Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia

ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/trss20

Water quality parameters and population characteristics for the Flinders Ranges Gudgeon

Martin Caon, Raymond Hickman, Robert Gabb & Robert Brandle

To cite this article: Martin Caon, Raymond Hickman, Robert Gabb & Robert Brandle (2021): Water quality parameters and population characteristics for the Flinders Ranges Gudgeon, Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia, DOI: 10.1080/03721426.2021.1913540 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/03721426.2021.1913540

Published online: 14 Apr 2021.

Submit your article to this journal

View related articles

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=trss20 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA https://doi.org/10.1080/03721426.2021.1913540

Water quality parameters and population characteristics for the Flinders Ranges Gudgeon Martin Caon a, Raymond Hickmana, Robert Gabba and Robert Brandleb aFriends of the Vulkathunha-Gammon Ranges National Park Inc., South Australia; bDepartment of Environment, Water and Natural Resources, SA Government, South Australia

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY The Flinders Ranges Gudgeon (Mogurnda clivicola) in South Received 30 October 2020 Australia, is restricted to permanent spring-fed pools of two creeks Accepted 2 April 2021 in the Northern Flinders Ranges. Consequently, the fish is classified KEYWORDS as critically endangered. Regular monitoring of selected water Mogurnda clivicola; chemistry and fish population characteristics has been conducted eleotridae; Balcanoona since 2018 by a “Friends of Parks” group in an ongoing project Creek; purple spotted contributing to the conservation management for this endangered gudgeon; endangered fish; species. Mogurnda clivicola were abundant and healthy in Vulkathunha-Gammon Weetootla and Nepouie springs, with six or fewer fish displaying Ranges National Park any skin lesions on each of the four sampling occasions of May and August 2019 and June and August 2020. Hence the fish populations were not adversely affected by the exceptionally low rainfall years of 2018 and 2019. Fish of less than 2 cm total length were present at each sampling time point, indicating that breeding can occur on an opportunistic basis rather than during a breeding season. Following a substantial flood during February 2020, a substantial breeding event resulted in large numbers of small fish and at Nepouie Spring. For pools that contained fish, the water quality parameters mea­ sured and their ranges were: conductivity 1141–13 800 µS/cm; dissolved oxygen concentration 1.9–12.0 mg/L; temperature 11.4–29°C; pH 7.1–8.8; [Ca++] 36–213 mg/L; [NO3-] 0.2–17.7 mg/L.

Introduction The Flinders Ranges Gudgeon, Mogurnda clivicola Allen & Jenkins, 1999 (see Figure 1) is known as Wirti Udla Varri in the local Adnyamathanha language. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, 2019 classifies it as “endangered”. It is classified as vulnerable by the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act) as at July 2010 and as “critically endangered” in South Australia (Hammer et al., 2009). This is because its only known South Australian habitats are spring-fed pools in the usually dry creek beds of just two creeks in the Northern Flinders Ranges: the Balcanoona Creek in the Vulkathunha-Gammon Ranges (V-GR) National Park and nearby Nepouie Creek on the Wooltana pastoral lease. Water in these creeks only flows beyond the spring fed pools after significant rain, and in exceptionally wet conditions may drain into the otherwise dry salt–lake, Lake Frome.

CONTACT Martin Caon [email protected] Friends of the Vulkathunha-Gammon Ranges National Park Inc., South Australia. © 2021 Royal Society of South Australia 2 M. CAON ET AL.

Figure 1. The Flinders Ranges Gudgeon, Mogurnda clivicola.

The oldest SA Museum specimen of the gudgeon from Balcanoona Creek dates from 1966 when five specimens were collected by Dr H. Wopfner (Ralph Foster personal communication, 15 October 2019). Glover and Inglis (1971) referred to Mogurnda striata (Steindacher, 1866) (the chequered gudgeon, a synonym for M. adspersa (Castelnau, 1878)) as “recorded only from Balcanoona Creek (west of Lake Frome)” and as “Common in Balcanoona creek”. This early reference is undoubtedly to the Flinders Ranges Gudgeon before its taxonomy was clarified. McKay (1985, unpublished) stated that the gudgeon was recorded from Balcanoona Creek in 1968 by Glover. It was also recorded by Scott et al. as: “ . . ..found in abundance in Balcanoona Creek in the Flinders Ranges and at Dalhousie springs” (Scott et al., 1974). Paratypes held in the South Australian Museum were collected from Balcanoona Creek in 1976. The Flinders Ranges Gudgeon and the gudgeon from Dalhousie springs were both first assigned to the Northern Purple Spotted Gudgeon Mogurnda mogurnda (Richardson, 1844), when it was assumed to be another occurrence of this widespread species. Later, when the Flinders Ranges Gudgeon seemed likely to be a new species, Glover referred to it as Mogurnda sp. nov. and as rare, restricted and vulnerable (Glover, 1987; Glover et al., 1979). The Flinders Ranges Gudgeon has since been described as a distinct species and is now known as Mogurnda clivicola Allen & Jenkins, 1999, while the Dalhousie Gudgeon is regarded as a separate speciesMogurnda thermophila Allen & Jenkins, 1999. Historical reports place M. clivicola at a few sites in the Cooper Creek and Bulloo River catchments in Queensland from which they may have now disappeared, but they remain extant, but poorly recorded from the Belyando River, a Burdekin River tributary (Briggs et al., 2018). Despite its vulnerability to extinction due to its extremely limited range in South Australia, initially known only in the downstream pools of Weetootla Springhead (W1 in Figure 2), in the Balcanoona Creek, the gudgeon has persisted. Mogurnda clivicola was also recorded in 1981 and 2019 at Yuwanhinya Spring (Y1 in Figure 2), a spring in Weetootla Creek. Yuwanhinya is about 1.2 km upstream of the junction (at W4) where Weetootla Creek joins Balcanoona Creek. The Weetootla Spring is also about a kilometre from the junction and water from the spring extends to this junction and, even in dry years, usually persists downstream to about “Hells Gate”. Hence the two springs are separated by about 1 km of usually dry creek bed and fish from Weetootla could only TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA 3

Figure 2. Balcanoona Creek in the Vulkathunha-Gammon Ranges National Park showing sampling sites. (Note: Weetootla Creek flows to the east from Y1 to W4, while the Balcanoona Creek flows to the south-west from W1 to W4 where it is joined by the Weetootla Creek; Photo Google Earth, November 2020). reach Yuwanhinya by moving downstream to the creek junction and then swimming upstream during a floodevent. Sometime before 1981, and probably after the early 1970s, M. clivicola expanded its range to Nepouie Creek 12–13 km east of Weetootla Spring. The Nepouie pools are also fed by a permanent spring and provide a similar fishhabitat to the pools at Weetootla. Nepouie Creek is not connected to Balcanoona Creek even during flood events. Hence, its appearance in the Nepouie Spring is speculated to be due to a translocation by humans. Both the Weetootla and Nepouie springs discharge warm water into their creeks, while the water at Yuwanhinya is at ambient temperature. The populations of M. clivicola in Balcanoona and Nepouie creeks were assessed by Roush during a three–day visit in March 2016. This was a snapshot assessment of one time point. There remains the need for a program of continuous monitoring over a period of years to document fluctuations in water quality and the effect of these fluctuations on the fish population. Notably, M. clivicola has shown the ability to continue to inhabit small shallow permanent pools that are replenished by warm water received from permanently flowing springs. These springs have discharged water con­ tinuously even though 2018 and 2019 were years of exceptionally low rainfall. The authors can report that in 2017-2020, M. clivicola was restricted to the 1 km sections of Balcanoona Creek immediately downstream of the Yuwanhinya and Weetootla springs (McKay’s sampling sites 1 and 3), and that Balcanoona Creek adjacent to the Balcanoona homestead, where McKay collected M. clivicola, was dry. In addition, it was also common in the permanent pools below Nepouie Spring (see Figure 3). The ICUN Redlist entry for the Flinders Ranges Gudgeon (Whiterod et al., 2019) reiterates the “Approved conservation advice for Mogurnda clivicola (Flinders Ranges Gudgeon)” (DEWHA, 2008), and the Action Plan for South Australian Freshwater Fishes 4 M. CAON ET AL.

Figure 3. Nepouie Creek, showing the four sampling sites, flows to the south-east from N1 (the spring- head) to N4. (Photo Google Earth, November 2020).

(Hammer et al., 2009). The action plan (p. 57) recommends several actions to protect and restore populations of this threatened fish. They include:

(1) Continue terrestrial vertebrate pest control program. To this end, the Bounceback Program has been operating since 1992. Annual on-the ground goat shooting by the Sporting Shooters Association of Australia, Conservation and Wildlife Management (SA), followed up with aerial culls by National Parks and Wildlife shooters have removed more than 35,000 animals (NPWS Bounceback data). In addition any donkeys, cats and dogs observed are also culled. Fox baiting with 1080 has been conducted quarterly since 1992 with two of the four annual poisoning events being delivered aerially since 2007 (Brandle et al., 2018). (2) Develop contingency plans for extreme conditions or new threats (e.g. refuge drying, control of feral fish introductions) and investigate sites and methods for establishing artificial refugia. White and Scholz (2008) have visited and described 13 sites in the Flinders Ranges with springs and water holes. Similarly, McNeil et al. (2011) documented 10 sites, and Roush (2016) a further four sites for possible fish refuge locations. The EPA website has an “Aquatic Ecosystem Condition Report” for a list of 52 waterbodies in the “SA Arid Lands NRM region” (see: https://www.epa.sa.gov.au/data_and_publications/water_quality_monitor ing/aquatic_ecosystem_monitoring_evaluation_and_reporting). It is possible that one of these sites, or others yet to be assessed, may be a suitable fish refuge. (3) Initiate regular monitoring to assess habitat extent and quality and estimate population status (relative abundance and health). TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA 5

Figure 4. An example of the skin lesions on a diseased Mogurnda.

It is to Point 3 of the Action Plan that we address our work. The DEWHA conservation advice also recommends the design and implementation of a monitoring program. In order to document the favourable conditions that exist for the fish in the water at the Weetootla, Yuwanhinya and Nepouie springs and to be able to compare the conditions in other permanent waterbodies in the Northern Flinders that might be suitable refuge sites for a translocated population, we report on a “citizen science” monitoring program being conducted by the Friends of Vulkathunha-Gammon Ranges National Park Inc. (FoVGRNP). We report on the program results from April 2018 to August 2020, which measured the water quality parameters: water temperature, pH, oxygen concentration, water conductivity, Ca2+ concentration, NO3− concentration, and fish length and some population dynamics. An issue of concern is that the surveys of McKay in 1981 and of McNeil et al. (2011) found diseased fish with surface discolouration and skin lesions that may be skin cancer (see Figure 4). We report on this issue as well. In addition, 11 other permanent water sources in the northern Flinders Ranges were visited and searched for fish and subjectively assessed for their suitability to support a population of M. clivicola.

Methods This work was conducted in the Vulkathunha-Gammon Ranges National Park (VGRNP) under the Government of SA, Department of Environment, Water and Natural 6 M. CAON ET AL.

Resources permit to conduct scientific research number: E26615-6 and Q26980-1. Mogurnda clivicola is a protected species under the Fisheries Management Act 2007, and the capture and release of this species is allowed for this monitoring project under ministerial exemption ME9903104. The Group includes several members with scientific research experience and works with SA National Parks and Wildlife ecologists in devel­ oping the program, which has so far involved six site monitoring visits conducted at the springs between April 2018 and August 2020.

Water Measurements Four pool sites associated with each of Weetootla and Nepouie springs (see Figures 2 and 3) were visited six times in April and August 2018, May and August 2019 and in June and August 2020. The sites were the springheads (W1, N1 in Table 1) and additional sites downstream (W2-W4, N2-N4 in Table 1). Two sites at Yuwanhinya spring have also been visited. A water sample at each of these 10 sites was collected for analysis on return from the field. Water conductivity was measured with a Horiba LAQUAtwin-EC–22 compact meter; with an accuracy of ±2%; pH with a Horiba LAQUAtwin compact meter with a claimed accuracy of 0.2 pH units; calcium ion concentration with a Horiba LAQUAtwin Ca2+ compact meter with a specified accuracy of ±20%; or an Aquaspex microtest Calcium 5 kit. Sometimes both the meter and the test kit were used, in which case, the Ca++ concentration values obtained were averaged. Oxygen concentration was measured on site with a Jenco model 9030 M meter with the sensor held 10–15 cm below the water surface. Its stated accuracy is ±1.5% of the reading. All meters were calibrated each day before use. Nitrate was measured using an Aquaspex microtest Nitrate-N NED kit. This colorimetric test is used with a colour comparator that has five colour fields corresponding to: 0.05; 0.1; 0.2; 0.4; 0.8 mg/L. Our nitrate measurements were recorded as being closest to one of these values. For the highest values, the water sample was diluted 1:4 to extend the measurement range. Temperature was measured on site with a liquid in glass thermometer and the Jenco meter (the measurements were consistent). Other permanent waterbodies and springs in the Northern Flinders that were visited or considered in this work: Mawson Plateau Waterhole GR474 678, Waterhole GR499 706 (datum AGD84) and T-Junction Waterhole, Paralana Hot Spring, Camel Yard Spring, Moro Gorge, Munyalinna Spring, Terrapinna Waterhole, Third Spring, Second Spring, and Artipena Spring (see Table 4). These sites were searched for fish by inspection and dip-netting. Their suitability for supporting a population of fish was a subjective assessment of the permanency of the waterbody, its depth, the presence of surrounding and overhanging adjacent vegetation, the presence of reeds in the pool, and the presence of algae floating on the surface with the ability to shield fish from view.

Fish length measurement Fish were caught using a hand-held dip net with a handle 30–50 cm long and immedi­ ately placed in a container with pool water. While in the container, a ruler was placed Table 1. Mean water quality parameters measured at four sites in pools downstream of Weetootla (W1,W2,W3,W4), Yuwanhinya Spring (Y1, Y2) and Nepouie (N1,N2,N3,N4) springs between 2018 and 2020. The values are the average of six measurements for each of temperature, conductivity and pH. The dissolved oxygen and calcium values are averages of three measurements and nitrate has been measured only once at four sites. The range of values is shown in TRANSACTIONS brackets underneath the mean. Site of measurement Temperature (range) oC Conductivity (range) µS/cm pH (range) Oxygen mg/L (range) Calcium mg/L (range) Nitrate mg/l W1 24.3 (24.0–24.7) 1313 (1286–1342) 7.3 (7.1–7.6) 3.2 (2.5–4.0) 116 (89–140) 17.7 W2 16.5 (14.0–21.2) 1456 (1353–1544) 7.9 (7.7–8.1) 6.2 (4.0–9.0) 129 (92–165) 1.1 OF W3 15.5 (11.4–22.4) 1515 (1400–1580) 8.3 (8.3–8.5) 9.8 (7.0-11.3) 128 (93–170) W4 16.7 (13.4–22.8) 2318 (1792–3420) 8.0 (7.5–8.4) 7.7 (4.5–9.4) 128 (94–170) THE

Y1 15.6 (12.2-20.3) 3706 (1261–13 800) 7.7 (7.5–8.0) 3.8 (1.9–7.0) 177 (160–205) 1.1 ROYAL Y2 14.8 (12.2–19.2) 1228 (1141–1380) 8.1 (7.8–8.8) 6.4 (3.2–12.0) 112 (36–170) 3.5 N1 28.0 (27.3–29.0) 2192 (2095–2360) 7.2 (7.0–7.4) 3.6 (3.0–4.3) 122 (106–140) 1.9

N2 21.7 (19.6–24.9) 2188 (2105-2390) 7.9 (7.6–8.1) 7.2 (4.0–9.8) 122 (87–180) 1.1 SOCIETY N3 18.2 (15.5–22.4) 2188 (2020–2430) 8.2 (8.1–8.4) 9.3 (6.0–12.0) 116 (82–170) 0.2 N4 19.6 (17.0-22.5) 2489 (2130–2840) 8.1 (7.8–8.4) 8.8 (4.6–17.0) 108 (82–160) OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA 7 8 M. CAON ET AL. close to and above each fish in order to measure its length to the nearest 0.5 cm, without handling the fish. After the measurement of total length (tip of snout to end of tail fin), the fish were returned to the same pool from which they were captured. We did not attempt to determine the total size of the fish population or to catch a sample of fishsizes that would accurately reflect the fish sizes that were present. However, we attempted to capture sufficient numbers to ascertain the presence of fish of different sizes in order to identify cohorts of different lengths. While fish can be observed in pools with clear water, particularly as they dart away, it was common to capture fish that were obscured from sight by floating algae. The dip net was moved rapidly through the algae or close to the bottom of a pool or against a rock and the contents examined for fish.The contents usually included algae, bottom mud and gravel. The fish are noticed by their wriggling motion amongst the debris caught in the net.

Results Water quality parameters The range of water quality parameters that we have measured in water samples taken from Weetootla and Nepouie pools is presented in Table 1. Site W4 does not have a fish population while N4 had fish only in 2020. The upper limit of conductivity was 13 800 µS/cm at Yuwanhinya, but this value is not typical of the waterbodies. Temperatures ranged from 11.4°C to 29°C. Water pH was always alkaline with the highest pH being 8.8. The lowest dissolved oxygen concentration measured was 1.9 mg/L. Temperature is higher at each springhead than at sites downstream. For the Weetootla sites, conductivity increases downstream from the springhead while at Nepouie it is similar at all four sites. At both Weetootla and Nepouie, pH and dissolved oxygen values downstream are higher than at the springheads. Averaged over all visits, dissolved oxygen measurement increased in pools with distance of site downstream from the springhead from 3.2 to 9.8 mg/L for Weetootla, and from 3.6 to 9.3 mg/L for Nepouie. Temperature in the pools downstream of the Weetootla springhead decreased to about 17–20°C for the April/May visits and to about 13–14°C for the August visits. Similarly, the temperature in the pools downstream of the Nepouie springhead decreased to about 17–20°C for the April/May visits and to about 17–18°C for the August visits.

Fish behaviour Mogurnda clivicola has the ability to adapt its colouration towards that of its surround­ ings so that when fish of quite dark colour were placed in a white container for measurement, their colouration became quite noticeably paler over the course of a few minutes. Fish in some pools are shy and dart away when a human approaches, while in other pools the fish are content to remain within a metre distance of people who are crouching at the water’s edge. Fish at the Weetootla springhead remained in plain sight and observed our activity. The speed of fish movement appears to be affected by water temperature. Fish at the Nepouie springhead, which had a water temperature of 26°C, TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA 9 actively evaded capture, while those at Yuwanhinya, when the water temperature was 11° C were noticeably sluggish when caught.

Diseased fish Our observations were that the proportion of diseased fishcaught in 2019 was well below 5%. In June 2020, four diseased fish(from a total of 357) were captured at Nepouie, each was over 7 cm in length (see Figure 6). In August 2020, five diseased fish (from a total of 365) were caught, again each had a greater total length than 6.5 cm. One diseased fish was found at Yuwanhinya Spring in June 2020, but no diseased fish were observed from Weetootla.

Fish sizes The total proportion of fish from all springs combined, and their lengths measured in each of the May and August 2019 visits and those of June and August 2020 are shown plotted against their total length in 1 cm intervals in Figure 7, where (for example) the 2 cm column includes fish measured at both 2 cm and 2.5 cm. This shows that the majority of fish during the very dry 2019 were 5 cm or larger in contrast to 2020, following a summer flood event, when the majority of fish sampled were smaller than 5 cm. Figures 7 and 9 clearly show that the large cohort under 2 cm long in June 2020 has grown to 3–5 cm by August 2020. In addition, Figures 8 and 9 display the year 2020 numbers separately for the sites at Nepouie and Weetootla springs, respectively. Yuwanhinya yielded too few fish to plot as a separate graph. The number of fish captured and length cohorts are displayed in Table 2. McKay (1985) classified “fry” as fish of length 15 mm or less, fingerlings as between 15 and 60 mm, while adults are fish of length greater than 6 cm. Mogurnda fry were observed (but not measured) in August 2017 and measured in May 2019, August 2019 and in June and August 2020. Fry and fish less than 2 cm in length were found in many pools, some with water temperatures as low as 15.5°C and some as high as 27°C.

Other permanent waterbodies as potential refuge sites In August 2019, three springs in the Nantawarrina Indigenous Protected Area (adjacent to VGRNP) were visited: Camel Yards, Moro Gorge and a water hole near the Nepabunna village, but no fish were found (Table 3). In October 2019, Third Spring, on the Blinman to Parachilna road, was flowing and shallow pools of water occurred over a kilometre of creek

Table 2. Number of fish caught and possible length cohorts (most abundant cohort in bold). Note that the number of fish captured is not a measure of relative abundance as catch effort varied between trips. Number of fish caught Length cohorts (cm) May 2019 46 3, 6, 10 August 2019 97 3, 6, 9 June 2020 522 2, 8–9 August 2020 491 2–4, 9-10 10 M. CAON ET AL.

Table 3. Springs visited to determine their suitability for Mogurnda (all currently without fish). Spring Location Date visited Suitability Comments WH: GR474 678 Mawson Plateau (June 2018) Unsuitable *Reported as dry Yudnamutana Map T-Junction WH (1) Mawson Plateau July 2018 Unsuitable Dry Paralana hot spring Arkaroola July 2018 Possibly Creek running, but usual suitable springhead pool dry WH: GR499 706 Mawson Plateau August 2019 Unsuitable Dry Yudnamutana Camel Yard Nantawarrina Indigenous August 2019 Unsuitable Shallow and exposed waterholes Protected Area Moro Gorge Nantawarrina IPA August 2019 Unsuitable Exposed (no overhanging veg or emergent plants) Ⴕ Munyalinna Sp Wooltana station (August 2019) Unsuitable *Reported as dry Terrapinna WH Moolawatana Station August 2019 Unsuitable Exposed (no overhanging veg or emergent plants, sometimes dry) Third Spring Blinman to Parachilna Rd October 2019 Suitable Numerous shallow water holes for Oratunga Stn ~1 km of creek bed Second Spring Blinman to Parachilna Rd October 2019 Unsuitable Small waterbody Oratunga Stn Artipena Spring Martin’s Well Stn November 2019 Suitable Several very large bodies of water (1)Other nearby and suitable water sources were present (2)Other water sources downstream were present *personal communication, Garry Tretheway, June 2018, Ⴕpersonal communication, Sian Johnson, August 2019 bed. Although it seemed suitable for Mogurnda habitat, no fishwere found. Artipena Spring on Martin’s Well station is a very extensive body of water. It seemed suitable for Mogurnda but no fishwere found. Terrapinna water hole was visited in July 2019, no fishwere noticed. It seemed unsuitable for Mogurnda and is known to dry out.

Discussion The intention of the research this paper reports was initially not to identify water quality factors that might be a limiting factor for the survival of the fish;however, it has helped to define the range of water quality conditions they tolerate. This study improves on previous research at these springs by repetitive sampling over two seasons (six sample periods over 28 months). Despite this, the range of values for the reported water quality parameters is likely smaller than the actual range in the wild that the fish tolerate, absolute tolerances of the fish will be gained through continued monitoring. Each water quality parameter is discussed below under the appropriate heading followed by a discussion on fishing methodology and fish capture results.

Temperature Both the Weetootla and Nepouie Springheads show temperatures in the mid–twenties for the water emerging from the ground and this temperature is much the same all year round (Table 1). Clearly, the water is coming to the surface through warm rock. At Yuwanhinya Spring, the emerging water has a significantly lower temperature which indicates that it is a different type of spring. At sites downstream from the Weetootla Springhead, water temperature is lower than at the springhead and the lowest temperatures were seen in August. Similar, but less pronounced differences are seen in the temperatures for Nepouie TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA 11

Spring. Once on the surface, the water temperature adjusts to that of the surface surround­ ings and time of the year. Our recorded temperature range of 11.4–29°C is similar to that of 12–32°C for M. adspersa reported by Pusey et al. (2004). Glover stated that M. clivicola can tolerate temperatures between 5°C and 31°C (Glover, 1979; Glover & Sim, 1978). pH All measurements are above 7, i.e. on the basic or alkaline side of neutral. The values increase with distance downstream from the springhead to a maximum of 8.8. Values collected at the same time of year (May/April or August) are similar at most sites. Pusey et al. (2004) reported M. adspersa inhabiting waters with pH as low as 5.6.

Conductivity Except for the site furthest downstream, the Weetootla values are significantlyless than for Nepouie indicating higher salinity for the water emerging at Nepouie. The Weetootla springhead conductivity measurements ranged from 1286 to 1342 µS/cm, compared to 1506– 1542 µS/cm measured by McNeil et al. in May 2010. Nepouie springhead conductivity was between 2095 and 2360 µS/cm, compared to 2390–3401 µS/cm measured by McNeil et al. Conductivity increases with distance downstream from both springheads and in both cases the biggest increase is seen when moving to the site furthest away from the springhead. These sites are where flow had ceased and the differencesmight be due to evaporation. During our visits prior to 2020, fish had not been observed in the pools furthest from the Weetootla and Nepouie Springheads. This may be because the pool environment is more open for predatory birds, such as herons. The highest conductivity was in August 2020 in the shallow pool at the Yuwanhinya springhead (13 800 µS/cm). This is surprising as the downstream pool had a lower conductivity of 1239 µS/cm). The springhead pools appeared to be getting smaller, shallower and muddier in the time periods from August 2019 to August 2020. It was surprising to the authors that any fish at all were found in the muddy puddles that were present in August 2020. The Ca++ concentrations at Yuwanhinya were also anomalous, with the springhead having 205 mg/L while the downstream pool was at 36 mg/L. Given the difference in water quality between what was considered the springhead in 2019 and the downstream pool, it is possible that the springhead has moved downstream and the previously identified springhead pool is in the process of drying out. The upper limit of tolerated salinity is stated as 10°/oo (14 286 µS/cm) by Glover and Sim (1978). We found M. clivicola inhabiting pools with conductivity between 1141–13 800 µS/cm (for Yuwanhinya) and 1286–2430 µS/cm for Weetootla and Nepouie. The upper value of the latter range is similar to the upper value of 2495 µS/cm reported by Pusey for M. adspersa.

Dissolved oxygen The values obtained are generally lowest at the springheads as would be expected because beyond the springheads there has been the opportunity for the water to 12 M. CAON ET AL. dissolve oxygen from the air. In August 2019, a dissolved oxygen meter was used for the first time to obtain the concentration and this provided well-defined numerical values. Glover and Sim (1978) stated that the tolerable lower limit of dissolved oxygen concentration is 1.2 mg/L. We have sampled them from pools with dissolved oxygen as low as 1.9 mg/L and as high as 17 mg/L. Mogurnda adspersa in the wild inhabits water with dissolved oxygen of between 0.6 and 12.8 mg/L (Pusey et al., 2004).

Calcium concentration (water hardness) Calcium ion concentrations ranged from 36 to 213 mg/L. In August 2019, this was measured for the first time, using both a Horiba meter and an Aquaspex chemical kit. The values obtained with the chemical kit corresponded well with those obtained using the meter. The values varied significantly between visits. The Nepouie values, in June 2020, rose to between 140 and 180 mg/L from their August 2019 values of 80–110 mg/L, after the significant flood in February 2020 flushed water through the pools, but then fell in August 2020 to 82–106 mg/L. The Weetootla values showed a similar pattern of rise and fall. The calcium values at both springheads were different from those of downstream pools, sometimes being higher and sometimes lower. The values in the downstream pools did not show an increasing or decreasing trend.

Nitrate Nitrate ion concentrations ranged from 0.2 to 17.7 mg/L. It has been noted that the water emanating from the source of springs in the Flinders Ranges may be rich in nitrogen compared to water in downstream pools (Boulton & Williams, 1996) and this is what we found at Weetootla where the nitrate content fell from 17.7 mg/L to 1.1 mg/L. Boulton and Williams attributed the decline as probably due to uptake by benthic algae and macrophytes.

