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Les Sophismes Espaces Multimédia de la Copavo Stage « Traitement de texte » - Mars 2015 Les sophismes Oh ! un argument pour autoriser notre conduite ! Un sophisme, une argutie à attraper le diable ! William Shakespeare Définitions On appelle paralogisme et sophisme des raisonnements erronés ayant tous deux l’apparence d'un raisonnement logique. Mais contrairement au paralogisme qui n'est qu'une simple erreur de raisonnement, le sophisme est un raisonnement fallacieux, c'est-à-dire énoncé dans le but de tromper son interlocuteur. Le sophisme est donc en quelque sorte un paralogisme volontaire. Un peu d'histoire Dans la Grèce antique, les sophistes (de sophia, la « sagesse ») enseignaient l'éloquence et l'art de la persuasion. Orateurs prestigieux, leur but était de persuader l'auditoire des assemblées ou des tribunaux, même au mépris de la vérité ce qui leur valurent les critiques de Socrate, de Platon, puis d'Aristote qui fut le premier à établir une classification des raisonnements et, entre autres, à démonter les logiques fallacieuses à l'œuvre dans les sophismes. La Mort de Socrate (David, 1787) John Stuart Mill, dans son ouvrage Système de certains faits) ou de mal observation logique déductive et inductive (1843), a étudié les (dénaturation de certains faits) sophismes et proposé une classification en quatre • Le sophisme de généralisation provenant groupes : d'une fausse conception générale du • