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Manuscript (Supplement Shevnina Etal2021.Xlsx) Retention time of lakes in the Larsemann Hills oasis, East Antarctica Elena Shevnina1, Ekaterina Kourzeneva1, Yury Dvornikov2, Irina Fedorova3 1Finnish Meteorological Institute, Helsinki, Finland. 2 Department of Landscape Design and Sustainable Ecosystems, Agrarian-Technological Institute, RUDN University, 5 Moscow, Russia 3Saint-Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg, Russia. Correspondence to: Elena Shevnina ([email protected]) Abstract. This study provides first estimates of water transport time scale for five lakes located in the Larsemann Hills oasis (69º23´S, 76º20´E) in East Antarctica. We estimated lake retention time (LRT) as a ratio of lake volume to the inflow and 10 outflow terms of a lake water balance equation. The LRT was evaluated for lakes of epiglacial and land-locked types, and it was assumed that these lakes are monomictic, with water exchange occurring during the warm season only. We used hydrological observations collected in 4 seasonal field campaigns to evaluate the LRT. For the epiglacial lakes Progress and Nella/Scandrett, the LRT was estimated at 12–13 and 4–5 years, respectively. For the land-locked lakes Stepped, Sarah Tarn and Reid, our results show a great difference in the LRT calculated from the outflow and inflow terms of the water balance 15 equation. The LRTs for these lakes vary depending on the methods and errors inherent to them. We relied on the estimations from the outflow terms, since they are based on hydrological measurements with better quality. Lake Stepped exchanged water within less than 1.5 years. Lake Sarah Tarn and Lake Reid are endorheic ponds, with water loss mainly through evaporation. Their LRTs were estimated as 21–22 years and 8–9 years, respectively. To improve the LRT estimates, special hydrological observations are needed to monitor the lakes and streams during the warm season with a uniform observational 20 program. 1 Introduction On the continent of Antarctica, most of the water is frozen and deposited in the ice sheets, glaciers and permafrost. Climate warming enhances melting of the ice sheets and glaciers, and melted water accumulates in lakes and streams. The lakes appear on the surface of the continental ice sheet, at its contact with rocks and in local depressions in ice-free areas (oases). 25 Antarctic lakes exist both under the ice sheet (subglacial type lakes) and on top of it (supraglacial type). Many lakes are located on the boundary between the rocks and continental/shelf ice sheets (epiglacial and epishelf types). In oases, lakes of the land-locked or closed basin type occupy local relief depressions (Govil et al., 2016; Hodgson, 2012). In warm seasons, numerous supraglacial lakes appear on the surface of the continental ice sheet over its edges, in “blue ice” regions, and in the vicinity of rock islands or nunataks (Leppäranta et al., 2020; Bell et al., 2017). These lakes may be up to 30 80 km long, and accumulate large amounts of liquid water potentially affecting the ice discharge, ice calving and hydro- 1 stability of the continental ice sheet (Stokes et al., 2019). Lakes of the epiglacial type are situated at glacier edges, and melting of the glacier ice is the main source of water inflow into them. These lakes may be perennially frozen, or partially free of ice during the austral summer lasting from December to February. Land-locked lakes appear in local depressions after retreat of the continental ice sheet. Precipitation and melting of seasonal snow cover are two main sources of water 35 inflow for these lakes. Precipitation over the lake surface usually contributes insignificantly to the water inflow compared to the snow melting (Klokov, 1979). Small land-locked lakes are fully ice-free for a period of 2–3 months in summer. Big land-locked lakes can stay partially ice covered in summer, and a number of such lakes are found in the Schimacher oasis, Thalla Hills and Bunger Hills (Gibson et al., 2002; Loopman et al., 1988; Simonov and Fedotov, 1964). The land-locked lakes lose water mainly through the surface runoff in the outlet streams, and/or through evaporation over their surface. In 40 our study, we focus on two types of lakes, namely epiglacial and land-locked lakes, located in the ice-free area of the Larsemann Hills oasis, East Antarctic coast. Water chemical composition and the presence of living forms in Antarctic lakes are strongly linked to their thermal regime and water balance (Castendyk et al., 2016; Bomblies et al., 2001). Among other parameters, water transport/exchange time scales are needed to study lake eutrophication, bioproduction and geochemical processes by numerical modelling 45 (Nuruzzama et al., 2020; Geyer et al., 2000; Foy, 1992; Burton, 1981). The lake retention time (LRT), also called “the flushing time” in Geyer et al. (2000) or “the coefficient of water external exchange” in Doganovsky and Myakisheva (2015), is among other transport scales a factor to