area of 484 ha and is located approximately 1.2km north of the Project alignment and is therefore unlikely to be directly impacted by the Project.

Vegetation includes localized example of rare dune vegetation types. It supports populations of 14 locally and nationally rare species and large populations of three Bern Convention Appendix I species as well as four globally threatened species.

At one time these habitats comprised a largely uninterrupted stretch of mainly Quercus (oak) coppice forest, grassland and sand dune. However, more than 60km2 has been lost to opencast lignite mining in this area in the last 25 years. Further loss of habitat is likely due to various development pressures including sand

• Bern Convention Endangered Natural Habitats, in this context principally 16.2113 Pontic embryonic dunes; 16.2124 Pontic white dunes; 16.22B11 South-western Pontic fixed dunes.

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-15

Kuzey Boğaziçi (Upper Bosphorus) IPA

This IPA lies within the Bosphorus Heritage Area (defined under the Boğaziçi (Bosphorus) Law of 1983) and comprises the remaining undeveloped shoreline, sand dunes and forests immediately north of Istanbul. It covers a total of 16,645 ha divided into three main areas, two of which are located on the European side with the other on the Anatolian side of the Bosphorus: this extends for a considerable distance inland.

The Project route passes directly through two of the three areas that comprise this IPA, one on either side of the Bosphorus.

Of these habitat types and their important flora, the shoreline and sand dune habitats are considered to be the most significant and the most vulnerable. However, the woodlands of the Belgrat Forest are also considered to be valuable due to their relatively rich flora. The area is considered to be vulnerable to various development pressures including residential developments. The main habitat types within the IPA are discussed briefly below.

Cliff slopes – dominated by a mosaic of sea maquis, coastal grassland and dry rock communities. There is unlikely to be significant areas of this habitat type within the footprint of the proposed development, apart possibly from close to the location of the Bosphorus Crossing.

Shingle vegetation – limited areas in some of small bays along the rocky coastline including small populations of a number of rare plant species. Again, there is unlikely to be significant areas of this habitat type within the footprint of the proposed development.

Sand Dune system vegetation is located at the mouth of the Çayağzi Deresi and therefore unlikely to be affected by the proposed development.

Forest vegetation is found particularly within sheltered coastal valleys and particularly within the Belgrat forest. Typical forest biotopes include:

• Carpinus betulus-Quercus Hornbeam-Oak forest, found in warmer and dryer situations. • Carpinus-Fagus – Hornbeam-Beech forest, found in cooler conditions such as north facing slopes. • Alnus glutinosa-Carpinus – Alder-Hornbeam woodlands confined to fertile wooded valley bottoms with a rich spring woodland flora.

Much of the forests are actually under a 20 year coppice regime (apart from in the Belgrat forest) and the forest now comprises one of the few extensive areas of high forest in the Istanbul region. These forests therefore represent a valuable and diminishing ecological resource. Other designations that cover the IPA include:

• Important Bird Area No. 5 Boğaziçi covering some 55,000 ha - of importance as a ‘bottleneck’ for migrating birds, principally storks and raptors (discussed further below). • Bern Convention Endangered Natural Habitats, in this context principally 41.H21 Thracian oak- hornbeam forests, referring to the woodland biotope. This is equivalent to the Natura 2000 priority habitat 91AA Eastern White Oak Woods.

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-16

Kilyos Kumulları (Dunes) IPA

This IPA lies on the Black Sea shore on the European side, near Gümüşdere, and covers 351 ha of sand dunes partly bordered by heath, grazing pasture and acid coppiced forests. It is located approximately 350m north of the Project route at its closest point.

There are at least 15 nationally rare species in this site. Two species are listed in Appendix I of the Bern Convention. These habitats have been well studied over the last century. This area receives no formal protection and has been subject to significant damage from housing developments, development of college facilities, lignite mining, afforestation and market gardening production. Other designations that include the IPA comprise:

• Bern Convention Endangered Natural Habitats, in this context principally 16.2113 Pontic embryonic dunes; 16.2124 Pontic white dunes; 16.22B11 South-western Pontic fixed dunes; 16.27 Dune juniper thickets and woods.

Ömerli Havzası (Basin) IPA

This IPA comprises an extensive mosaic of heath, phrygana (open dwarf scrub habitat) and acid coppice forest with a wide range of associated habitats such as grassland, seepage mire on peat and seasonally flooded trackways and pools. It is located at least 1km from the Project route.

There are at least 37 nationally rare species occurring in this IPA and here are six species listed in Appendix I of the Bern Convention. The heathlands are of exceptional importance as they are perhaps the only remaining extensive area of heathland vegetation in the entire region.

Part of the site and the area closest to the Project alignment is designated as a National Park (at Polonezköy) or where it lies within the water catchment of the Ömerli Reservoir. However, the IPA is under threat from afforestation and urban encroachment. Other designations that include the IPA are:

• Important Bird Area No. 5 Boğaziçi covering some 55,000 ha - of importance as a ‘bottleneck’ for migrating birds, principally storks and raptors. • Bern Convention Endangered Natural Habitats, 31.22C Pontic ling heaths; 41.H21 Thracian oak- hornbeam forests; 42.66 Banat & Pallas’ pine forest.

Bosphorus Important Bird Area

The Bosphorus IBA (No. 5 Boğaziçi) is one of the main European routes for migratory birds, regularly passing in spring and autumn. The area includes the forested areas west (Belgrade forest) and east (Polonezköy Nature Park) of the strait, which are known to be of importance to roosting migrants.

According to the counts made in the mid-1960s and early 1970s and covering the entire autumn migration period, principal bird species are as follows: Black Stork (Ciconia nigra, 8,318), White Stork, (Ciconia ciconia, 338,353), European Honey-buzzard (Pernis apivorus, 25,751), Black Kite (Milvus migrans, 2,707), Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo, 32,895) and Lesser Spotted Eagle (Aquila pomarina, 18,898). The Bosphorus also qualifies for the large numbers of Yelkouan Shearwater (Puffinus yelkouan) that fly up and down the strait in groups of up to several hundred throughout the year.

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-17

The main threat to the IBA is the rapid urban and industrial expansion of Istanbul. The conservation of forested areas on both sides of the strait is crucial in order to preserve raptor roosting sites (Official Website of Birdlife International, 2012).

West İstanbul Pasture Lands Key Biodiversity Area

The route passes through West İstanbul Pasture Lands Key KBA on the European side. The KBA has a total area of 9,612 ha between Bağcılar at the south and Pirinççi at the north, and comprises the pasture lands located at the north of Esenler. It also covers Alibeyköy Dam Lake and the hills located at the north of the dam. Approximately 11.4 km of the route passes through this KBA.

There are pasture lands used for grazing and shrubs on the karstic rocks in these areas. There are some endemic and rare flora species such as Bupleurum pendikum (Turkish name: Pendik sarıotu, Local Red Data Book category: EN) and Linum tauricum ssp. bosphori (Turkish name: Boğaziçi ketene Local Red Data Book category: CR). The KBA is under serious threat related to urbanization (Eken, G., 2006).

Batı İstanbul Meraları (West Istanbul Pasturelands) IPA

This IPA comprises the last remaining fragments of limestone grassland, rock outcrops and dry acid heath grass-land located on the low undulating hills immediately north-west of Istanbul, close to Esenler, within the KPA. Woodland is largely absent from the site, which covers an area of 14,900 ha in total although it is broken up into various areas separated by major roads and housing and industrial developments. The Project route passes directly through the centre of this IPA.

The areas support a rich and distinctive flora including five species listed on Appendix I of the Bern Convention; however, although the site is of high value and has been much studied, most of the site receives no formal protection and is under continuing and significant threat from direct loss to urban development as well as gradual fragmentation and degradation. Other designations that cover the IPA include:

• Important Bird Area No. 4 Küçükçekmece Gölü covering some 1,500 ha – identified on account of the significant numbers of waterfowl in winter. • Bern Convention Endangered Natural Habitats, in this context principally 34.3 Dense perennial grasslands and Middle European steppe.

Marine Habitats

The design of the bridge does not require any permanent construction works within the marine environment, specifically the Bosphorus Strait. A brief summary of the marine environment is given below, based on desk study sources.

The Bosphorus Strait links the Black Sea to the Sea of Marmara and its depth varies from 36 to 124 m in midstream with an average of 65 m. The deepest location is between Kandilli and Bebek (110m deep) and the most shallow locations in the northern section are off Kadıköy İnciburnu with a depth of 18 m. The ecology of the straight reflects the shallow ecology of the southern Black Sea continental shelf where the major benthic species comprising polychaete worms (annelids), molluscs and amphipods.

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-18

There are three species of cetacean (includes dolphins, and porpoises) known to inhabit the Black Sea. These comprise Delphinus delphis, the common dolphin, Tursiops truncatus, the bottlenose dolphin and Phocoena phocoena, the harbour porpoise. These are identified in various conventions and are protected (in European waters) under the Habitats Directive.