Our fishing method Mogurnda were initially captured incidentally in dip nets being used to sample for invertebrates, even in pools where fish were not thought to be present. This greatly enhanced our initial protocol, which was to monitor for fish presence and size cohorts remotely by observation and estimation. Our method of fish capture may have been biased against the capture of very small or large fish. This is because the presence of very small fry may be missed if they are hidden amongst the debris that is also caught in the net. Consequently, the numbers of small fry caught could have underestimated their presence in the pool. Large fish may have been under-represented perhaps because their ability to swim quickly makes it easier for them to evade the dip net. At Nepouie in particular, some pools are sufficiently wide and deep enough that sampling with dip nets from the shoreline would enable large fish to take refuge in the centre of the pool and out of reach of the nets. Nevertheless, fish as small as TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA 13

1 cm and as large as 11 cm were caught by our method. Interestingly, neither McKay in 1981 (McKay, 1985) nor McNeil et al. in 2010(McNeil, et al., 2011) captured many fishof size 11 cm or larger. Given the large number of smaller fish that were captured, few of these smaller-sized fish survive to be greater than 11 cm. McNeil et al. (2011) used a backpack electrofishingapparatus to capture “all” fishfrom a single pool at Weetootla and at Nepouie. They collected several individuals of length greater than 12 cm but collected no fish smaller than 3 cm and 4 cm (respectively) from the pools sampled. This could imply that small fish were not present, or that electrofish­ ing is not reliable for small fish in shallow pools with algal cover. While sampling with dip nets is not a suitable method to obtain an estimate of population size, it does allow for the presence of length cohorts to be identified if sufficient individuals are caught without causing harm to the fish. It also provides evidence of recent spawning if fry are captured. The large number of fish caught in June and August 2020 is in part due to the greater effort expended as several people were successful at using the dip nets to capture fish, whereas on previous sampling trips, the fish were captured largely by one sampler targeting macro-invertebrates. Another reason is that there were a large number of fish fry. It should be emphasised that it was common to catch fish that were not visible due to being hidden by algae. That is, the absence of visible fish in a pool, even after close inspection, is not conclusive evidence of their absence. In fact, the usual experience was that fish were not noticed until they appeared in the dip net. Given this cryptic habit of M. clivicola and their ability to be present and hidden under floating algae cover, or close to the bottom sediment, it is feasible that, despite being searched for the presence of fish in waterholes may have been missed and that other populations may exist in suitable permanent waterbodies.

Length cohorts In both May and August of 2019, three length cohorts could be distinguished: they were 3, 6 and 9–10 cm. However, we were unable to notice any change in the length cohorts of fish between these two sampling dates. If individuals from the same cohort grow at different rates, then differences between length cohorts would become obscure. During the June 2020 sampling visit, peaks in the length distribution occur at 2 cm and 8–9 cm (see Figures 8 and 9). The August 2020 length distribution shows peaks at 4 cm and at 8–10 cm (Figures 8 and 9). It may be that the Weetootla fish of 6 cm length in August 2019 grew to 8 cm in June 2020, while the Nepouie fish of 6 cm grew to 9–10 cm, that is, 2–3 cm in 10 months. The fish of length 2 cm in June 2020 may have grown to 4 cm in length by the end of August 2020. That is, about 2 cm in 2 months. It is estimated that an M. clivicola of 10 cm is four to fivetimes the weight of a 6 cm fish,while in turn a 6-cm fishmay be four to fivetimes the weight of a 2 cm fish.Larval growth rates for Mogurnda adspersa from the southern Murray–Darling Basin show that larvae stocked in spring record growth of 40–50 mm in 3 months (Hammer et al., 2012). From the data in McNeil et al.’s (2011) Figure 4, it is difficult to distinguish between age cohorts as their length frequency data are dominated by a single peak at length 70–80 mm (Weetootla) and 90–100 mm length (Nepouie) and there are very low 14 M. CAON ET AL. numbers for other lengths. However, as their fishrange in length from 30 to 140 mm and 40 to 120 mm, several cohorts with different spawning dates must be present. In 2019, the most common fishsize was 5-7 cm. In 2020, the more common sizes were 1–4 cm in June and then 2.5 cm in August. This implies that the fish that were present in June grew in length by about 1 cm in the intervening 2 months. Very few fish of length greater than 10 cm were caught. Both McNeil et al. (2011) and McKay (1985) also caught few fish of length greater than 10 cm. This indicates that most fish perish before attaining this size. It has been reported that large Mogurnda will prey on smaller Mogurnda (Briggs, 2009) and this cannibalism would account for the small number of large fish. From our 2019 data, it could be deduced that at Weetootla, the length cohorts are: 30; 60; and 90–100 mm. Our 2020 data do not display any obvious length cohorts, but as the fish sizes range from 1 to 10 cm, they must have resulted from several different spawning events separated in time.

Spawning season Fish in the wild seem to be able to spawn at many times. Juveniles (of up to 2 cm length) were present in April 2017, May and August 2019, and June and August 2020. The juveniles were present at the springhead pool and in pools distant and colder than the springhead pool. The temperature of the Weetootla Springhead pool has always been 24°C, while that of the Nepouie springhead pool has been between 27°C and 29°C. The temperatures of the downstream pools in June and August 2020 when large numbers of fry were present, were between 11°C and 15°C for Weetootla and between 16°C and 21°C for Nepouie. The springhead pools are small and it does not seem likely that all spawning occurred in these warm temperature pools and the pregnant females or resulting fry made their way several hundred metres downstream to occupy the cooler downstream pools. Particularly as not all pools are connected to the preceding pool. McKay (1985) reported December spawning, while McNeil et al. (2011) reported fry and eggs as present in May 2010. Llewellyn (2006) in his study of aquarium raised M. adspersa, noted that fish in excess of 45 days old were 12–20 mm in length. Using this data and allowing for 6 weeks between hatching and fry reaching a length of about 15 mm, we suggest that in 2017–2020 spawning had occurred in the months of March, April, May and July. It is clear from the large number of very small fish that were caught in June 2020 that a significant breeding event had occurred 4-6 weeks earlier. On 2 February 2020, 59 mm of rain fell at the nearby Arkaroola weather station, after 10 mm had fallen on the previous day. This rainfall was sufficient to cause the Balcanoona and Nepouie creeks to flow and flood. Judging by the debris left clinging to tree trunks, the water level in Nepouie creek was 1.5 m or more above the pool level. This flush of freshwater and nutrients would have connected the previously separated pools in the creek bed. Consequently, fish moved both upstream and downstream to occupy pools in which they were not present in 2019, and promoted the breeding activity in the months preceding June 2020. Our results indicate that spawning preceded each of our visits to the springs. That is, occurred in the months of March, April, May and July. These months, alongwith the December spawning noted by McKay (1985), strongly suggest that spawning, rather than being a seasonal event, is an opportunistic event, that may TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA 15 occur at almost any time of year, and may be promoted by recent high water-flows following significant rainfall. Spawning does not seem to be limited or stimulated by temperature as small fish were recovered from pools whose water temperature may have been any value within the measured range. Furthermore, the temperature of the spring­ head pools, where underground water comes to the surface, varies very little with time of year and so presents no temperature signal to commence spawning in those pools. This occurrence of breeding at multiple times during the year would make it difficult to identify age cohorts as the recruitment of newly hatched individuals at multiple time points in a year would smooth out length peaks. This explains the difficulty of discerning multiple obvious peaks in the length distributions in Figure 7 to 9.