be taken into account when modelling the water exchange and mixing processes in lakes and estuaries (Monsen et. al., 2002; Lincoln et al., 1998). It indicates the time period of water renewal in the lake (Pilotti et al., 2014; Rueda et al., 2006) and is usually expressed in years. There are only a few studies addressing 50 estimates of water transport scales for Antarctic lakes, mostly due to a lack of hydrological observations. For example, Foreman et al. (2004) presented hydraulic residence times (which is the same as LRT) for three lakes located in the Antarctic Dry Valleys, and Loopman and Klokov (1988) estimated the coefficient of water external exchange (which is the inverse of the LRT) for six lakes located in the Schirmacher oasis (East Antarctica). In the Larsemann Hills oasis (East Antarctica), water temperature regime, chemical composition and biota of the lakes have 55 been actively studied since the 1990s (Hodgson et al., 2006 and 2005; Verleyen et al., 2004 and 2003; Saabe et al., 2004 and 2003; Kaup and Burgess, 2002; Gasparon et al., 2002; Burgess and Kaup, 1997). However, understanding of the seasonal water cycle of these lakes is still poor, due to serious gaps in the hydrological measurements in the lakes. This limits the applicability of water balance and biogeochemical models (Nuruzamma et al., 2020; Kaup, 2005). This study aims to evaluate the lake retention time of the lakes located in the Larsemann Hills oasis. We suggested to estimate the LRT from 60 the outflow and inflow terms of the water balance equation depending on the type of lake (epiglacial or land-locked). Our study focuses on the lakes Stepped, Nella/Scandrett, Progress, Sarah Tarn and Reid, since their water resources and biogeochemistry are important for human activity (Sokratova, 2011; Burgess and Kaup, 1997; Burgess et al., 1992). 2 Hydrological data collected during four summer seasons in the years 2011–2017 were used to calculate the LRT. This study is the first estimation of the LRT of the lakes located in the Larsemann Hills. 65 1. Study area The Larsemann Hills occupy an area of approximately 50 square kilometres on the sea shore of Princess Elizabeth Land, East Antarctica. The area consists of the Stornes, Broknes and Mirror peninsulas, together with a number of small islands in Prydz Bay. The peninsulas are rocks exposed by glacial retreat since the Last Glacial Maximum (Hodgson et al., 2005). The basement geology consists of a composite of orthogneisses overlying various pegmatites and granites (Geological map, 70 2018; Carson et al., 1995). The climate of the Larsemann Hills is influenced by katabatic winds blowing from the north-east during most of the austral summer. During this period, daytime air temperatures frequently exceed 10 ̊C, with a mean monthly temperature of about 0 ̊C. Mean monthly winter temperatures range between –15 ̊C and –18 ̊C. The annual precipitation is 159 mm (statistics taken from the Russian Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute, http://www.aari.aq). Rain is rarely observed over the Antarctic 75 ice-free areas, also known as oases. There are two meteorological stations in the Larsemann Hills. Zhongshan station (WMO index 89573) started operating in 1989, and the Progress station (89574) operated intermittently from 1988 to 1998 and since 1999 has provided continuous observations (Turner and Pendlebury, 2004). Local climatology for the period 1988–2010 was reported by the Russian Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute from the Progress station, see Table 1 in Shevnina and Kourzeneva (2017). Yu et al. (2018) reported increasing trends in annual precipitation for the period 2003– 80 2016. There are more than 150 lakes in the Larsemann Hills oasis. Many of them occupy local depressions formed after melting of the continental ice sheet (Gillieson et al., 1990). The lake water chemical composition is affected by sea sprays, local geology and periodic seawater surges caused by calving of the Dålk glacier situated next to the eastern corner of the oasis (Kaup and Burgess, 2002; Stüwe et al., 1989). The majority of lakes are monomictic, which means that they are thermally 85 homogeneous during summer, also due to the persistent katabatic winds (Bian et al., 1994). The land-locked and epiglacial lakes are typical for coastal ice-free areas such as the Larsemann Hills oasis. The land-locked lakes are usually small ponds (Lake Stepped, Lake Sarah Tarn and Lake Reid in Fig. 1). 3 Figure 1: Lakes on the Mirror peninsula, the Larsemann Hills, East Antarctica: 90 A: the red box indicates the location of the oasis; B: the red lines outlining the catchment areas represent the lakes considered in this study according to the digital map scale of 1:25000, AAD, 2005; the LIMA composite is on the background map (Bindschadler et al., 2008). Abbreviation of a lake designation in B: LH57 – Lake Progress, LH68 – Lake Stepped, LH70 – Lake Reid, LH71 – Lake Sarah Tarn, LH72 – Lake Nella/Scandrett.
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