In addition, there is one species of pinniped (seal), Monachus monachus or the Mediterranean monk seal, that historically inhabited the Black Sea. However, the monk seal is now considered extinct in the Black Sea..

The common dolphin and harbour porpoise can be seen in almost every area along the coasts of the Black Sea while the bottlenose dolphin becomes abundant especially in the western Black Sea. The common dolphin is more commonly found in open waters well away from the coast, whereas the bottlenose dolphin and the harbour porpoise are generally found in inshore waters. There are no known species of marine turtle in the Black Sea.

According to the Black Sea Red Data Book there are a number of species of conservation importance within the southern Black Sea. These species are listed in Table 4-2 along with their distributions and likelihood of occurrence within the project area. In general, it can be seen that the majority of species are concentrated within the coastal zone and may therefore be found within the Bosphorus.

Table 4-2 Fish Species of Conservation Interest in the Western Black Sea

Distribution and Presence in the Project Spawning Period and Importance/ Genus / Species Area Throughout the Year Location IUCN Status Acipenser Mainly inhabits coastal waters of the sea and Enters the Don, Kuban, Vulnerable guldenstaedti rivers. Dnieper, Danube and Species under (Russian sturgeon) rivers of the Caucasian protection in coasts in spring to Turkey since spawn in May and 1997. June. Development of artificial reproduction. Acipenser stellatus Inhabits waters close to the bottom in summer in Enters the Kuban, Don, Vulnerable. (Starry sturgeon) the coastal zones, coming up to the surface for Dnieper, Danube and Species under feeding at night. other rivers flowing into protection in the Black Sea between Turkey since April and October to 1997. spawn.

Coryphoblennius Steep rocks in the surf zone, or on stony shelly May-August. Vulnerable galerita (Montague’s ground. blenny) Aidablennius sphinx Inshore, rocky, shelly, sea-grass ground. Reproduces April-July. Vulnerable (Sphinx blenny)

Mesogobius Brackish water fish inhabiting usually sand and April-May migrates to Lower Risk batrachocephalus shell grounds in inshore waters down to depths shore for reproduction. Stocks (flat head goby) of 40 m. Spends winter in deeper waters. endangered by periods of hypoxia.

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-19

Distribution and Presence in the Project Spawning Period and Importance/ Genus / Species Area Throughout the Year Location IUCN Status Proterorhinus Rivers and estuaries of Black Sea. On sand April-May, benthic eggs Endangered marmoratus near sea grass. (tubenose gobie) Belone belone Coastal waters. Young specimens are most Occurs from May to Endangered. euxini (garfish) common near the Cystoseira and Zostera belts. September. Eggs Proposed for attached to Cystoseira entry in the Black and Zostera Sea Red Data Book. Diplodus annularis Shallow zones of the continental shelf, on July-September, small Vulnerable (Annular seabream) muddy-sand bottoms and on vegetated bottoms pelagic eggs. close to the shore, as well as in deeper waters down to 50 m, but it is most common between 5-20 m. Liza ramada (thin lip Schools occur mostly in shallow water, Spawns spring and Vulnerable grey mullet) especially in brackish and coastal lagoons of early in summer and varying salinity. Enters estuaries and rivers for again in summer and feeding but spawns in the sea. autumn. Pelagic eggs. Mullus barbatus Shallow sands and mud bottoms, but may occur Reproduce between Endangered ponticus (Red down to depths between 20-200 m. Small June-September at 9- mullet) schools live in deeper water during summer, 23 degrees C. coming to coast in spring before sinking to deeper waters again. Nerophis ophidion Inhabits marine coastal zone among filaments of Females spawn on Endangered (straight-nosed algae and Zostera. Also have a pelagic life in male abdomen during pipefish) brackish waters. June-July. Sarda sarda Pelagic migratory species often schooling in Spawning in many Critically (Atlantic bonito) inshore waters, mainly over the continental areas from May to mid endangered. shelf. Thermophile and stenohaline, the majority July. Proposed to start of individuals spend winter in the Marmara and a recovery Aegean Seas. In April, small schools enter the program. Black Sea, staying there up to late October. Scomber scombrus A schooling pelagic fish inhabiting cold and Spawning late in Endangered (Atlantic mackerel) temperate waters. Species spends winter in the winter-early in Spring in Marmara Sea, entering the Black Sea during the the Marmara and spring they move northward, reaching the Aegean Sea. Romanian coast in April-May. In October- November they move southward and leave the Black Sea. Some individuals stay in the Black Sea in winter but they do not reproduce and move down to greater depths. Scorpaena porcus Sedentary and solitary species inhabiting littoral Summer Vulnerable (scorpionfish) waters amongst rocks and seaweeds. Solea nasuta Benthic species, sandy bottoms, estuaries, Reproduction in spring, Vulnerable (Snouted sole) continental shelves. Lives on sandy bottoms eggs pelagic. down to 150 m. Spicara smaris Benthic species preferring offshore water, Spawns during May- Data deficient (Picarel) especially in the winter, over muddy and June near the coast on vegetated bottoms from the littoral zone to algae or seabed depths of 15-170 m. Rare in the Black Sea due to the anoxic conditions of its deeper waters. Syngnathus typhle Marine pelagic fish able to endure freshened March-August. Vulnerable (deep-smoted waters. Lives only between plants, especially Females lay eggs in pipefish) Zostera. Littoral zones. incubation pockets of males.

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-20

Distribution and Presence in the Project Spawning Period and Importance/ Genus / Species Area Throughout the Year Location IUCN Status Thunnus thynnus A pelagic species, immature individuals are At the end of Summer Endangered (bluefin tuna) found in warm waters only, while adults also it spawns, pelagic No catch on the enter cold waters in search of food. eggs. Turkish coast for Young form schools, enter Black Sea in spring at least the last 5 and stay until October-November. years Trachinus draco Littoral and benthic, on sandy, muddy or gravel June-September, eggs Critically (greater weaver) bottoms. and larvae pelagic. endangered Trigla lucerna Bottom species occurring over sand, muddy- December – July (max Vulnerable (scorpionfish) sand or gravel at depths from 5-200 m, but more intensity June-July). common between 50-100 m. Pelagic eggs. Hippocampus Coastal waters, adult fishes are most common May-September. Eggs Endangered guttulatus among Zostera beds. Restricted mobility. develop in the male Proposed for microstephanus brood pouch. entry in Black Sea (Sea horse) Red Data Book Source: Adopted from Birkun, 2006

4.4.4 Internationally Important Species

The main way that species are valued in Turkey is through their inclusion on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red list. Through regular survey the species included on the list have been categorized according to their vulnerability and how threatened they are. The IUCN’s categorization system relating to status and vulnerability of Red List species is shown in Table 4-3 below:

Table 4-3 IUCN Red List Categories

IUCNs Code Definition

EX Extinct. No reasonable doubt that the last individual has died. Extinct in the wild. Known only to survive in captivity or as a naturalized population well EW outside its previous range. CR Critically Endangered. The species is in imminent risk of extinction in the wild. EN Endangered. The species is facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild. VU Vulnerable. The species is facing a high risk of extinction in the wild. Near Threatened. The species does not meet any of the criteria that would categorise it NT as risking extinction but it is likely to do so in the future. LC Least Concern. There are no current identifiable risks to the species. Data Deficient. There is inadequate information to make an assessment of the risks to DD this species.

IUCN Red List Species

The Red List species known or likely to be present in the Istanbul area are included in Table 4-4 below. This list covers plants as well as all of the main animal groups. Plant species highlighted in bold are listed in Appendix I of the Bern Convention.

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-21

Table 4-4 IUCN Red List Species Present in Istanbul

Red List Taxon Name Global Regional/ Local Plants Alcea lavateriflora - VU Asperula littoralis - VU Aubrieta olympica - EN Aurinia uechtritziana - VU Centaurea hermanii - EN Centaurea kilea - EN Cirsium polycephalum - CR Erysimum aznavourii - - Erysimum degenianum - EN Heptaptera triquetra - EN Hieracium noeanum - VU Isatis arenaria - EN Jurinea kilaea – Eastern Thrace - VU Lathyrus undulatus - VU Linum tauricum ssp. bosphori - CR Ornithogalum euxinum – Eastern Thrace - EN Peucedanum obtusifolium – Eastern Thrace - VU Ranunculus thracicus - EN Symphytum pseudobulbosum - CR Tanacetum heterotomum - VU Taraxacum aznavourii - DD Taraxacum pseudobrachyglossum - NT Trifolium pachycalyx - DD Verbascum degenii - CR Birds Accipiter brevipes - Europe LC VU Aquila pomarina LC LC Ciconia ciconia – Eastern Europe LC LC Ciconia nigra – Eastern Europe LC LC