Preferences for water depth Some of the pools of water at Weetootla and Nepouie have water flowing between them but others are separated and largely still with the only water flowbeing that which comes out of the spring. Surface flowing water between pools is very limited but there may be underground flows. The depths of water in which we have located fish have varied from a few centimetres (at Nepouie) to over 4 m (one pool in Weetootla). The pools may have a surface area of only 2 or 3 square metres or be as wide as 10 m. That is, the fish occupy whatever size of waterbody that is available and suitable for their needs. It has been suggested by Roush et al. that M. clivicola “are better able to persist, or prefer, shallow ponds (up to 0.3 m deep)” (Roush et al., 2018). We think that their presence in such pools does not indicate a preference, merely that such pools are the predominant available habitat in the otherwise dry creek-beds (see Figure 10). Fish also inhabit the pools, where they exist, as deep as 4 m. Indeed, the ability of Mogurnda to survive in very shallow water of a few centimetres depth, provided that there are hiding places for them, is probably a reason that they still exist in the Flinders Ranges.

Diseased Fish Some individual fish caught for measurement were darker than healthy fish and dis­ played blotchy discoloured lesions on their surface. On some occasions, we found dead fishwith these characteristics (Figures 4 and 6). Given that very few fish with skin lesions were caught, it can be said that the health of the fish has improved since the surveys of McKay in 1981 and of McNeil et al. (2011). McKay reported that in 1981, as many as 50% and sometimes 80% of fishwere affected by a disease. McNeil reported that their 2011 survey found 20% of Weetootla fish and 12% of Nepouie fish showed signs of disease (see McNeil et al., 2011 for photographs). The proportion of diseased fish observed during our sampling period was far lower than these previous figures. Hence, we can surmise that while disease is still present in some fish that are over 6.5 cm in length, the number of diseased fish is much smaller than that reported in previous reports. The cause of the disease has been authoritatively attributed to the larvae of the parasitic nematode Contracaecum sp. by McKay who found an average of six nematodes, which ranged in length from 9 to 32 mm, per dissected fish (McKay, 1985, see plate 15). This nematode parasitises many other Australian freshwater fish. Another cause 16 M. CAON ET AL. suggested by Pierce, because parasites were not always found to be present in diseased fishhe examined, is skin cancer (Pierce, 1996). These melanomas were supposed to occur because of increased exposure to ultraviolet light caused by the depletion in the ozone layer. The South Australian EPA has considered these suggestions and decided that: “Since the creeks appeared to be well shaded by the combined effects of the surrounding riparian vegetation (30 − 40% shade) and the aquatic plants and/or filamentousalgae that grew over more than 35% of each pool where the fish were seen, it is difficult to sustain the hypothesis that UV exposure from sunlight is responsible for the occurrence of this disease in affected fish.” (EPA (Environmental Protection Authority), 2014, page, p. 4). Our observations concur with those of the EPA that there is sufficientshade and cover of algae on the water surface that in some cases may extend over almost the entire pool surface. The fish tend to stay under this cover and remain undetected until a dip net is dragged through the algae and the contents examined for evidence of fish wriggling within the algae. Hence, there is ample shelter for the fish from UV radiation. The EPA also found (page 3): “ . . . there was no evidence that any chemical con­ taminant or radioactive element was responsible for the presence of diseased fishin either of the two refuge creeks (Figures 3 and 4). The general water chemistry results were no different from many of the other streams in the region, the metal and metalloid concentrations were all at low levels, and the gamma radiation results were also at insignificant levels.” Nevertheless, parasitic infestation of fish and or skin cancers con­ tinue to be a source of fish disease, albeit, at present, a minor one. It is possible that other workers visited the Creek following wetter periods which had allowed fish to move into pools with sub-optimal habitat where their exposure to UV and increasing chemical concentrations through evaporation would lead to fish in those pools being more at risk than the core population.

Human translocation of fish to Nepouie Spring It is often seen written that the M. clivicola population in Nepouie Spring (sometimes written as Nepowie or misspelled as Nepourie) has been translocated to there from the Weetootla Spring population by human intervention. See, for example, Roush et al. (2018), McNeil et al. (2011), Ehmann (2009), and Pierce et al. (2001). However, this purported translocation event is anecdotal and unsupported by any publication of a first- hand personal communication or any specific reference as to when the translocation occurred or who performed it and how many fish were translocated. We attempt some clarification of this situation by examining the published literature. Scott et al.’s authoritative SA Museum publication “The Marine and Freshwater Fishes of South Australia” (1974) stated that M. mogurnda (sic) is abundant in Balcanoona Creek (and Dalhousie Spring) but does not mention a Nepouie population. Hence, we might presume that the fish was not present there in 1973–74. McKay, in April 1981, specifically looked for but found no fish in Nepouie Spring (McKay, 1985). He searched surface water within 25 km of Balcanoona, including: Bolla Bollana Creek, Munyalinna Creek, Nepowie Creek and Italowie Creek, and reported that: “ . . . .only Mogurnda ‘balcanoonensis’ (sic) were found in abundance in most of the perennial waters along a 12 km tract of Balcanoona Creek with the lower limits of this habitat adjacent to the Balcanoona H.S.” However, the holotype for the species is held by the South Australian TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA 17

Museum and was collected from Nepouie Spring in September 1981 (Allen & Jenkins, 1999). The location of the spring is stated as “about 10 km northeast of the Balcanoona Homestead” which corresponds to the location of Nepouie but not of Weetootla. Hence, the specimen is unequivocally stated as from Nepouie and not from the Weetootla gorge population. It is not known why McKay failed to findfish at Nepouie in April 1981, given that the type series was collected from there in September 1981. The authors found fishin our recorded locations, including the pool at the springhead and the most downstream of permanent pools at Nepouie Spring. Perhaps McKay did not venture far enough upstream in 1981 to locate the pools with fish in them. We have been advised that a recent genetic analysis, as yet unpublished, has shown that the fish in Nepouie were sourced from Weetootla, specifically from the “lovely pool” (see Figure 5) (Mark Lethbridge, personal communication, 21 January 2021). However, how the fish arrived at Nepouie is unknown to us. Of interest is an apparently erroneous report from the South Australian Environmental Protection Agency that in late 2012 the Nepouie Spring was dry: One of the Report’s “Key Points” was: “ . . . .but the channel was dry in spring 2012”, and later: “obviously the drying of the stream reach in spring meant that any resident fish would have perished.” (see: http://www.epa.sa.gov.au/reports_water/c0323-ecosystem–2012). A subsequent report (EPA 1047/14) states (in their Table 1) that the temperature of the Nepouie Spring is 18.4°C (EPA (Environmental Protection Authority), 2014). We have measured the water temperature at the Nepouie springhead to be a consistent 28– 29°C so we think that the EPA team did not venture up the Nepouie Creek as far as the springhead but instead reported on downstream pools that subsequently became dry. Given that in year 2012, an above average 393 mm of rain was recorded at nearby

Figure 5. The “lovely pool” in Weetootla (our site W3) that has been plumbed at more than 4 m. The rock face falls away steeply into the water (Photo Max Jahn). 18 M. CAON ET AL.

Figure 6. A healthy fish (top) and a fish discoloured by disease.

