Operation Crossroads: a Report of Non-Participating Scientific Observer

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Operation Crossroads: a Report of Non-Participating Scientific Observer http://oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt3z09r4zz No online items Operation Crossroads: a report of non-participating scientific observer Paul S. Galtsoff The University Library Special Collections and Archives University Library University of California, Santa Cruz Santa Cruz, California, 95064 Email: [email protected] URL: http://library.ucsc.edu/speccoll/ © 2008 The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved. Operation Crossroads: a report of MS 294 1 non-participating scientific observer Operation Crossroads: a report of non-participating scientific observer Collection number: MS 294 The University Library Special Collections and Archives University of California, Santa Cruz Santa Cruz, California Processed by: UCSC OAC Unit Date Completed: May 15, 2008 Encoded by: UCSC OAC Unit © 2008 The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved. Descriptive Summary Title: Operation Crossroads: a report of non-participating scientific observer Dates: 1946-1947 Collection number: MS 294 Creator: Galtsoff, Paul S. Collection Size: 74 pages 1 portfolio Repository: University of California, Santa Cruz. University Library. Special Collections and Archives Santa Cruz, California 95064 Abstract: This collection includes annotated typescript and photographs of Galtsoff's report as an observer of the Bikini Atoll atomic bomb tests and the destructive results of the tests on the sea life in the area. Physical location: Stored offsite at NRLF: Advance notice is required for access to the papers. Languages: Languages represented in the collection: English Access Collection open for research. Publication Rights Property rights reside with the University of California. Literary rights are retained by the creators of the records and their heirs. For permission to publish or to reproduce the material, please contact the Head of Special Collections and Archives. Preferred Citation Operation Crossroads: a report of non-participating scientific observer. MS 294. Special Collections and Archives, University Library, University of California, Santa Cruz. Acquisition Information Donor unknown Note For a complete biography of Paul Galtsoff, one of shellfisheries pioneering biologists please see the PDF of National Shellfisheries Association Quarterly Newsletter, August 2004 article by Maille Lyons on Dr. Galtsoff under the Additional Guides section of this finding aid. Scope and Content of Collection Paul S. Galtsoff was an observer of the 1946 Bikini Atoll atomic bomb tests and reported on the destructive results of the tests on sea life in the area. This collection includes photographs and seventy four annotated typescript carbon pages of Galtsoff's report. Indexing Terms The following terms have been used to index the description of this collection in the library's online public access catalog. Operation Crossroads: a report of MS 294 2 non-participating scientific observer Galtsoff, Paul S. (Paul Simon), 1887--Archives Operation Crossroads, 1946 Nuclear weapons--Marshall Islands--Bikini Atoll--Testing U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service MS 120 Reynolds (Earle and Akie) Archive, 1930-1997 Paul S. Galtsoff biography Operation Crossroads: a report of MS 294 3 non-participating scientific observer.
Recommended publications
  • 2012 04 Newsletter
    United States Atmospheric & Underwater Atomic Weapon Activities National Association of Atomic Veterans, Inc. 1945 “TRINITY“ “Assisting America’s Atomic Veterans Since 1979” ALAMOGORDO, N. M. Website: www.naav.com E-mail: [email protected] 1945 “LITTLE BOY“ HIROSHIMA, JAPAN R. J. RITTER - Editor April, 2012 1945 “FAT MAN“ NAGASAKI, JAPAN 1946 “CROSSROADS“ BIKINI ISLAND 1948 “SANDSTONE“ ENEWETAK ATOLL 1951 “RANGER“ NEVADA TEST SITE 1951 “GREENHOUSE“ ENEWETAK ATOLL 1951 “BUSTER – JANGLE“ NEVADA TEST SITE 1952 “TUMBLER - SNAPPER“ NEVADA TEST SITE 1952 “IVY“ ENEWETAK ATOLL 1953 “UPSHOT - KNOTHOLE“ NEVADA TEST SITE 1954 “CASTLE“ BIKINI ISLAND 1955 “TEAPOT“ NEVADA TEST SITE 1955 “WIGWAM“ OFFSHORE SAN DIEGO 1955 “PROJECT 56“ NEVADA TEST SITE 1956 “REDWING“ ENEWETAK & BIKINI 1957 “PLUMBOB“ NEVADA TEST SITE 1958 “HARDTACK-I“ ENEWETAK & BIKINI 1958 “NEWSREEL“ JOHNSTON ISLAND 1958 “ARGUS“ SOUTH ATLANTIC 1958 “HARDTACK-II“ NEVADA TEST SITE 1961 “NOUGAT“ NEVADA TEST SITE 1962 “DOMINIC-I“ CHRISTMAS ISLAND JOHNSTON ISLAND 1965 “FLINTLOCK“ AMCHITKA, ALASKA 1969 “MANDREL“ AMCHITKA, ALASKA 1971 “GROMMET“ AMCHITKA, ALASKA 1974 “POST TEST EVENTS“ ENEWETAK CLEANUP ------------ “ IF YOU WERE THERE, YOU ARE AN ATOMIC VETERAN “ The Newsletter for America’s Atomic Veterans COMMANDER’S COMMENTS knowing the seriousness of the situation, did not register any Outreach Update: First, let me extend our discomfort, or dissatisfaction on her part. As a matter of fact, it thanks to the membership and friends of NAAV was kind of nice to have some of those callers express their for supporting our “outreach” efforts over the thanks for her kind attention and assistance. We will continue past several years. It is that firm dedication to to insure that all inquires, along these lines, are fully and our Mission-Statement that has driven our adequately addressed.
    [Show full text]
  • Grappling with the Bomb: Britain's Pacific H-Bomb Tests
    Timeline and glossary Nuclear timeline, 1945–1963 16 July 1945 Alamogordo, United States conducts first-ever nuclear New Mexico, USA test, codenamed ‘Trinity .’ 6 August 1945 Hiroshima, Japan US aircraft Enola Gay drops the atomic weapon ‘Little Boy’ on Hiroshima, killing 80,000 people immediately and an estimated 100,000 people within six months . 9 August 1945 Nagasaki, Japan US aircraft Bockscar drops the atomic weapon ‘Fat Man’ on Nagasaki, killing 70,000 people immediately and tens of thousands in following months . 30 June 1946 Bikini Atoll, Marshall Under Operation Crossroads, United Islands States conducts the first of two atomic tests at Bikini Atoll in the Marshall Islands. ‘Able’ and ‘Baker’ are the first of 67 atmospheric tests in the Marshall Islands between 1946–1958 . 6 August 1948 Hiroshima, Japan Hiroshima’s first Peace Festival. 29 August 1949 Semipalatinsk, USSR conducts first atomic test Kazakhstan RDS-1 in Operation Pervaya molniya (Fast lightning), dubbed ‘Joe-1’ by United States . 1950–1954 Korean peninsula United States, Britain and Australia, under a United Nations mandate, join military operations in Korea following clashes between forces from the south and north of Korea. The Democratic People’s Republic is backed by the newly created People’s Republic of China . 3 October 1952 Monte Bello Islands, Under Operation Hurricane, United Western Australia Kingdom begins its nuclear testing program in Australia with a 25 kiloton atomic test . xi GRAPPLING WITH THE BOMB 1 November 1952 Bikini Atoll, Marshall United States conducts its first Islands hydrogen bomb test, codenamed ‘Mike’ (10 .4 megatons) as part of Operation Ivy .
    [Show full text]
  • Trinity and Beyond: the Atomic Bomb Movie
    Trinity and Beyond: The Atomic Bomb Movie 1. Why did scientists detonate 100 tons of TNT be- 9. How many died in Hiroshima? 20. How heavy was the housing that contained the fore they tested their bombs? Mike test bomb? 10. How many buildings were destroyed? 2. Who was put in charge of the Manhattan Project? 21. During the 1953 Nevada desert tests, why did the smaller yield bomb cause more damage than the 11. How many died in Nagasaki? larger yield bomb? 3. Was the scientist Edward Teller at first in favor of the bomb project? 12. How many were injured? 22. What were the scientists studying when they ex- ploded bombs in the ocean off of San Diego? 4. Did he ever regret working on the bombs? 13. What percent of the buildings were destroyed? 23. On later Pacific Island tests, why were floating 5. When the first test bomb exploded at the Trinity barges needed to carry the bombs? site in New Mexico, what were the values associated 14. During Operation Crossroads, which caused with each of the following? more damage; the airdrop, or the underwater explo- sion? 24. How high up was the Teak test shot detonated? a) temperature: b) pressure: 15. What was the purpose of Operation Sandstone? 25. What happened in the atmosphere as a result? c) distance at which a person would go temporarily blind: d) number of times greater than the explosion of 100 16. In what year did Russia first test an atomic 26. How far away were these effects felt, and how tons of TNT: bomb? long did they last? 6.