Circaetus gallicus – Europe LC LC

Dendrocopos leucotos LC LC

Dendrocopos medius LC LC

Dendrocopos syriacus LC LC

Emberiza hortulana LC LC

Ficedula semitorquata LC LC

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-22

Red List Taxon Name Global Regional/ Local

Garrulus glandarius hansguentheri LC LC

Gavia arctica LC -

Hieraaetus pennatus – Europe LC LC

Lanius collurio LC LC

Larus cachinnans michahellis LC LC

Larus melanocephalus LC LC

Larus ridibundus – Mediterranean Sea LC LC

Milvus migrans – Europe LC VU

Phalacrocorax aristotelis desmarestii LC LC

Phalacrocorax carbo – Black Sea & Mediterranean LC LC

Picus canus LC LC

Sitta krueperi NT NT

Sylvia nisoria LC LC

Mammals Talpa levantis - Thrace LC LC

Tursiops truncates – Black Sea and Marmara DD VU

Amphibians Triturus karelinii LC LC

Reptiles Emys orbicularis NT NT

Testudo graeca VU NT

Zamenis situla DD LC

Butterflies Anthocharis damone - Anatolia - VU

Archon apollinus nikodemusi - EN

Glaucopsyche alexis - Anatolia - VU

Glaucopsyche arion – Northern & Eastern Anatolia NT EN

Pseudophilotes bavius – Anatolia - EN

Pseudophilotes vicrama – Anatolia - VU

Scolitantides orion – Anatolia - VU

Thymelicus action – Anatolia - VU

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-23

4.4.5 Protected Species

Focusing further in on the Project area, records of rare species in the Belgrad forest, where 1.8 km of the total route passes through are listed as follows.

Table 4-5 Rare Species present in the Belgrad Forest

Red Data Book Endemic/Rare Family Specific Name Category (Ekim et al., (E/R) 2000) Leguminosae Lathyrus undulatus Boiss E Vu Compositae Centaurea consanguinea DC. E LR (LC) Taraxacum turkikum van Soest E LR (LC) Campanulaceae Campanula lyrata Lam. subsp. lyrata E LR (LC) Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia amygdaloides L. var. E LR (LC) robbiae (Turnill) Radeliffe-Smith Boraginaceae Symphytum tuberosum L. subsp. R Vu Nodosum (Schur) Soo Liliaceae Lilium martagon L. R Vu Umbelliferae Ferrulago confusa Velen R Vu Urticaceae Parieteria officinalis L. R DD DD : Data Deficient Vu : Vulnerable LC : Least Concern

In addition, the endemics of Istanbul are listed below according to the data gathered from Turkish Plant Information Service (TÜBİVES), which is prepared by the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK).

Table 4-6 Endemic Species of Istanbul

Bern Family Species Convention Appendix I Ranunculaceae Consolida thirkeana Brassicaceae Isatis arenaria Erysimum degenianum Erysimum sorgerae Erysimum aznavourii Caryophyllaceae Dianthus andronakii Dianthus cibrarius Silene sangaria App I

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-24

Bern Family Species Convention Appendix I Guttiferae Hypericum aviculariifolium alttür byzantinum Fabaceae Astragalus vulnerariae Lathyrus undulatus Trifolium pachycalyx App I Trifolium pannonicum alttür elongatom Trifolium apertum varyete kilaeum Trigonella cephalotes Apiaceae Ferulago thirkeana Dipsacaceae Knautia degenii Knautia byzantina Asteraceae Senecio castagneanus Tripleurospermum conoclinium Onopordum anatolicum Cirsium polycephalum Carduus nutans alttür trojanus Carduus nutans alttür falcato-incurvus Centaurea kilaea Centaurea consanguinea Centaurea hermannii App I Uechtritzia armena Geropogon hybridus Hieracium noeanum Pilosella hoppeana alttür lydia Taraxacum aznavourii Taraxacum pseudobrachyglossum Taraxacum turcicum Campanulaceae Campanula lyrata alttür lyrata Jasione heldreichii varyete papillosa Asclepiadaceae Vincetoxicum fuscatum alttür boissieri Boraginaceae Onosma proponticum App I Onosma bracteosum Onosma bornmuelleri Symphytum pseudobulbosum

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-25

Bern Family Species Convention Appendix I Scrophulariaceae Verbascum bithynicum Verbascum degenii App I Scrophularia cryptophila Lamiaceae Lamium purpureum varyete aznavourii Wiedemannia orientalis Ballota nigra alttür anatolica Sideritis romana alttür romana Stachys sosnowskyi Thymus aznavourii App I Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia amygdaloides varyete robbiae Rubiaceae Asperula littoralis Liliaceae Allium peroninianum Allium rhodopeum alttür turcicum Bellevalia clusiana Colchicum micranthum App I Colchicum lingulatum alttür rigescens Amaryllidaceae Galanthus plicatus alttür byzantinus Iridaceae Crocus sieheanus Crocus pestalozzae Crocus olivieri alttür istanbulensis

Species highlighted in bold in Table 4-6 represent the endemic species listed as being present in the Belgrad Forest (as shown on Table 4-5 above). Of the species recorded above, seven are included in Appendix I of the Bern Convention. None of the Appendix I species is thought to be present in the Belgrad Forest.

4.5 Field Survey Results

4.5.1 Overview

Having established the habitats and species that may be present in the study areas it was essential to undertake a field survey of the route, within a suitable buffer zone.

The Phase 1 Habitat survey covered the entire Bosphorus Third Bridge and Northern Marmara Motorway route to a distance of approximately 250m either side of the proposed alignment (providing a 500m wide buffer zone in total). Detailed field notes, which include representative photographs, are presented in the Appendix to Chapter 4, including a series of maps (Figures 1.1 to 1.6) showing where the survey points were located.

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-26

Habitats encountered along the route were identified based on plant species composition and recorded. Comprehensive mapping showing a detailed breakdown of species present is presented in Appendix to Chapter 4, series Figure 3.1 to 3.11. The broad habitat types based on dominant species are presented in Appendix 4, in the series Figure 5.1 to 5.10.

4.5.2 Summary of Survey Area

The habitats found along the route of the proposed motorway include both broadleaf and conifer woodland, heathland, ponds, streams and wetland habitats, dense and scattered scrub as well as open grassland and agricultural habitats.

Moving north through the urban areas of Istanbul the landscape becomes increasingly hilly and undulating and urbanization becomes less intensive. In this zone open heath makes way to broadleaf and conifer woodland.

Woodland in Turkey is intensively managed for timber and firewood production. This includes both broadleaf and coniferous woodland.

Conifer woodlands are generally planted whilst the broadleaf woodlands utilize natural regeneration of broadleaf species, in areas that at one time had been natural and un-managed forest. As part of the coppice management of the broadleaf forests, trees species are periodically cleared, with the stumps allows to re-grow with multiple stems. These stems are then thinned to allow the best timber possible to be grown. The stumps are then further thinned to 1 or 2 stems.

When the timber reaches a desired size, the compartment is once more clear felled. As a result of this process, most of the woodlands around Istanbul are actually “young” woodlands but with very old stumps. This method produces timber without the need to replant the tree after clear felling. However, this process also arrests the development of the flora community within the woodlands, confines the age range of trees within the forest and thereby limits biodiversity.

However, there are some restricted areas of the woodlands around Istanbul that are not so intensively managed where there are older trees, a great level of biodiversity is present and therefore these area are more ecologically valuable. These areas comprise the most important woodlands in the Belgrad forest, comprising the oldest natural deciduous forests.

Most of the route passes through areas of coniferous woodlands and the majority of the coniferous woodland is plantation woodland, although a few areas have turned into semi-natural woodland as these have been left or are less intensively managed. Although there is a dense structure within a number of these coniferous plantation woodlands, the important habitats here in terms of biodiversity are actually the shrub layer beneath the trees (the under-storey). The principal habitat types are described below and shown on Figures 3.1 to 3.11 and 5.1 to 5.10.

4.5.3 Coniferous Plantation

The proposed road alignment runs through the conifer plantations which are composed of Pinus brutia, Pinus nigra, Pinus pinea, Pinus maritime and Pinus radiate species.

Most of the coniferous woodlands have three layers. The pines form the upper layer, with regenerating oak and hornbeam species together with the shrub layer form the middle layer and a ground layer. The ground layer is generally present where grazing pressures are not serious.

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-27

The main scrub species comprise strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo), heath shrubs (Erica arborea and E. manipuliflora), kermes oak (Quercus coccifera), (Phillyrea latifolia), terebinth (Pistacia terebinthus), Cistus salvifolius, Cistus creticus, juniper (Juniperus oxycedrus), Sarcopoterium spinosum, firethorn (Pyracantha coccinea), Phyllarea latifolia, Rubus sp., Smilax excels, Prunus mahalep and laurel (Laurus nobilis).

The ground layer is mainly dominated by grasses with Cistus and Rubus sp., Gagea sp., Primula vulgaris, Hedera helix, Crataegus sp, Ruscus aculeatus, R. hypoglossum, Viola sp. and Robinia pseudo.

