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Obscenity Law and Sexually Explicit Rap Music: Understanding the Effects of Sex, Attitudes, and Beliefs See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248925838 Obscenity law and sexually explicit rap music: Understanding the effects of sex, attitudes, and beliefs Article in Journal of Applied Communication Research · August 1997 DOI: 10.1080/00909889709365477 CITATIONS READS 27 547 2 authors: Travis Dixon Daniel Linz University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign University of California, Santa Barbara 32 PUBLICATIONS 1,503 CITATIONS 82 PUBLICATIONS 3,612 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE All content following this page was uploaded by Daniel Linz on 28 January 2014. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file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`0 &%C.)(.'&*%)&/-#-&(+%&(%("+%4/#5+'$#(1%.6%7&*#6.'/#&8%9&/(&%:&'0&'&%0%K'.6+$$.'%.6%7.EE@/#)&(#./%&/- C#'+)(.'%.6%("+%O&,%&/-%9.)#+(1%K'.M'&E8%4/#5+'$#(1%.6%7&*#6.'/#&8%9&/(&%:&'0&'& !.%)#(+%("#$%B'(#)*+%C#]./8%!'&5#$%OZ%&/-%O#/`8%C&/#+*%_ZaAFFHb%c<0$)+/#(1%*&,%&/-%$+]@&**1%+]D*#)#(%'&D%E@$#)2 4/-+'$(&/-#/M%("+%+66+)($%.6%$+]8%&((#(@-+$8%&/-%0+*#+6$c8%?.@'/&*%.6%BDD*#+-%7.EE@/#)&(#./%L+$+&')"8%=S2%J8%=AH%d%=TA !.%*#/e%(.%("#$%B'(#)*+2%C<N2%A>ZA>G>Y>>F>FGGFH>FJISTHH 4LO2%"((D2YY-]Z-.#Z.'MYA>ZA>G>Y>>F>FGGFH>FJISTHH PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.informaworld.com/terms-and-conditions-of-access.pdf This article may be used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, re-distribution, re-selling, loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Journal of Applied Communication Research 25 (1997), 217-241 Obscenity Law and Sexually Explicit Rap Music: Understanding the Effects of Sex, Attitudes, and Beliefs Travis L. Dixon and Daniel G. Linz ABSTRACT This study investigated listeners' judgments regarding the offensiveness of sexually explicit lyrics found in rap music produced by 2 Live Crew. Subjects were exposed to music and lyrics in a 2 (subject sex—male, female) X 2 (musical genre—2 Live Crew Rap, Non-Rap) X 3 (sexual explicitness—high, medium, low) factorial design. They then made judgments of patent offensiveness, prurient appeal and artistic merit regarding 2 Live Crew and rap music in general. The results indicated that the 2 Live Crew music that was high in sexual explicitness was rated as more patently offensive than other equally sexually explicit materials. Surprisingly, women did not find the 2 Live Crew more offensive than men. Rebellious sexual attitudes, the belief that rap music causes societal degradation, and disaffection toward society, helped predict subject responses to all materials on patent offensiveness and prurient appeal scales. Appreciation of linguistic exaggeration, popu- larly known as "playing the dozens," and African American humor predicted whether subjects would find artistic merit in rap. Listeners' endorsement of rebellious sexual attitudes and the belief that rap contributes to societal degradation also predicted responses to 2 Live Crew on a combination of the three variables associated with obscenity law (patent offensiveness, prurient appeal, and artistic merit). Theoretical implications and legal applications of the findings are discussed. Downloaded By: [University of California, Santa Barbara] At: 18:16 20 January 2011 nderstanding the effects of sexually explicit materials on viewers has been a U subject of continuing interest to mass communication researchers (Donner- stein, Linz, & Penrod, 1987; Linz & Malamuth, 1993). A sub-portion of this research has focused on ferreting out which materials are accepted in a given community in accordance with obscenity laws (Linz, Donnerstein, Land, McCall, Scott, Shafer, Klein, & Lance, 1991; Linz, Donnerstein, Shafer, Land, McCall, & Graesser, 1995). Traditionally, pictures, magazines, movies and videocassettes Travis L. Dixon is a doctoral candidate and Daniel G. Linz is Professor of Communication and Director of the Law and Society Program at the University of California, Santa Barbara. This report is based on a master's thesis submitted by Travis L. Dixon to the University of California, Santa Barbara. The authors wish to thank Audra Pratcher and Steve Hambright for their assistance in data collection. Edward Donnerstein, Dale Kunkel, and Jake Harwood generously provided insightful comments and sugges- tions on earlier drafts of this article. 218 OBSCENITY LAW AND RAP MUSIC DIXON AND LINZ have been prosecuted under these laws. Recently, certain forms of music also have been indicted as obscene (Will, 1990). Rap music in particular has come under fire for its offensive sexual content. A prominent example of challenges to such music was the prosecution of 2 Live Crew for its rap album "As Nasty As They Wanna Be" (Campbell, 1991). There has been little research on listeners' perceptions of rap music and how these perceptions are related to the components of obscenity law. Only a handful of studies has examined listeners' responses to sexually explicit music in general, and rap music in particular (Hansen, 1995; Johnson, Jackson, & Gatto, 1995; Zillmann, Aust, Hoffman, Love, Ordman, Pope, & Siegler, 1995). This study seeks to understand why sexually explicit rap music produced by 2 Live Crew, and by implication other sexually explicit rap music, is offensive to some listeners. We investigated this issue by presenting male and female listeners with various levels of sexually explicit rap and non-rap music, and by measuring listeners' beliefs about this music as well as measuring background variables. These variables were then used to explain listener ratings of the material on the three dimensions of obscenity law: patent offensiveness, prurient appeal and artistic merit. First, however, we treat music in general and music lyrics in particular, as communica- tion. We also review the attacks on and defenses of rap music in the scholarly and popular culture. Finally, we examine the sexual explicitness of rap music in terms of obscenity law and three hypotheses are derived. Communication, Rap Music, And Obscenity Several researchers have noted that the scientific investigation of music as a communication medium has been neglected. Chaffee (1985) has argued that music is particularly worthy of scholarly attention because it uniquely transcends social boundaries such as national origin, language, and time. As a form of communica- tion, musical harmonies and sounds create and maintain sociological and interpersonal entities such as subcultures, folk traditions, and "generation gaps. [Music] carries meaning at many levels, in lyrics that mix poetry and prose, in sound that interweaves melody and rhythm. The universality of music has appealed to the critical and aesthetic instincts of every kind of scholar imaginable" (Chaffee, 1985, p. 413). Lull (1985) hypothesizes that music helps unify social collectives, introduces new topics (e.g., rap music's angry lamentation of urban Downloaded By: [University of California, Santa Barbara] At: 18:16 20 January 2011 inner city blight), teaches societal norms and rules, and creates new symbols. Communication scholars have investigated music listeners' belief systems (Edwards & Singletary, 1989), the sex differences in music preferences (Christen- son & Peterson, 1988), the existence of "rock" music subcultures (Orlova, 1991), and the effect of parental advisory labels on teenagers' music choices (Christenson, 1992). Several of these scholars have studied the relationship between music, culture and politics. For example researchers have studied Latin music influences in the United States (Manuel, 1991), the role of reggae in political activism (Land, 1995), the influence of American music on Canadian youth (Winter, 1985), and the listening patterns of Swedish youth (Roe, 1985). More recently, communication scholars have begun to devote a large amount of attention to studying the effects of music videos on audience members (Brown & Campbell, 1986; Brown & Schulze, 1990; Gow, 1994; Hansen & Hansen, 1990; Hansen & Krygowski, 1994; Peterson- Lewis & Chenault, 1986). Much of this scientific research has been motivated by 219 JACR AUGUST 1997 concerns about music having an adverse effect on listeners. However, fewer social scientific studies have been conducted on rap music. Much more attention has been paid to rap music by cultural studies scholars. Rap Music and Misogyny
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