    [Show full text]
  • Tomoe Otsuki
    Volume 13 | Issue 32 | Number 2 | Article ID 4356 | Aug 10, 2015 The Asia-Pacific Journal | Japan Focus The Politics of Reconstruction and Reconciliation in U.S-Japan Relations—Dismantling the Atomic Bomb Ruins of Nagasaki’s Urakami Cathedral Tomoe Otsuki Abstract: This paper explores the politics surrounding the dismantling of the ruins of Nagasaki’s Urakami Cathedral. It shows how U.S-Japan relations in the mid-1950s shaped the 1958 decision by the Catholic community of Urakami to dismantle and subsequently to reconstruct the ruins. The paper also assesses the significance of the struggle over the ruins of the Urakami Cathedral for understanding the respective responses to atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. It further casts new light on the wartime role of the Catholic Church and of Nagai Takashi. Keywords: Nagasaki, Atomic Bomb, Urakami Cathedral, the People-to-People program, Lucky Dragon # 5 incident, Japanese antinuclear movement, the peaceful use of nuclear energy, sister city relation between Nagasaki and St. Paul, U.S.-Japan Security Alliance. The two photographs below depict the remnants of the Urakami Cathedral following the atomic bombing of Nagasaki. Both were taken in 1953 by Takahara Itaru, a former Mainichi Shimbun photographer as well as a Remnants of the Southern Wall and statues of the Nagasaki hibakusha. Most of the children saints of Urakami Cathedral playing beside the ruins were born after the Photo courtesy of Takahara Itaru atomic bombing and grew up in Urakami’s atomic field. Takahara’s photographs capture the remnants of the cathedral in shaping the Children play in remnants of belfry of Urakami postwar landscape and lives of people in and Cathedral 1 around Urakami.
    [Show full text]
  • Smithsonian and the Enola
    An Air Force Association Special Report The Smithsonian and the Enola Gay The Air Force Association The Air Force Association (AFA) is an independent, nonprofit civilian organiza- tion promoting public understanding of aerospace power and the pivotal role it plays in the security of the nation. AFA publishes Air Force Magazine, sponsors national symposia, and disseminates infor- mation through outreach programs of its affiliate, the Aerospace Education Founda- tion. Learn more about AFA by visiting us on the Web at www.afa.org. The Aerospace Education Foundation The Aerospace Education Foundation (AEF) is dedicated to ensuring America’s aerospace excellence through education, scholarships, grants, awards, and public awareness programs. The Foundation also publishes a series of studies and forums on aerospace and national security. The Eaker Institute is the public policy and research arm of AEF. AEF works through a network of thou- sands of Air Force Association members and more than 200 chapters to distrib- ute educational material to schools and concerned citizens. An example of this includes “Visions of Exploration,” an AEF/USA Today multi-disciplinary sci- ence, math, and social studies program. To find out how you can support aerospace excellence visit us on the Web at www. aef.org. © 2004 The Air Force Association Published 2004 by Aerospace Education Foundation 1501 Lee Highway Arlington VA 22209-1198 Tel: (703) 247-5839 Produced by the staff of Air Force Magazine Fax: (703) 247-5853 Design by Guy Aceto, Art Director An Air Force Association Special Report The Smithsonian and the Enola Gay By John T. Correll April 2004 Front cover: The huge B-29 bomber Enola Gay, which dropped an atomic bomb on Japan, is one of the world’s most famous airplanes.