4.5.4 Broadleaf Woodland

Beech, oak, hornbeam and chestnut dominate the canopy of the broadleaved plantation woodland habitats with occasional poplar. The age structure shows significant diversity in broadleaf woodlands, which is determined by the management regime applied by the foresters to each parcel of woodland. For the purposes of this assessment we have determined the age structure of the woodland according to trunk diameter. Management plans are regularly prepared according to the Ecosystem Based Multifunctional Forest Management Plan approach by the General Directory of Forestry.

In these management plans age structure codes a, b, c, d and e are used, which actually represent the average diameter of trees in a certain area. Although during site surveys no tree measurements were taken due to time constraints, the approximate age ranges were noted in each area of habitat. The approximate age structure of the broadleaf woodlands along the project route (within the wider 500m corridor) and the area (ha) that each covers is shown in Table 4-7 below.

Table 4-7 Tree Age Structure and Distribution

Age Structure Approximate Age Trunk Diameter European Side Anatolian Side Code (to nearest year)

a 1.3cm - 7.9cm 3 to 16 years 1,183.98ha 694.67ha

b 8cm - 21.9cm 16 to 44 years 466.16ha 131.94ha

c 22cm - 35.9cm 44 to 72 years 129.88ha 1.25ha

d 36cm -51.9cm 72 to 104 years 74.20ha 0ha e 52cm + 104 years plus

Calculation is based on a ratio for oak of approximately diameter in cm times a factor of 2 to reach the tree’s age in years

In addition, species typically observed species in the shrub layers comprised Ostrya carpinifolia, Phillyrea, Erica arborea, Erica mediteranis, Crataegus monogyna, Ulmus minor, Arbutus unedo, Cistus cretigus, Carpinus betulus, Phillyrea latifolia, Cistus salvifolius, Tilia argentea, Coryllus avellana, Coryllus avellana, Cornus mas, Archetus durupecea, Laurus nobilis, Similax excels, Rubus tracticaccus, Vaccinium myrtillus, Hedera helix, Ruscus aculeatus, Ruscus hypoglossum and Spartium junceum.

Ivy, primrose, honeysuckle, violets, Daphne pontica, Asparagus, Viola, Cerastium, Hypericum calycinum were observed in the ground layer of this type of woodland

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-28

Ancient Woodland

The project route directly passes through part of the Kuzey Boğaziçi (Upper Bosphorus) IPA – where Belgrad forest is located. The Belgrad forest includes the oldest Hornbeam-Oak-beech and alder populations in Istanbul and therefore probably represents the most valuable ecological resource along the route of which replacement is hardest. These areas represent the areas of old growth shown on Table 4.7 above. Figure 4 in Appendix to Chapter 4 shows the area of oldest growth oak woodland along the route (trees of diameter 36cm or greater – see Table 4.7 above).

Mixed Woodland

There are some mixed woodlands with more than 10% coniferous plantation in the predominantly deciduous areas or vice versa. The species composition is not very different from the each type of woodland already described.

4.5.5 Heath

Heathland includes vegetation dominated by ericoids or dwarf gorse species, as well as 'heaths' dominated by lichens and bryophytes, dwarf forbs, Juncus trifidus, Erica arborea and Erica manipuliflora, Erica mediteranis Crataegus monogyna, Ulmus minor, Arbutus unedo, Cistus cretigus dominates such habitats

4.5.6 Ponds, Streams and Wetland

A number of small streams, rivers, ponds and wetlands are located either on or close to the proposed route of the motorway. Water quality within the streams and ponds appeared to be generally poor with high sediment loading being evident in almost all water bodies encountered.

Streams in the vicinity of urban areas have been particularly badly affected by the influence of people with poor water quality and high levels of waste materials being dumped around the water body as well as litter and other debris being washed downstream. In one instance a dead dog was found within a stream. Larger ponds, appear well used recreational areas. An unfortunate result of this is significant amounts of litter, damage due to off road vehicles and the remains of small fires.

Areas of herbaceous vegetation dominated by grasses and certain wet communities dominated by rush species (Juncus) species, and other marsh herbs are present. Typha latifolai, Sparginum neglectum and Phragmites australis dominate such areas.

The habitats on the coastal areas on the edges of the Bosphorus Strait are typically rocky with mainly scrub present. However, as noted above on both side of the strait clear felling and site clearance work had already commenced at the time of our field surveys. Therefore any vegetation that had been present had already been cleared from the coastal strip.

4.5.7 Marine Habitats

Marine habitats comprise the shallow coastal areas at the edge so of the Bosphorus Strait where the footings of the bridge are being constructed.

It was observed during our field surveys that work had started on infilling these inshore areas with excavation materials which will cause the coastal and marine habitat in these areas to be damaged, as well as by temporarily increasing turbidity in the strait.

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-29

The photographs below show the extent of the works in March/April 2013.

4.5.8 Other Habitats

Dense and Scattered Scrub

Pockets of scrub are present throughout the corridor. The main species are listed in describing the scrub layers of the woodland.

Improved Grassland

Some areas of species poor grassland consisting of common grass species are present as include species such as clover, Graminea, and typical grassland flowers (e.g. daisies).

Buildings

This category includes all buildings, in use or unoccupied and small areas of hardstanding, such as parking bays immediately adjacent to the property. Such habitat has no particular ecological value, although some buildings may provide opportunities for bat roosts and nesting birds.

Agricultural Habitats

There are various areas of agricultural land along the route. Due to the survey period it was not always clear what the fields were being used for although the İstanbul İli Tarim Masterplan (Agricultural Master Plan of İstanbul) indicates that the main the agricultural areas are given over to field crops, vegetables, ornamental plants and citrus fruit production.

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-30

4.5.9 Endemic Plant Species

Table 4-8 lists the endemic species that were observed during the Phase 1 Habitat Survey, with an indication of the certainty of identification.

Table 4-8 Species of Endemic Plant Observed

Bern Family Species Convention Survey Result Appendix I Ranunculaceae Consolida thirkeana No Plants Identified Brassicaceae Isatis arenaria No Plants Identified Erysimum degenianum No Plants Identified Erysimum sorgerae No Plants Identified Erysimum aznavourii No Plants Identified Caryophyllaceae Dianthus andronakii Possible Dianthus cibrarius No Plants Identified Silene sangaria App I Possible Guttiferae Hypericum aviculariifolium alttür byzantinum No Plants Identified Fabaceae Astragalus vulnerariae No Plants Identified Lathyrus undulatus Possible Trifolium pachycalyx App I Possible Trifolium pannonicum alttür elongatom No Plants Identified Trifolium apertum varyete kilaeum No Plants Identified Trigonella cephalotes No Plants Identified Apiaceae Ferulago thirkeana No Plants Identified Dipsacaceae Knautia degenii No Plants Identified Knautia byzantina No Plants Identified Asteraceae Senecio castagneanus No Plants Identified Tripleurospermum conoclinium Possible Onopordum anatolicum Possible Cirsium polycephalum Possible Carduus nutans alttür trojanus Possible Carduus nutans alttür falcato-incurvus Possible Centaurea kilaea Possible Centaurea consanguinea Possible Centaurea hermannii App I Possible Uechtritzia armena No Plants Identified Geropogon hybridus Possible

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-31

Bern Family Species Convention Survey Result Appendix I Hieracium noeanum No Plants Identified Pilosella hoppeana alttür lydia No Plants Identified Taraxacum aznavourii No Plants Identified Taraxacum pseudobrachyglossum Possible Taraxacum turcicum Possible Campanulaceae Campanula lyrata alttür lyrata No Plants Identified Jasione heldreichii varyete papillosa No Plants Identified Asclepiadaceae Vincetoxicum fuscatum alttür boissieri No Plants Identified Boraginaceae Onosma proponticum App I No Plants Identified Onosma bracteosum No Plants Identified Onosma bornmuelleri No Plants Identified Symphytum pseudobulbosum Possible Scrophulariaceae Verbascum bithynicum No Plants Identified Verbascum degenii App I No Plants Identified Scrophularia cryptophila Possible Lamiaceae Lamium purpureum varyete aznavourii Yes Wiedemannia orientalis Possible Ballota nigra alttür anatolica Possible Sideritis romana alttür romana No Plants Identified Stachys sosnowskyi Possible Thymus aznavourii App I No Plants Identified Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia amygdaloides varyete robbiae Yes Rubiaceae Asperula littoralis No Plants Identified Liliaceae Allium peroninianum Possible Allium rhodopeum alttür turcicum Possible Bellevalia clusiana Possible Colchicum micranthum App I No Plants Identified Colchicum lingulatum alttür rigescens No Plants Identified Amaryllidaceae Galanthus plicatus alttür byzantinus Yes Iridaceae Crocus sieheanus Possible Crocus pestalozzae Possible Crocus olivieri alttür istanbulensis Possible

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-32

Note that it was not always possible to identify species precisely due to various factors including whether or not the species was in flower at the time of survey and also other issues such as weather conditions and restrictions on access to certain areas. In addition, several of the endemic plant species identified above are sub-species or variants of species within the same family of plants, many of which are not in themselves endemic to Turkey. As such, field identification can be complex and difficult and can depend on very small differences. In several cases several very similar species of plant were found which may be endemics but due to identification being from the plant leaves and character of the plant only, these species are characterized as being possible endemics only. This includes the Iridaceae and Asteraceae families found in the Table above.