Arkaroola village, including 60 mm over June and July, the likelihood of Nepouie Spring being dry is vanishingly small. We observed strong water flows in 2018 and 2019 despite annual rainfall totals of only 66 mm and 41 mm, respectively, being recorded nearby at Arkaroola. This 2-year total of 107 mm is the lowest 2-year rainfall total recorded since recording began in 1938. Hence, it is not credible that the spring stopped flowingin 2012, yet was flowingin 2018–19. The likelihood of fishperishing in 2012 and then reappearing TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA 19

Percentage of Fish v. Total Length category 40

35 n i

b 30 h t g n e

l 25 h c a e

f 20 o n o i t

r 15 o p o r

P 10 %

5

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Total Length (1cm bins)

May-19 Aug-19 Jun-20 Aug-20

Figure 7. Fish captures by length (nearest cm) displayed as the % proportion in each length category during each visit for combined locations (= “# of fish in a category” divided by “total # fish captured” multiplied by 100). to be present in considerable numbers in 2017 is also not high. We observed that the spring was flowing strongly and that fish, rather than having perished, were plentiful in the years 2017-2020, despite the prolonged drought in 2018 and 2019.

Other permanent water holes for possible translocation The Arkaroola village weather station has recorded an average annual rainfall over the 30-year period between 1991 and 2020 of 237 mm. This station is about 5 km in a straight line from the Weetootla Spring. McKay conducted his fish survey at Weetootla in February 1981 following a year of average rainfall in 1980 (293 mm) and a year of exceptionally high rainfall in 1979 (528 mm). This allowed the water in Balcanoona creek to extend to the Balcanoona homestead and perhaps beyond. McNeil et al. conducted their survey in 2010 when 448 mm of rain was recorded at Arkaroola. This followed 200 mm of rainfall in the preceding 14 months. This contrasts with the annual rainfall in our survey years of 107 mm (2020), 40 mm (2019) and 66 mm (2018). As 2018 and 2019 were exceptionally dry years, the persistence of extensive pools of water at both the Weetootla and Nepouie springs, along with the presence of fish, is convincing evidence of the permanency of water at these sites. In addition, water holes in the northern Flinders Ranges visited in these years and found to have water in them 20 M. CAON ET AL.

Nepouie

140

120

100 h s i f

f 80 o

r e b 60 m u N 40

20

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total Length (1cm bins) Jun-20 Aug-20

Figure 8. Nepouie Spring fish numbers in June 2020 (366) and August 2020 (364) vs total length (in cm).

Weetootla

60

50 h

s 40 i f

f o

r 30 e b m u 20 N

10

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Total Length (1cm bins) Jun-20 Aug-20

Figure 9. Weetootla Spring fish numbers in June 2020 (145) and August 2020 (109) vs total length (in cm). are very likely to be permanent and thus candidates for refuge sites for translo­ cated fish. Camel Yards and Moro Gorge as well as a third unnamed water hole, all within the Nantawarrina Indigenous Protected Area, were visited (see Table 4). Water but no fish were found. These water holes seemed unsuited for M. clivicola as they lacked the cover provided by Creekside vegetation and floating algae in which the fish could hide. Furthermore, the volume of water remaining in Moro Gorge in August 2019 consisted of one very open pool which was quite green with algae but had no floating algae. Hence, we disagree with the suggestion of Roush (2016) that Moro Gorge may be a suitable TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA 21

Figure 10. Mogurnda clivicola in 4 cm of water. translocation site for M. clivicola. In addition, Munyalinna Spring (north of Nepouie) was reportedly dry, so was not visited. Water holes that did seem to be suitable Mogurnda habitat were Third Spring and Artipena Spring. At Third Spring, shallow pools of water extended from the springhead adjacent to the Blinman to Parachilna road for about a kilometre downstream. This creek had floating algae which could provide suitable fish shelter. The nearby Second Spring seemed unsuitable. Artipena Spring has some very large bodies of deep water with reeds close to the bank and some algal cover. It seems to be suitable for Mogurnda as the water quality parameters: temperature, pH, calcium ion concentration, dissolved oxygen and electrical conductivity are within the ranges that were measured at the springs that support fish. Of interest is the higher conductivity of the Artipena water, which ranged from 4310 to 5110 µS/cm, when compared to that at the Gammon Ranges springs. Paralana Hot Spring could possibly support a population M. clivicola, as the stream of warm water that issued from the ground, a few tens of metres from the usual position of the springhead, was flowing well. However, the pool that is usually present at the springhead was almost completely absent. Terrapinna Waterhole is not suitable for the fish as it is too exposed and when visited in November 2019, had no reeds or bulrushes to provide cover. The Mawson Plateau, to the north of Arkaroola may provide suitable pools to support Mogurnda. Despite T-Junction water hole being dry in 2018, as were Waterholes GR474 678 and GR499 706, there were other sheltered places in the Granite Creek that contained water and could provide a suitable habitat.

Intended future work This paper reports on a citizen science project that has developed from the interest and involvement of citizens concerned about the maintenance of native species biodiversity in the Vulkathunha-Gammon Ranges National Park and the broader arid lands of which the park is a part. The project will continue into the near future. The paper reports and 22 M. CAON ET AL. discusses water quality measurements and observations on fish numbers and health that the group has collected, at well-defined sites, on six visits to the park made over the period 2018-2020. The authors acknowledge that a data set collected at a particular time by citizen scientists cannot be given the same status as one that has been collected by fully professional, experienced scientists. However, the citizen science group has the advantage that it can visit its monitoring sites regularly, and at differenttimes of the year, over many years, to collect data. So the group believes it is compiling data on water quality and fish numbers that is potentially more informative than any single set of measurements can be. The measurements will inform decisions on possible translocation sites and assist in monitoring such translocations. Samples for genetic analysis have been collected by others in November 2020 and it is hoped by this means to compare the populations in Nepouie and Weetootla Creeks.

Conclusion The monitoring of water quality and population parameters for Mogurnda clivicola population is progressing our understanding of the dynamics and environmental toler­ ances of this relict Flinders Ranges species, and will assist the proposed translocation of the species within the Flinders Ranges to enhance long-term survival prospects. Regular monitoring provides confidence that the previously reported skin lesion disease is not a major threat and that the populations maintain health and vigour through extended driest on record periods (BOM website). The last 3 years of monitoring have provided conservation managers with the first regular snapshots of the population dynamics and habitat quality for M. clivicola. The expertise and enthusiasm that has been developing within the FoVGRNP group will prove invaluable assistance to conservation managers in monitoring the progress of extant and future translocated populations.

Acknowledgments

The Friends of Vulkathunha-Gammon Ranges National Park acknowledges the Adnyamathanha people as the Traditional Custodians of the land on which this project takes place, recognising their continuing connection to land and water, and pays respect to Elders past, present and emerging. This work was also endorsed by the VGRNP Co-management Authority. Gratitude is also extended to the members of the FoVGRNP who volunteer their labour, the Nepabunna Community for access to Nantawarrina IPA and the managers of the following Pastoral leases – Wooltana, Martins Well, Oratunga, Moolawatana and the Arkaroola Sanctuary. The authors are grateful for the comments from reviewers which have significantly improved the manuscript.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Funding

This work was supported with funds from the SA Arid Lands NRM Board, Community Grants Scheme, and free accommodation at Balcanoona in VGRNP. TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA 23

ORCID

Martin Caon http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6535-6380

References

Allen, G. R., & Jenkins, A. P. (1999). A review of the Australian freshwater gudgeons, genus Mogurnda (Eleotridae) with descriptions of three new species. Aqua, Journal of Ichthyology and Aquatic Biology, 3(4), 141–156. Boulton, A. J., & Williams, W. D. (1996). Aquatic biota. In M. Davies, C. R. Twidale, & M. J. Tyler (Eds.), The natural history of the Flinders Ranges (pp. 104–105). Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Royal Society of South Australia. Brandle, R., Mooney, T., & De Preu, N. (2018). Broadscale feral predator and herbivore control for yellow-footed rock-wallabies Petrogale xanthopus ssp. xanthopus: Improved resilience for plants and animals = Bounceback. In S. Garnett, P. Latch, D. Lindenmeyer, & J. Woinarski (Eds.), Recovering Australian threatened species, A Book of Hope CSIRO Publishing. (Ch. 15) Briggs, G. (2009). Australian purple spotted gudgeons. Fishes of SAHUL, 23(3), 532–535. Briggs, G., Unmack, P. J., Hammer, M., & Scharpf, C. (2018). Fish in focus: Central Australian Mogurnda species (Eleotridae). Fishes of Sahul, 32(3), 1324–1334. Castelnau, F. L. D. (1878). On some new Australian (chiefly) freshwater fishes. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales, 3(2), 140–144. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.part.22228 DEWHA. (2008). Approved Conservation Advice for Mogurnda clivicola (Flinders Ranges Gudgeon). Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts. Ehmann, H. (2009). Flinders Ranges frogs and fishes: Pilot project. South Australian Arid Lands Natural Resources Management Report November 2009. https://www.naturalresources.sa.gov. au/files/sharedassets/sa_arid_lands/water/water-flinders-ranges-frogs-fishes-rep.pdf EPA (Environmental Protection Authority) (2014). Information Sheet: Endangered fish not affected by water quality in the Flinders Ranges, no. 1047/14, Environmental Protection Authority, Adelaide, South Australia https://www.epa.sa.gov.au/files/8501_info_fish_flinders. pdf Glover, C. J. M. (1979). Studies on Central Australian fishes.Further observations and records part 1. South Australian Naturalist, 53(4), 58–62. Glover, C. J. M. (1987). Threatened fishspecies in South Australia, In J. H. Harris (ed). Proceedings of the Workshop Conference on Australian Threatened Fishes, (pp. 55–58) The Australian Society For Fish Biology. Melbourne, 15-16 August 1985. (Division of Fisheries, Department of Agriculture New South Wales.) Glover, C. J. M., & Inglis, W. G. (1971). Freshwater fishes of South Australia. In D. L. J. Atkinson (Ed.), South Australian Yearbook, Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics, South Australia Office, Government Printer. https://www.ausstats.abs.gov.au/ausstats/free.nsf/0/ 7FBEABFDA2952288CA257AFA0016B5BF/$File/13014%20-SA%20YrBook-1971.pdf Glover, C. J. M., & Sim, T. C. (1978). Studies on Central Australian fishes:A progress report. South Australian Naturalist, 52(3), 35–44. Glover C. J. M. (1979). Fishes. Chapter 16 in Tyler M. J., Twidale C. R., Davies, M. and Wells C.B. Eds., Natural History of the North East Deserts. Hammer, M., Barnes, T., Pillar, L., & Sortino, D. (2012) Reintroduction plan for the Southern Purple-spotted Gudgeon in the southern Murray— Darling Basin. Murray Darling Basin Authority Publication No 45/12 ISBN 978-1-922068-54-5 (online) https://www.mdba.gov.au/ sites/default/files/pubs/PSG-final-corporate-style_v2.pdf Hammer, M., Wedderburn, S., & Van Weenen, J. (2009). Action Plan for South Australian Freshwater Fishes. Native Fish Australia (SA) Inc.. http://natureglenelg.org.au/wp-content /uploads/2014/01/2009-Action-Plan-for-South-Australian-Freshwater-Fishes.pdf 24 M. CAON ET AL.

Llewellyn, L. C. (2006). Breeding and development of the endangered purple-spotted Gudgeon Mogurnda adspersa population from the Murray Darling. Australian Zoologist, 33(4), 480–510. https://doi.org/10.7882/AZ.2006.021 McKay, K. (1985). An assessment of an inland population of purple spotted gudgeons: Mogurnda “balcanoonensis” (previously recorded as M. mogurnda) at Balcanoona Creek/Gammon Ranges National Park, Northern Flinders Ranges of South Australia. (Unpublished) Wildlife conserva­ tion Fund Research Grant Project Report. South Australian Department of Environment and Planning. (available from the State Library of South Australia) McNeil, D., White, M., & Schmarr, D. (2011). Assessment of endemic fish (Mogurnda clivicola) and native vegetation at springs in the northern Flinders Ranges. South Australian Arid Lands Natural Resources Management Board, Government of SA, SARDI. https://www.pir.sa.gov. au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0017/232127/Assessment_of_endemic_fish_Mogurnda_clivicola_ and_native_vegetation_at_springs_in_the_northern_Flinders_Ranges.pdf Pierce, B. E. (1996). Ozone layer hole causing fish cancer. Southern Fisheries: Essential fishing information for South Australia. Primary Industries South Australia, Fisheries 4(3), 16. Pierce, B. E., Young, M., & Sim, T. (2001). Flinders Ranges Fishes. In R. Brandle (Ed..), A Biological Survey of the Flinders Ranges, South Australia, 1997-1999 (pp. 25–34). Biodiversity Survey and Monitoring, National Parks and Wildlife, South Australia, Department for Environment and Heritage. https://www.environment.sa.gov.au/files/sharedassets/public/science/flinders_ ranges_report.pdf Pusey, B. J., Kennard, M. J., & Arthington, A. H. (2004). Freshwater fishes of north-eastern Australia. CSIRO Publishing. Richardson, J. (1844). Ichthyology. In J. Richardson & J. E. Gray (Eds..), The Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Erebus and Terror under the command of Captain Sir James Clark Ross, R.N., F.R.S., during the years 1839–43, E.W. Janson (Vol. 2, pp. 1–16). Roush, A. (2016). Population and habitat assessment to prioritise areas for translocation of Flinders Ranges Purple-spotted Gudgeon (Mogurnda clivicola) insurance populations in the Northern Flinders Ranges. (Unpublished honours thesis). Flinders University. Roush, A., Lethbridge, M., & Brandle, R. (2018). Population and habitat assessment to prioritise areas for translocation of Flinders Ranges purple-spotted Gudgeon (‘Mogurnda clivicola’) insurance populations in the northern Flinders Ranges. South Australian Naturalist, 92(1), 15–30. Scott, T. D., Southcott, R. V., & Glover, C. J. M. (1974). The marine and freshwater fishes of South Australia (2nd ed.). Government Printer, p274. White, M., & Scholz, G. (2008). Prioritising springs of ecological significance in the Flinders Ranges, DWLBC Report 2009/16. Government of South Australia, through Department of Water, Land and Biodiversity Conservation. http://www.dwlbc.sa.gov.au/publications/reports/html Whiterod, N., Hammer, M., & Unmack, P. (2019). Mogurnda clivicola (pp. e. T122913831A123382376). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2019. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T122913831A123382376.en