    [Show full text]
  • Bob Farquhar
    1 2 Created by Bob Farquhar For and dedicated to my grandchildren, their children, and all humanity. This is Copyright material 3 Table of Contents Preface 4 Conclusions 6 Gadget 8 Making Bombs Tick 15 ‘Little Boy’ 25 ‘Fat Man’ 40 Effectiveness 49 Death By Radiation 52 Crossroads 55 Atomic Bomb Targets 66 Acheson–Lilienthal Report & Baruch Plan 68 The Tests 71 Guinea Pigs 92 Atomic Animals 96 Downwinders 100 The H-Bomb 109 Nukes in Space 119 Going Underground 124 Leaks and Vents 132 Turning Swords Into Plowshares 135 Nuclear Detonations by Other Countries 147 Cessation of Testing 159 Building Bombs 161 Delivering Bombs 178 Strategic Bombers 181 Nuclear Capable Tactical Aircraft 188 Missiles and MIRV’s 193 Naval Delivery 211 Stand-Off & Cruise Missiles 219 U.S. Nuclear Arsenal 229 Enduring Stockpile 246 Nuclear Treaties 251 Duck and Cover 255 Let’s Nuke Des Moines! 265 Conclusion 270 Lest We Forget 274 The Beginning or The End? 280 Update: 7/1/12 Copyright © 2012 rbf 4 Preface 5 Hey there, I’m Ralph. That’s my dog Spot over there. Welcome to the not-so-wonderful world of nuclear weaponry. This book is a journey from 1945 when the first atomic bomb was detonated in the New Mexico desert to where we are today. It’s an interesting and sometimes bizarre journey. It can also be horribly frightening. Today, there are enough nuclear weapons to destroy the civilized world several times over. Over 23,000. “Enough to make the rubble bounce,” Winston Churchill said. The United States alone has over 10,000 warheads in what’s called the ‘enduring stockpile.’ In my time, we took care of things Mano-a-Mano.
    [Show full text]
  • The State of Coral Reef Ecosystems of the United States
    STATUSSTATUS OFOF THETHE CORALCORAL REEFSREEFS ININ THETHE PACIFICPACIFIC FREELYFREELY ASSOCIATEDASSOCIATED STATESSTATES CharlesCharles Birkeland,Birkeland, AhserAhser Edward,Edward, YimnangYimnang Golbuu,Golbuu, JayJay Gutierrez,Gutierrez, NoahNoah Idechong,Idechong, JamesJames Maragos,Maragos, GustavGustav Paulay,Paulay, RobertRobert Richmond,Richmond, AndrewAndrew Tafileichig,Tafileichig, andand NancyNancy VanderVander VeldeVelde From east to west, the Freely Associated States 14o N, the Marshalls have a total dry land area of include the Republic of the Marshall Islands (the only about 181.3 km2. However, when the Exclu­ Marshalls or the RMI), the Federated States of sive Economic Zone (by statute, from the shoreline Micronesia (FSM), and the Republic of Palau. The to 200 miles offshore) is figured in, the Republic Federated States of Micronesia – Kosrae, Pohnpei, covers 1,942,000 km2 of ocean within the larger Chuuk, and Yap – along with Palau, are known as Micronesia region. There are 11,670 km2 of sea FREELY ASSOCIATED STATES FREELY ASSOCIATED STATES FREELY ASSOCIATED STATES FREELY ASSOCIATED STATES FREELY ASSOCIATED STATES FREELY ASSOCIATED STATES FREELY ASSOCIATED STATES FREELY ASSOCIATED STATES the Caroline Islands, which are among the longest within the lagoons of the atolls. FREELY ASSOCIATED STATES FREELY ASSOCIATED STATES island chains in the world at 2,500 km. Land only makes up less than 0.01% of the area of All of these Micronesian islands were formerly a the Marshall Islands. Most of the country is the part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands broad open ocean with a seafloor that reaches 4.6 administered by the United States after World War km (15,000 ft). Scattered throughout are nearly a II.