4.5.10 Mammals

Turkey has 127 mammal species. Of these 2 are endangered, 14 are vulnerable with a further 3 being near threatened according to The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species: Mammals of Turkey. During the Phase 1 Habitat Survey no specific species surveys were carried out; however, sign of mammals were recorded when encountered. Sightings are detailed in Table 4-9 below.

Table 4-9 Mammal Species Identified

Species Scientific IUCN Distribution Sign Found Name Status Golden Jackal Canis aureus Least Native to Turkey. Footprints and scat were found Concern Widespread throughout the proposed route of distribution however the motorway especially around the population may ponds, streams, rivers and wetland be declining areas.

Wild Boar Sus scrofa Least Native to Turkey. Footprints, scrapes and digging Concern Widespread found throughout both the distribution European and Asian sides of the proposed motorway.

Red Fox Vulpes vulpes Least Native to Turkey. Footprints and scats. concern Widespread distribution

Eurasian Meles meles Least Native to Turkey. A singe entrance sett, considered Badger concern Widespread to be an outlying sett found at GPS distribution point 143. A well used latrine with multiple dung pits found adjacent to the set entrance. Other digging was evident in the area of the sett. No well used paths were found in the vicinity of the sett. Badger hairs were found within the spoil heap at the sett entrance.

Roe Deer Capreolus Native to Turkey. Found at isolated areas on both the capreolus Widespread European and Asian sides f the distribution Bosporus

Levant Mole Talpa levantis Native to Turkey. Mole corpse found at Nkt 205.

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-33

Otter

No evidence for the presence of otter (Lutra lutra) was found at any of the streams, ponds or wetland areas. Many of the streams had poor water quality which is considered to contribute to the lack of sign of otters (which are listed in Appendix II of the Bern Convention).

Golden Jackal

Signs of golden jackal were found frequently along the proposed route of the motorway. This included footprints and a potential scat: signs appeared to be most prevalent around water bodies. The golden jackal is classified as being of least concern by the ICUN.

Wild Boar

Wild boar is regularly hunted throughout Turkey. Sign of wild boar activity, including footprints, scrapes, a skull fragment and digging were found throughout the proposed route of the motorway. Wild boar is classified as being of least concern by the ICUN.

Small Mammals

A dead Levant mole was found on the edge of a forest road.

Table 4-10 Small Mammals Observed

Species Common Name Common Name IUCN Category Bern Convention (Turkish) (English) Talpa levantis Karadeniz Levant mole Least Concern (LC) - köstebeği

Martes foina Sansar Stone marten Least Concern (LC) Appendix-III

Mustela nivalis Gelincik Weasel Least Concern (LC) Appendix-III

Bats

Bats are a European Protected Species (i.e. all are listed in Appendix II of the Bern Convention (apart from Pipistrellus pipistrellus) and individual bats and their roosts are therefore highly protected in EU countries. However, bats are afforded no particular protection under Turkish law. Nevertheless, there are numerous bats species present in Turkey and signs of bat roosts were looked for. However, although there was potential for bats, particular in old trees no signs of bats were recorded or bats observed. It is very likely that various species of bats will be present at various locations along the route.

4.5.11 Amphibians and Reptiles

As the first field surveys started in the early March, and although it is unusual for İstanbul, it snowed during the survey period, amphibian and reptile species were rarely observed. However, there were some occasional sightings including a green lizard observed near the ponds and wet areas. In addition, a tortoise was observed in woodland areas (at Nkt 172).

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-34

Table 4-11 Amphibians Observed

Species Common Name Common Name IUCN Category Bern Convention (Turkish) (English)

Hyla arborea Ağaç kurbağası European Tree Least Concern (LC) Appendix II (orientalis) Frog

Bufo bufo Siğilli kurbağa Common Toad Least Concern (LC) -

Rana dalmatina Çevik kurbağa Agile Frog Least Concern (LC) Appendix II

Rana temporaria Bayağı kurbağa Common frog Least Concern (LC) -

Table 4-12 Reptiles Observed

Species Common Name Common Name IUCN Category Bern Convention (Turkish) (English)

İri Yeşil Lacerta trilineata Balkan Green lizard Least Concern (LC) Appendix II Kertenkele Roughtail Rock Laudakia stellio Dikenli Keler Least Concern (LC) - Agama Spur- thighed Testudo graeca Tosbağa Vulnerable (VU) Appendix II Tortoise (note Laudakia stellio = Stellagama stellio)

4.5.12 Other Species

Butterflies

Turkey is a large country with a wide variety of habitats. As a result of this diversity Turkey has approximately 411 species of butterfly of which 40 are endemic. During the site survey 11 species were encountered. It should be noted that the weather during much of the survey was cold and therefore not ideal for butterfly activity. See field notes in Appendix 4 for photographs of species found.

4.6 Identification and Evaluation of Ecological Receptors

The following table (Table 4.13) outlines the evaluation of the ecological features that may be affected by the Project considered in this assessment. Value has been determined taking into consideration the categories described in Table 4.1 above and through professional judgment by evaluating each feature’s level of designation, distance to the Project and importance to the area as a whole.

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-35

Table 4-13 Evaluation of Receptors

Ecological Receptor Distance Reasoning Value from Project

Statutory Sites Designated under the National Parks Law No. Şamlar Nature Park 880m 2873. Main use is recreational. Mainly Medium coniferous plantations. Designated under the Terrestrial Hunting Law Sarıyer Feneryolu Wildlife Directly on No. 4915, to protect roe deer for hunting. Medium Improvement Area (WIA) Route Approximately 2,673m of the route passes through this site. Designated under Forestry Law No. 6831. Route passes through the northern border of Directly on the forest. Main tree species is oak (Quercus Belgrat Conservation Forest Route sp.) covering 75% of the whole forest. High (European) Approximately 1,837m of the route passes through this site.

Designated under Forestry Law No. 6831. Directly on Elmalı Bendi Conservation Route passes through the border of the forest. Route High Forest: Approximately 1,483m of the route passes (Anatolian) through this site. Designated under Forestry Law No. 6831. Picnic Areas (8 no. identified) Various Route passes through two of these and close Low to the other 6). Non-Statutory Sites

Ağaçlı Kumulları (Dunes) IPA 1,200m Sand dunes High Contains important forests such as Carpinus betulus-Quercus Hornbeam-Oak forest, Kuzey Boğaziçi (Upper Directly on Carpinus-Fagus – Hornbeam-Beech forest, High Bosphorus) IPA the route and Alnus glutinosa-Carpinus – Alder- Hornbeam woodlands.

Kilyos Kumulları (Dunes) IPA 350m Sand dune habitats. High

Extensive mosaic of heath, phrygana (open Ömerli Havzası (Basin) IPA 1,000m High dwarf scrub habitat) and acid coppice forest

Bosphorus Important Bird Crossed by One of the main European routes for migratory High Area (IBA) the route birds. The last remaining fragments of limestone grassland, rock outcrops and dry acid heath Batı İstanbul Meraları (West Directly on grass-land located on the low undulating hills High Istanbul Pasturelands) IPA the route immediately north-west of Istanbul, close to Esenler. Habitats

Directly on Conifer Plantations Extensive conifer plantations Low the route

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-36

Ecological Receptor Distance Reasoning Value from Project

Directly on Beech, oak, hornbeam and chestnut dominate. Broadleaf Woodland Medium the route Usually under 20 year coppicing regime. Mixed woodlands with either conifers or Directly on Mixed Woodland broadleaf species dominating. Semi-natural Medium the route habitats. Main tree species is oak (Quercus sp.) Directly on covering 75% of the whole forest. Alos, Ancient Woodland High the route hornbeam, alder and chestnut. Includes best preserved areas of the Belgrad forest. Directly on Includes the Batı İstanbul Meraları (West Heath High the route Istanbul Pasturelands) IPA Directly on or Ponds, streams and close to the Water quality is generally poor. Low wetlands route Directly on or Small areas of shallow coastal habitats Low Marine habitats close to the beneath the bridge footings will be lost. route Directly on There are pockets of this habitat on the route. Low Dense and Scattered Scrub the route Common.

