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Targeting P-Selectin Adhesion Molecule in Molecular Imaging: P-Selectin Expression As a Valuable Imaging Biomarker of Inflammation in Cardiovascular Disease

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Targeting P-Selectin Adhesion Molecule in Molecular Imaging: P-Selectin Expression As a Valuable Imaging Biomarker of Inflammation in Cardiovascular Disease FOCUS ON MOLECULAR IMAGING Targeting P-Selectin Adhesion Molecule in Molecular Imaging: P-Selectin Expression as a Valuable Imaging Biomarker of Inflammation in Cardiovascular Disease Lydia A. Perkins, Carolyn J. Anderson, and Enrico M. Novelli Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Nonetheless, clinical nuclear agents currently used for in- P-selectin is an adhesion molecule translocated to the surface flammation imaging, such as 18F-FDG, which accumulates of endothelial cells and platelets under inflammatory stimuli, in tissues with increased cellular glycolytic activity, are and its potential as a biomarker in inflammatory conditions has limited in scope by high background levels or nonspecific driven preclinical studies to investigate its application for molec- uptake that can complicate analysis and interpretation (4,5). ular imaging of inflammation. Clinical imaging of P-selectin expression for disease characterization could have an important With more recent preclinical advances, new contrast agents role in stratifying patients and determining treatment strategies. developed for MRI and ultrasound are emerging as strong The objective of this review is to outline the role of P-selectin in contenders to image at the molecular level for diagnosing cardiovascular inflammatory conditions and its translation as and monitoring inflammation (6,7). The clinical demand for an early inflammatory biomarker for several molecular imaging sensitive molecular imaging agents for early and reliable modalities for diagnostic purposes and therapeutic planning. characterization of inflammation has charged preclinical re- Key Words: P-selectin; molecular imaging; inflammation; inflam- search with developing selective targeting strategies using matory imaging biomarker PET, SPECT, ultrasound, and MRI. J Nucl Med 2019; 60:1691–1697 Researchers are investigating hallmark biomarkers expressed DOI: 10.2967/jnumed.118.225169 in inflammation to develop targeted agents for imaging specific aspects of inflammation. Among disease biomarker candi- dates, preclinical research has focused on agents that bind Inflammation is a critical process at the root of many cell adhesion molecules to characterize inflammatory responses pathologic conditions involving essentially every organ sys- across diseases. A recent review by Lee et al. discusses targeting tem in the body and contributing to many disease states. As of cell adhesion molecules in chronic inflammatory diseases, examples, cardiovascular diseases, cancer, autoimmune dis- focusing on preclinical PET/SPECT imaging of integrins, the eases, benign hematologic diseases (e.g., sickle cell disease), immunoglobulin superfamily (vascular cell adhesion mole- and neurologic diseases are all implicated, with inflammation cule 1, intercellular adhesion molecule 1), and selectins (2). at various stages induced by different biologic mechanisms of The adhesion molecule, P-selectin, has been the focus of action. Without prompt treatment at disease onset, inflamma- intense investigation as a molecular imaging target for early tory pathologies can lead to extensive and irreversible dam- inflammatory disease states and shows promise in assisting age, increased pain, and a poorer prognosis (1). Reliably clinical disease staging, treatment planning, and monitoring. assessing inflammation early and throughout the disease The focus of this review is to highlight the pivotal role P-selectin course requires sensitive diagnostic methods (2). Noninvasive plays among inflammatory states and its current preclinical molecular imaging modalities, including ultrasound, MRI, application as a biomarker of inflammation across molec- SPECT, and PET, have been used as supportive diagnostic ular imaging platforms. tools for physicians in evaluating inflammation (3). Traditional imaging techniques can be used to assess tissue morphology P-SELECTIN INVOLVEMENT IN INFLAMMATORY changes due to inflammation, whereas nuclear medicine–based DISEASES: THE ROLE OF HYPERADHESION imaging methods—PET and SPECT—are able to functionally Although disease-specific factors can elicit inflammation and molecularly measure inflammation with high sensitivity. and produce diverse physiologic manifestations, the activa- tion of the vascular endothelium remains a crucial part of the Received Aug. 2, 2019; revision accepted Oct. 4, 2019. inflammatory process across pathologic states. The inflamma- For correspondence or reprints contact: Enrico M. Novelli, E1257 BST, 200 Lothrop St., Pittsburgh, PA 15261. tory response is initiated by cytokine signaling that activates E-mail: [email protected] the local blood vessel endothelium for recruitment, adhesion, Published online Oct. 10, 2019. COPYRIGHT © 2019 by the Society of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging. and diapedesis of leukocytes. MOLECULAR IMAGING OF P-SELECTIN • Perkins et al. 1691 Leukocyte attachment to the vessel endothelium involves localized tissue (9). Damage to the vessel endothelium through a regulated succession of specific adhesion molecules expressed destructive inflammation or injury can additionally activate at the cell surface to facilitate the multistep adhesion process local platelets to express P-selectin, facilitating aggregation of leukocyte tethering, rolling, and ultimately adherence and and adhesive interactions between platelets, leukocytes, and diapedesis. The activated endothelium mediates the first endothelium. Like endothelial cells, platelets also have in- ‘‘catching’’ contacts with leukocytes through triggering cell tracellular storage pools of P-selectin in the a-granules that surface expression of a cell adhesion molecule, P-selectin. are quickly translocated to the platelet cell surface on spe- Within minutes, readily available pools of P-selectin are cific inflammatory stimulation (10). The platelet expression trafficked to the endothelial cell surface from cytoplasmic of P-selectin promotes endothelial adhesive crosslinks between storage granules. At the surface, P-selectin binds to its coun- leukocytes and the endothelium, contributing to an upregu- terligand, P-selectin glycoprotein ligand 1 (PSGL-1), which lated release of proinflammatory cytokines and increased is constitutively expressed on leukocytes. The P-selectin/ adhesion to the vessel endothelium (10,11). PSGL-1 transient interactions slow leukocytes to roll along P-selectin expression by activated endothelial cells and the vessel endothelium, allowing for stronger attachments activated platelets has been shown to be a substantial feature to form with subsequently expressed or activated adhesion of inflammation-related pathologic states. An extensive review molecules (Figs. 1A and 1B) (8). by Kappelmayer and Nagy outlined the detailed involvement Aberrant or persistent vascular endothelial activation of P-selectin and its ligand in inflammation by modulating caused by inflammatory triggers can result in overexpression leukocyte recruitment, thrombus development, and cancer pro- of adhesion molecules and in turn increase leukocyte attach- gression (12). The increased surface expression of P-selectin ment and infiltration, which can damage the vasculature and during inflammation, especially as it is involved in the initial leukocyte endothelial adhesion, makes it an attractive and sensitive biomarker to reveal early pathologic changes and monitor disease treatment. P-SELECTIN TARGETING The potential of P-selectin as an imag- ing biomarker and molecular target for therapies has been investigated through targeted strategies using antibodies and polysaccharide ligand mimics. The lectin domain of P-selectin (Fig. 2A) has high binding affinity toward the oligosaccharide, sialyl LewisX (sLex), on PSGL-1 (Fig. 2B). Polysaccharides that harbor sLex struc- tures or are sLex mimics can also be recognized by P-selectin. This ligand structure can be harnessed to target imag- ing agents to P-selectin. Recently, fucoidan, an sLex mimic derived from algae, has been demonstrated to be a low-cost and effective targeting reagent for P-selectin in SPECT, MRI, and ultrasound techniques (13). A review by Wang et al. discussed the biologic activity of fucoidan and its beneficial effect as an antitumor, antioxidant, anticoagulant, antithrombotic, immuno- regulatory, antiviral, and antiinflamma- tory therapeutic. However, fucoidan’s pharmacokinetics have not been investi- gated, as variances in its structure, molec- ular weight, extraction, and algae source are largely uncharacterized (14). Despite FIGURE 1. P-selectin role in endothelial activation (A) and in atherosclerosis and its limited characterization, the use of thrombus (B). fucoidan in preclinical studies as a 1692 THE JOURNAL OF NUCLEAR MEDICINE • Vol. 60 • No. 12 • December 2019 arteries, causing life-threatening complications even in the absence of any easily discernable symptoms. The process of atherosclerotic plaque buildup is complex and progresses in distinct steps. Trauma, inflammation, and many other factors can trigger or alter the course of the disease (17). A recent review discusses a new perspective on the importance of applying selective imaging strategies in evaluating charac- teristic stages of atherogenesis and outlines the current clinical imaging modalities that may be appropriate at each stage (18). Available detection methods for evaluating early stages, however, lack the necessary accuracy to assess the molecular processes of plaque formation, vulnerability, and rupture (17,18). The initial step of atherosclerosis—endothelial activation along the vessel wall—is
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