    [Show full text]
  • Survival of Rats at Eniwetok Atolli WILLIAM B
    Survival of Rats at Eniwetok AtollI WILLIAM B. JACKSON2 THE STORY of rats at Eniwetok Atoll (Marshall While proof is lacking, I believe that the only Islands) and their apparently uncanny ability to rodent at Eniwetok Atoll prior to the initiation survive atomic detonations and inhabit areas of the AEC program in 1946 was the Polynesian with high levels of radiation has been referred rat (Rattus exulans). This is the common rat of to in various documents (Berrill, 1966; Hines, the Pacific islands, having moved with the 1962 and 1966; French, 1965; Woodbury, Micronesians from island to island. Probably 1962); all are to some degree incomplete or in only the larger islets of the atoll (those with error. The purpose of this paper is to pull to­ coconut plantings) were infested. gether the fragments of data that are available Although the Germans, and later the Japa­ and, at this late date, attempt to piece together nese, were active in the Marshall Islands in the the story of the survival of rat populations at first half of the twentieth century, no specific Eniwetok. records of rodents for Eniwetok Atoll seem to exist. St. John (1960) indicated that no botan­ HISTORICAL BACKGROUND ical accounts existed from German (or the Eniwetok and Bikini atolls in the northern earlier Spanish) explorations. While botanical Marshall Islands were involved in the United collections were made by the Japanese, I can States nuclear testing program between 1946 find no descriptions of rats, and no rodent and 1958. During this period six major opera­ specimens from Eniwetok Atoll were present whe~ exa~ined tions were carried out at Eniwetok Atoll and I the collection in the Japanese involved some 40 detonations.
    [Show full text]
  • 2016 2Nd Quarter NEWSLETTER 1
    United States Atmospheric & Underwater Atomic Weapon Activities National Association of Atomic Veterans, Inc. 1945 “TRINITY“ “Assisting America’s Atomic Veterans Since 1979” ALAMOGORDO, N. M. Website: www.naav.com E-mail: [email protected] 1945 “LITTLE BOY“ HIROSHIMA, JAPAN R. J. RITTER - Editor November, 2011 1945 “FAT MAN“ NAGASAKI, JAPAN 1946 “CROSSROADS“ BIKINI ISLAND 1948 “SANDSTONE“ ENEWETAK ATOLL 1951 “RANGER“ NEVADA TEST SITE 1951 “GREENHOUSE“ ENEWETAK ATOLL 1951 “BUSTER – JANGLE“ NEVADA TEST SITE 1952 “TUMBLER - SNAPPER“ NEVADA TEST SITE 1952 “IVY“ ENEWETAK ATOLL 1953 “UPSHOT - KNOTHOLE“ NEVADA TEST SITE 1954 “CASTLE“ BIKINI ISLAND 1955 “TEAPOT“ NEVADA TEST SITE 1955 “WIGWAM“ OFFSHORE SAN DIEGO 1955 “PROJECT 56“ NEVADA TEST SITE 1956 “REDWING“ ENEWETAK & BIKINI “ Hey Sarge - I can still feel the heat “ 1957 “PLUMBOB“ NEVADA TEST SITE 1958 “HARDTACK-I“ ENEWETAK & BIKINI 1958 “NEWSREEL“ JOHNSON ISLAND 1958 “ARGUS“ SOUTH ATLANTIC 1958 “HARDTACK-II“ NEVADA TEST SITE 1961 “NOUGAT“ NEVADA TEST SITE 1962 “DOMINIC-I“ CHRISTMAS ISLAND JOHNSTON ISLAND 1965 “FLINTLOCK“ AMCHITKA, ALASKA 1969 “MANDREL“ AMCHITKA, ALASKA 1971 “GROMMET“ AMCHITKA, ALASKA 1974 “POST TEST EVENTS“ AMCHITKA, ALASKA ------------ “ IF YOU WERE THERE, The motto of the day was “Semper-Fry“ YOU ARE AN ATOMIC VETERAN “ The Newsletter for America’s Atomic Veterans COMMANDERS COMMENTS We enjoyed our re-union in Richmond, VA and wish to offer our thanks to Director Jenkins for his efforts to make this event an Ted Hayes ( AZ ) Clarence Roth ( CT ) overwhelming success. Gillie furnished a Howard Shertzer ( PA ) Paul Bochon ( WA ) bus for an all-day ( ladies-only ) tour of the Robert Hosley ( CA ) John E. Forde ( CA ) local historical sites.