Directly on Improved Grassland Species poor grasslands. Low the route

Close to the Buildings Bat roost and nest bird habitat. Negligible route

Directly on Agricultural Habitats Agricultural land. Heavily modified. Negligible the route

Species Directly on or A variety of species are represented. None of Endemic Plants close to the the species identified are Bern Convention Medium route Appendix I species. Directly on or A variety of species are represented. Some Mammals close to the are listed in Appendices II and III of the Bern Medium route Convention. Directly on or Various common species. Some are listed in Amphibians and Reptiles close to the Medium Appendices II and III of the Bern Convention. route Directly on or Invertebrates (butterflies) close to the Various common species. Low route Three species of cetaceans may be present in Directly on or and around the Bosphorus. These are Cetaceans close to the Medium European Protected Species and are protected route in Turkey. Directly on or Some species are of significant commercial Marine fish close to the Medium importance or may be under threat. route

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-37

4.7 Potential Impacts

4.7.1 Overview

Having undertaken baseline desk studies and field surveys we have a clear understanding of the designated sites, habitats and species present along the route of the Project and it is important to consider what the potential impacts on these receptors may be.

This discuss provides an opportunity to briefly consider what might happen to these identified receptors if mitigation is not put in place. Note however that this section does not conclude the assessment but rather has two main functions: it allows potential impacts to be thought through (however unlikely) and it enables ideas about mitigation to be developed, where these are not already included in the design.

The following sections therefore briefly discuss the potential impact on each receptor group without mitigation. Both construction and operational impacts are considered here for each receptor group as noted in Table 4-13 above.

4.7.2 General Impacts

Potential impacts on ecological resources in the vicinity of the Project during construction include:

• Dust, noise and movement caused by humans and machinery throughout the proposed Project route and associated areas that disturbs or otherwise impacts on flora and fauna; • Direct or indirect damage to trees and woodland habitats and loss of trees and habitats; • Disturbance and/or pollution of surface water resulting from construction activities next to watercourses resulting in entry of polluting matter, such as grease or oils, to sensitive habitats and watercourses; • Disturbance to birds if vegetation clearance takes place within bird breeding season; • Disturbance to deer and other animals in the area; and • Potential destruction of reptile and other species’ habitats or refuges.

Potential operational impacts include:

• Permanent land take and reduction or loss of habitat areas; • Increased noise and human disturbance, including forest fires; • Permanent severance issues and fragmentation of habitats; • Increased lighting and noise pollution, to formerly dark and quiet areas; • Potential for restriction on mammal and other species’ movements across the road; and • Future pressures for development due to increased access to the area.

One important consideration is the area of each habitat that will be permanently lost under the footprint of the road and bridge. We have been advised that the average construction corridor of the Project will be 60.5m wide and we have used that to calculate the loss of habitats (based on dominant species recorded), and therefore the minimum areas of habitat that will have to be recreated through the mitigation measures. These areas are summarized in Table 4-14 below.

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-38

Table 4-14 Areas of each Habitat Type within 60.5m Corridor

Habitat Type (by Dominant Species) Area Beneath 60.5m Corridor (ha)

Acacia 108.64

Agricultural land 251.02

Erosion 0.46

Conifer (Fir) 29.83

Lime 3.33

Not planted 8.39 Oak 344.49

Old Growth Woodland (subset of Oak) 9.35

Conifer (Pine) 253.91

Rhododendron 50.36

Exposed rock 0.60

Willow 0.60

Total Tree Habitats (Highlighted) 740.8

This table shows that approximately 345 hectares of oak dominant forest will be lost within the 60.5m wide construction corridor of the Project. This will include approximately 9.35 hectares of old growth oak forest. In addition, approximately 284 hectares of conifer plantation will be lost. Approximately 112.5 hectares of other woodland dominated by species such as acacia, lime and willow will also be lost, giving a total area of woodland lost as around 741 hectares.

4.7.3 Statutory Sites

Potential impacts include temporary damage and loss of parts of the statutory protected areas during construction and permanent loss during the operation of the Project. In addition, there could be severance issues where parts of the statutory sites are separated from each other during construction and operation, limiting public access as well as ecological connectivity.

Construction and operation could result in loss of habitats of significant ecological value, trees, vegetation, endemic species and animals and the habitats upon which they depend. Particularly during construction activities there could be indirect damage caused by release of pollutants, sediments, dust and the introduction of people (workers) and the public into areas that hitherto and been less assessable and therefore less disturbed.

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-39

4.7.4 Non-Statutory Sites

There are a significant number of non-statutory sites in the area mainly defined as IPA. These include particularly the Kuzey Boğaziçi (Upper Bosphorus) IPA covering the Belgrad forest and the Batı İstanbul Meraları (West Istanbul Pasturelands) IPA.

Some of these are non-statutory areas overlap the statutory protected sites, but others do not. Potential impacts on these sites are similar to statutory sites, except that such sites are not afforded the same level of legal protection as statutory sites. This means that there is likely to be greater pressure to develop these sites in future as they are not afforded the same level of protection as statutory sites.

The main potential impact would be loss and fragmentation of rare habitats that will be difficult to recreate, as well as loss and damage to individual species and populations. Such loss could reduce the value of the remaining habitat meaning that it reduces in value and will eventually be lost.

With regard to the Bosphorus IBA and migrating birds, some species prefer to migrate over forested areas. Construction of the Project will destroy some forest areas and lighting of the area will increase. This would affect the migration of the birds.

4.7.5 Coniferous Plantation

Potential impacts on conifer plantation will be similar to other woodland habitats as discussed above in relation to statutory and non-statutory sites.

4.7.6 Broadleaf Woodland

Potential impacts on broadleaf plantation will be similar to other woodland habitats as discussed above. However, there is a greater variety of value of these habitats as it ranges from intensively managed coppiced woodland, from mixed woodland to the most valuable old growth woodlands of the Belgrad forest where trees are not coppiced and the level of biodiversity is high.

4.7.7 Heath

Potential impacts include complete loss or damage to habitats, changes in drainage patterns altering soils and vegetation structures and the increased disturbance form humans. The main area of heathland habitat is the Batı İstanbul Meraları (West Istanbul Pasturelands) IPA.

4.7.8 Ponds, Streams and Wetland Habitats

Works within and immediately adjacent to water bodies may disturb sediments and dislodge aquatic invertebrates. This may result in changes to the food chain in the immediate area of the works through increased predation on invertebrates and competition with other species. In addition, dislodging sediments may change the suitability of the area for invertebrates and plant species alike, temporarily leading to changes in the biodiversity of the area.

Works adjacent to water bodies have the potential to generate dust, either dislodged during dry periods or from the transportation of materials. This dust has the potential to enter water bodies resulting in an increase in turbidity. Such changes could affect the productivity of the plant species and have an indirect impact on macro and micro fauna.

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-40

The clearance of surface vegetation and soils from areas adjacent to water bodies has the potential to increase soil erosion leading to increased sediment loading of the water body. This could affect both flora and fauna for a considerable distance downstream of the works.

Vehicle leaks such as oils and fuels can result pollution episodes while mechanical failures can result in unexpected pollution especially if occurring next to water bodies.

4.7.9 Marine Habitats

There is potential for short term loss of shallow coastal habitats due to the temporary infilling adjacent to the bridge. In addition, there could be smothering of benthic habitats due to release of sediments and other materials.

4.7.10 Other Habitats

There is the potential for impacts on a variety of other habitats including dense and scattered scrub, improved grassland, buildings and agricultural habitats. All of these habitats have to potential to support a variety of species. Construction works may affect these sites in the same way as for other sites and the permanent effects will include loss of habitat, severance issues, increased disturbance and future long term development pressures.

4.7.11 Endemic Plant Species

Potential impacts on endemic species include damage or loss of individuals and communities of species during construction activities and permanent loss of habitats which support such species as result of development of the Project. In addition, ground conditions, drainage changes, contamination and air pollution could cause degradation of soils and habitats and the greater human presence could damage or cause the loss of endemic plant species.

4.7.12 Mammals

Potential impacts on mammals could include damage to habitats or features upon which they depend, disturbance of prey species, loss of territories and territory ranges, increased competition between individuals due to loss of territory, disturbance due to the presence of humans, and direct harm to species due to road kill or increased hunting pressures. In addition, the Project could open up previously undisturbed areas for development which will result in even greater loss of the habitat upon which these species depend.

4.7.13 Amphibians and Reptiles

Potential impacts on amphibians and reptiles will be similar to that for mammals. In addition, there could be impacts due to loss of wetlands or damage to these due to changes in water quality or drainage patterns.

4.7.14 Other Terrestrial Species

Other species include invertebrates (e.g. butterflies) and potentially fish species. Invertebrates will be dependent on habitats so any loss or damage to these could affect invertebrate numbers overall. Fish depend on water quality which is generally poor in the area so there are potential impacts from loss of habitat or changes to water quality and drainage issues.

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-41

4.7.15 Cetaceans

There are two species of dolphin and one porpoise species in the Black Sea and these could be directly affected by the construction works, or as a result of underwater noise, vibration and indirect effects on prey fish species which may change their behavior and feeding success.

4.7.16 Marine Fish

There are numerous species of fish present in the Black Sea and these tend to be concentrated in coastal areas and therefore species may be present in the Bosphorus. As with cetaceans these could be directly affected by the construction works, or as a result of underwater noise, vibration and indirect effects on prey species.