    [Show full text]
  • Atoll Research Bulletin No. 342 Notes on the Birds Of
    ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN NO. 342 NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF KWAJALEIN ATOLL, MARSHALL ISLANDS BY R. B. CLAPP ISSUED BY NATIONAL MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION WASHINGTON, D.C., U.S.A. SEPTEMBER 1990 I Taongi 0 Bikar 3 iniwetok Ebon 0 I U Figure 1. Locati-on of Kwajalein Atoll in the Marshall Islands. NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF KWAJALEIN ATOLL, MARSHALL ISLANDS BY R. B. CLAPP Introduc t ion Kwajalein is a crescent-shaped atoll that lies between 09'25' and 08'40'~ and between 166°50' and 167O45'~,near the center of the western (Ralik) chain of the Marshall Islands (Figure 1). Composed of more than 90 islets, largely uninhabited, Kwajalein Atoll extends about 75 miles from southeast to northwest. It has a land area of about 6 square miles (3,854 acres) (Global Associates 1987), an increase of about 263 acres over the original area that was brought about by filling of land on Kwajalein, Roi-Namur, and Meck Islands. As of June 1987, the populatj on of the atoll was about 12,200 and composed of about 9,560 Marshallese and 2,639 non-indigenous persons affiliated with the U.S. Army Kwajalein Atoll (USAKA) facility. The three islands of Ebeye (8,600; mostly Marshallese), Kwajalein (2,390) and Roi-Namur (249) hold over 90% of the population (Global Associates 1987). During March 1988, I made ornithological observations on ten islands (Fi-gure 2). Part of a survey requested by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, the observations helped determine the terrestrial wild1ife resources of the atoll as base1 ine data for an environmental impact statement.
    [Show full text]
  • Still More Radical Changes at Y-12
    Still more radical changes at Y-12 In the months after the war ended, change was not limited to Y-12 or just to Oak Ridge, Tennessee. While the folks at Y-12 were experiencing tremendous upheaval through major changes in workforce levels, stopping the major program of uranium separation, starting stable isotope separation and trying to determine what the future held for Y-12, other major transitions were taking place all across the nation. World War II was over, but hardly had that begun to sink in when the realization and fear that someone else would surely develop an atomic weapon caused expansion of atomic energy research as well as expanded production facilities for nuclear weapons. The Cold War was not known as that just yet, but fear of what the Russians would do was not a new idea. As the results of investigations into the German and Japanese atomic energy research after the war ended, it was determined that Germany did not have a viable program and neither did Japan. However, evidence was found that indicated that both were actively pursuing atomic weapons. All the Manhattan Project sites experienced radical changes during this transition from the war production period of unlimited funding and schedule pressure beyond anything that could be understood today. General Groves stayed close to the decisions at each site and worked the issues of transitioning from war time operating contractors to new companies. This was no small task. At Los Alamos, the primary problem was that of Oppenheimer’s leaving. He had been the key leader for the scientists there.
    [Show full text]
  • A History of the People of Bikini Following Nuclear Weapons Testing in the Marshall Islands: with Recollections and Views of Elders of Bikini Atoll
    Paper A HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF BIKINI FOLLOWING NUCLEAR WEAPONS TESTING IN THE MARSHALL ISLANDS: WITH RECOLLECTIONS AND VIEWS OF ELDERS OF BIKINI ATOLL Jack Niedenthal* Key words: Marshall Islands; atomic bomb; ‘-J7CS;radioactiv- Abstract—The people of Bikini Atoll were moved from their ity, removal of homeland in 1946 to make way for the testing of 23 nuclear — weapons hy the United States government, beginning with the world’s fourth atomic detonation. The subsequent half- century exodus of the Bikini people included a 2-y stay on INTRODUCTION Rongerik Atoll, where near starvation resulted, and a 6-mo sojourn on Kwajalein Atoll, where they lived in tents beside a runway used by the U.S. military. In 1948, they were finally BIKINI Is I atoll among the 29 atolls and 5 islands that relocated to Kili, a small, isolated, 200-acre island owned by compose the Marshall Islands. These atolls of the Mar- the U.S. Trust Territory government. Numerous hardships shalls zre scattered over 357,000 square miles of a lonely have been faced there, not the least of which was the loss of part of the world located north of the equator in the SKIIISrequired for self-sustenance. Located 425 miles south of Pacific Ocean. They help define a geographic area Bikini, Kili Island is without a sheltered lagoon. Thus for six referred to as Micronesia. months of the yenr, fishing and sailing become futile endeav- Once the Marshalls were discovered by the outside ors. Because of the residual radioactive contamination from world, first by the Spanish in the 1600’s and then later by the nuclear testing, the majority of the Bikinian population still the Germans.
    [Show full text]