4.8 Mitigation

4.8.1 Overview

This section summarises the mitigation that will be or should be implemented for the Project to counter potential construction and operational impacts on ecology and biodiversity.

In a normal assessment process all mitigation is developed and agreed before the assessment of impacts stage. This is to enable mitigation to be taken into account when assessing the significance of the residual impacts, in order to provide a realistic and controlled appraisal of the impacts of the project. Such mitigation is usually included as specific design elements or commitments made by the Client. Such elements include the 36 viaducts and three road tunnels, plus one ecological bridge that will be constructed along the route (see Figure 2.2 for their locations). These will allow connectivity between habitats under or over the road in certain places. In addition, a number of significant route realignments have been made which will have a beneficial effect on habitats, either by avoiding them or by minimising fragmentation and severance issues.

All mitigation measures defined in this report will be implemented by the ICA. These mitigation measures are also summarized in the ESAP. The following sections set out the agreed or proposed mitigation in relation to the ecological and biodiversity receptors identified above.

4.8.2 Statutory Sites

The main mitigation that will be implemented in relation to construction impacts is for there to be appropriate control of construction activities, including site clearance issues, materials sourcing and storage, waste management, control of run-off and pollution.

A significant effort should be made to recreate similar habitats to that lost in areas where vegetation has been removed to enable construction. This will include planting trees of the same species and ideally from stock of local provenance. The lenders have required that a four-to-one ratio for the replacement of trees lost should be implemented. Where possible, ecological connectivity should be maintained and restored by re-vegetation of cut and cover tunnels, improving habitat connectivity underneath viaducts and in some cases construction of specifically designed ecological bridges.

In addition, particularly sensitive or important habitats such as areas of old growth woodland should be ring- fenced and specifically protected. In these cases adjacent younger growth woodlands, should be managed differently so that coppicing and felling is reduced or eliminated and these woodlands are allowed to evolve naturally into old growth forests, connecting the remaining areas of old growth in the Belgrad forest.

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-42

In the longer term there should be clear guidance on allowing development to take place in these statutory areas such that the integrity and connectivity of habitats is not compromised. However, this level of mitigation is beyond the remit of ICA.

4.8.3 Non-Statutory Sites

The same mitigation opportunities exist for non-statutory sites. Good construction management will be expected as defined in the ESAP. In terms of the Kuzey Boğaziçi (Upper Bosphorus) IPA, which contains important forests such as Carpinus betulus-Quercus Hornbeam-Oak forest, Carpinus-Fagus – Hornbeam- Beech forest, and Alnus glutinosa-Carpinus – Alder-Hornbeam woodlands, where there is old growth forest that is not intensively managed. The following long term mitigation and management measures will be required:

• Protect old growth forest habitat and individual trees as much as possible; • Collect seeds and seedlings from those areas for planting/transplantation; • Change forestry management of adjacent coppiced or more intensively managed oak woodlands to allow them to revert to ‘old growth’ forests, thus increasing their ecological value; • Reduce or avoid tree felling in more extended woodland areas to enable older growth to occur; • Leave fallen trees to decompose to increase variety of habitats and to improve habitats for invertebrates; • Thin or clear-fell conifer and non-native plantations and replace with locally sourced broadleaf seed and saplings; • Allow natural regeneration where possible, including natural succession of scrub habitats; • Create new woodlands on agricultural or other land – for example on scrub habitats or where rhododendrons and other invasive species have taken over. • Ensure that all construction related landscaping ties as seamlessly as possible into the local landscape and that only locally sourced native trees and plants are used to seed these; • Enable habitats to connect under viaducts, over tunnels and by using ecological bridges; • Connect separated areas of habitat to create a network of habitat corridors, particularly in relation to the remnants of the old growth forests.

Other important non-statutory habitats include the Batı İstanbul Meraları (West Istanbul Pasturelands) IPA, which comprise the last remaining fragments of limestone grassland, rock outcrops and dry acid heath grass- land located on the low undulating hills immediately north-west of Istanbul, close to Esenler. The main mitigation will be to minimize land take here and to ensure that access to the open heath is restricted to prevent damage caused by construction vehicles and other human activity.

4.8.4 Coniferous Plantation

Conifer plantation is man-made and can be easily recreated and therefore general mitigation relating to construction should be followed. Recreation of these habitats will be implemented in the operational phase.

4.8.5 Broadleaf Woodland

Mitigation for broadleaf woodlands will be the same as for the non-statutory habitats described above. Apart from the areas of old woodland, most of the broadleaf woodland is under a coppicing management regime, which means that although old stumps are retained, the 20 year growth is felled. These woodlands can be easily restored and/or created as they do not contain substantial old growth.

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-43

4.8.6 Heath

This habitat comprises the Batı İstanbul Meraları (West Istanbul Pasturelands) IPA and the same mitigation will apply here as discussed above.

4.8.7 Ponds, Streams and Wetland and Marine Habitats

Standard construction mitigation in relation to water bodies and water courses should be implemented to ensure that runoff is controlled, that sediments do not enter such habitats and that pollution is prevented. During construction this will require appropriate environmental management measures being put in place. During operation adequate drainage that prevents polluted run-off from the road and other infrastructure entering water bodes should be included in the design.

4.8.8 Other Habitats

Mitigation relating to construction management should be followed. Recreation of these habitats will not be necessary in the operational phase.

4.8.9 Endemic Plant Species

It is not practical to undertake a detailed survey of the route and to identify every endemic plant along it for protection and/or transplantation as necessary. Therefore, the main mitigation recommended is that during vegetation clearance that soils are protected, stored and re-used to ensure that the seeds that they contain survive and that this soil is used in such as way that native plants, including endemics, are allowed to re- establish themselves naturally. In addition, particularly important habitats such as the IPA listed about should be avoided and protected where possible and as discussed above.

4.8.10 Mammals

Care should be taken during vegetation clearance to allow animals to escape. No hunting or other activities will be permitted. All pollutants and substances harmful to animals will be securely stored on site and pollution incidents will be avoided.

Assuming that connectivity of habitats and the maintenance of the habitat network is encourage through planting and landscaping then this will help to mitigate the loss of territories and potential severance issues with regard to mammal species in the area. Where necessary, road underpasses and other means of safe- passage for animals should be included in the design.

4.8.11 Amphibians and Reptiles

Mitigation for amphibians and reptiles will be include the measures described above for mammals as well as mitigation relating to protection of the aquatic habitat.

4.8.12 Other Species

The main mitigation for other species such as invertebrates is to recreate and maintain suitable habitats through planting, use of seeds and saplings of local provenance and enhancing connectivity of habitats.

4.8.13 Cetaceans

The main mitigation is to avoid direct impacts on these species. Therefore during works within the marine coastal environment a watch for dolphins and porpoises should be made and measures taken to avoid damaging these species or disturbing them unduly.

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-44

4.8.14 Marine Fish

Standard construction mitigation in relation to water should be implemented to ensure that runoff is controlled, that sediments do not enter such habitats and that pollution is prevented. During construction this will require appropriate environmental management measures being put in place. During operation adequate drainage that prevents polluted run-off from the road and other infrastructure entering water bodes should be included in the design.

4.9 Residual Impacts

4.9.1 Summary of Impacts

A summary of the residual impacts, i.e. those remaining after mitigation has been implemented, on each ecological receptor are set out in Table 4.15 below. The assessment of residual impacts takes into account the value of the receptor (see Table 4.13) and the effectiveness of the mitigation that will be implemented. Note that this assessment does not take into account any future development pressure outside the control of ICA.

Table 4-15 Summary of Residual Impacts

Ecological Value Distance Reasoning Residual Receptor from Impact (after Project Mitigation)

Statutory Sites

Is not on or close to the project route and Şamlar Nature Park Medium 880m Negligible will not be directly affected. The site will be severed by the protect route Sarıyer Feneryolu Directly and its function is to protect deer from Wildlife Improvement Medium Low on Route hunting. Approximately 2,673m of the route Area (WIA) passes through this site. Areas of the forest will be lost and there will Directly be severance and other impacts. However, Belgrat Conservation on Route mitigation, such as tree planting, will assist Medium High Forest (Europea in reducing the level of impact but it will still n) be significant. Approximately 1,837m of the route passes through this site. Areas of the forest will be lost and there will Directly be severance and other impacts. However, Elmalı Bendi on Route mitigation, such as tree planting, will assist High Medium Conservation Forest (Anatolian in reducing the level of impact but it will still side) be significant. Approximately 1,483m of the route passes through this site.

Such areas can be easily recreated if Picnic Areas (8 no. Low Various damaged or compromised. Low identified)

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-45

Ecological Value Distance Reasoning Residual Receptor from Impact (after Project Mitigation)

Non-Statutory Sites

Ağaçlı Kumulları Is not on or close to the project route and High 1,200m Low (Dunes) IPA will not be directly affected. Areas of the forest will be lost and there will Kuzey Boğaziçi Directly be severance and other impacts. However, (Upper Bosphorus) High on the mitigation, such as tree planting, will assist Medium IPA route in reducing the level of impact but it will still be significant.

Kilyos Kumulları Is not on or close to the project route and High 350m Negligible (Dunes) IPA will not be directly affected.

Ömerli Havzası Is not on or close to the project route and High 1,000m Negligible (Basin) IPA will not be directly affected. There may be some loss of habitats and lighting effects but construction activities Crossed and operation of the route are unlikely to Bosphorus Important High by the significantly affect this IBA. The Low Bird Area (IBA) route construction of the bridge is unlikely to obstruct migrating birds as they do not often collide with such structures. Areas of the habitat will be lost and there will be severance and other impacts. Although it is not a forest it is an important and rare habitat that is internationally Batı İstanbul Meraları Directly recognised. However, it is under severe (West Istanbul High on the pressure from various developments and is Medium Pasturelands) IPA route likely to disappear in the near future. As it fulfills the same criteria as the Kuzey Boğaziçi (Upper Bosphorus) IPA the residual impact on this habitat is medium overall. Habitats Directly Extensive conifer plantations which are not Conifer Plantations Low on the Low ecologically unique or difficult to recreate. route Areas of the forest will be lost and there will Directly be severance and other impacts. However, Low- Broadleaf Woodland Medium on the mitigation, such as tree planting, will assist Medium route in reducing the level of impact but it will still be significant. Directly Mixed woodlands that can be easily Mixed Woodland Medium on the Low recreated. route Areas of the habitat will be lost and there Directly will be severance and other impacts. Note Ancient Woodland High on the Medium that this assessment does not take into route account any future development pressure

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-46

Ecological Value Distance Reasoning Residual Receptor from Impact (after Project Mitigation) outside the control of ICA.

Directly Areas of the habitat will be lost and there Heath High on the Medium will be severance and other impacts. route Directly Ponds, streams and on or Low Water quality is generally poor. Low wetlands close to the route Directly Low on or Very limited encroachment into this habitat, Marine Habitats Low close to which will be temporary. the route Directly Dense and Scattered Low There are pockets of this habitat on the on the Low Scrub route. Common. route Directly Improved Grassland Low on the Species poor grasslands. Common. Low route Close to Buildings Negligible Bat roost and nest bird habitat. Common. Low the route Directly Agricultural Habitats Negligible on the Agricultural land. Heavily modified. Low route Species Directly Retention of soils/seed-banks and reuse of on or soils such that natural regeneration and re- Endemic Plants Medium Low close to establishment of endemic species can take the route place. Directly Habitat creation and reduction of severance on or Mammals Medium through connecting habitats will mitigate Low close to impacts. the route Directly Habitat creation and reduction of severance Amphibians and on or Medium through connecting habitats will mitigate Low Reptiles close to impacts. the route Directly Habitat creation and reduction of severance Invertebrates on or Low through connecting habitats will mitigate Negligible (butterflies) close to impacts. the route Directly Dolphins and porpoises are likely to avoid on or Cetaceans Medium the works as they can easily access the Low close to Black Sea. the route Directly There are unlikely to be significant on or populations of marine fish in the area and Marine Fish Medium Low close to any impacts will not have a significant effect the route on fish populations.

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-47

4.9.2 Significant Impacts

After mitigation significant impacts (medium) remain for the following receptors.

• Belgrat Conservation Forest (including broadleaf and ancient woodlands). • Elmalı Bendi Conservation Forest (including broadleaf woodland) • Kuzey Boğaziçi (Upper Bosphorus) IPA (including the Belgrad forest, broadleaf woodland) • Batı İstanbul Meraları (West Istanbul Pasturelands) IPA (comprising heath habitats)

4.10 Summary

An ecological assessment was undertaken to determine the impacts of the Project on ecology and biodiversity in the project area. Preliminary information was based on a desk study which provided information on habitats and species both within the route corridor and in the vicinity of the corridor. Field surveys were undertaken in March and April 2013.

The study found that there no national parks, nature monuments or nature reserves within the Project alignment and its vicinity in accordance with the National Parks Law. However, there are several Nature Parks at the European and Asian side of İstanbul that may be affected by the Project. The closest nature park to the Project is Şamlar Nature Park located on the European side and about 880 m to the west of the route.

In addition, approximately 2.8km of the route will pass directly through the namely Sarıyer Feneryolu a Wildlife Improvement Area (WIA) at the European side and there is an area forbidden for hunting in accordance with the 2012-2013 period CHC decisions in the vicinity of Polonezköy, where approximately 5.5 km of the route passes through this area.

In accordance with the Forestry Law, there are no seed stands and biogenetic reserve areas (gene courts) within the Project site and its vicinity. However, there are some conservation forests, seed garden and recreation areas such as urban forest and picnic along the route including:

• Belgrad Conservation Forest: The route just passes through the northern border of the forest which is located at the European side of İstanbul. • Elmalı Bendi Conservation Forest: Part of the route passes through this forest located at the Asian side. • Kuzey Boğaziçi (Upper Bosphorus) IPA (which includes the Belgrad forest) • Other sites include: a Seed Garden located between Reşadiye and Alemdağ Nişantep; an urban forest in Ümraniye near the existing İstanbul Highway (E-80); and various picnic areas.

The majority of the route (nearly 35 km) passes through the Bosphorus Key Biodoversity Area (KBA) which lies along the length of the Bosphorus strait and extends from European side to the Asian side. The KBA comprises a wide range of habitats including sand dunes at the coastline, rocks, maquis communities, pasture lands, forests and lakes. The area also includes an Important Plant Area (IBA) in forested areas west and east of the strait. There are several vulnerable habitats supporting rare plant species within this KBA and some of these areas have been identified as IPA.

Other KBA include the West İstanbul Pasture Lands Key KBA at the European side. The KBA has a total area of 9,612 ha between Bağcılar at the south and Pirinççi at the north. Approximately 11.4 km of the route

Final ESIA 2 August 2013 AECOM Final Report Environment 4-48

passes through this KBA. Located within this is the Batı İstanbul Meraları (West İstanbul Pasturelands) IPA, close to Esenler, which comprises the last remaining fragments of limestone grassland, rock outcrops and dry acid heath grass-land located immediately north-west of İstanbul. Although it is not a forest it is an important and rare habitat that is internationally recognised. However, it is under severe pressure from various developments and is likely to disappear in the near future. As it fulfills the same criteria as the Kuzey Boğaziçi (Upper Bosphorus) IPA the residual impact on this habitat is medium overall.

Approximately 345 hectares of oak dominant forest will be lost within the 60.5m wide construction corridor of the Project. This will include approximately 9.35 hectares of old growth oak forest. In addition, approximately 284 hectares of conifer plantation will be lost. Approximately 112.5 hectares of other woodland dominated by species such as acacia, lime and willow will also be lost.

Significant mitigation measure will be required including the requirement to:

• Protect old growth forest habitat and individual trees as much as possible; • Collect seeds and seedlings from those areas for planting/transplantation; • Change forestry management of adjacent coppiced or more intensively managed oak woodlands to allow them to revert to ‘old growth’ forests, thus increasing their ecological value; • Reduce or avoid tree felling in more extended woodland areas to enable older growth to occur; • Leave fallen trees to decompose to increase variety of habitats and to improve habitats for invertebrates; • Thin or clear-fell conifer and non-native plantations and replace with locally sourced broadleaf seed and saplings; • Allow natural regeneration where possible, including natural succession of scrub habitats; • Create new woodlands on agricultural or other land – for example on scrub habitats or where rhododendrons and other invasive species have taken over. A ratio of four-to-one for habitat creation in terms of trees planted (not necessarily in terms of area) is assumed. • Ensure that all construction related landscaping ties as seamlessly as possible into the local landscape and that only locally sourced native trees and plants are used to seed these; • Enable habitats to connect under viaducts, over tunnels and by using ecological bridges; • Connect separated areas of habitat to create a network of habitat corridors, particularly in relation to the remnants of the old growth forests. This will be aided by the use of viaducts, tunnels and the ecological bridge in the road design.

Based on the calculation of habitat areas lost due to the construction of the Project, overall 345 hectares of oak forest will be lost and have to be compensated for to be created to compensate for the loss of this type of habitat. Of that total, just over 9 hectares represents the area of old growth that will be lost and that will have to be replaced as mitigation, preferably through management changes in existing coppiced oak dominated woodland in adjacent areas. In addition 284 hectares of conifers will be lost, as well as 112.5 hectares of other less dense habitats containing other dominant tree species (acacia, lime and willow). This gives a total area of oak and conifer dominant areas, as well as other woodland species combined, of 740 hectares.

It is very difficult to calculate the exact number of trees that will be lost when a given area of forest habitat is cleared as the tree density can vary enormously. However, it is recommended that a ratio of four-to-one in terms of new tree planting be implemented in order to compensate for tree loss due to the construction of the Project. Further details of the mitigation for loss of forest habitats are included in the Afforestation Plan appended to the ESAP.

Final ESIA 2 August 2013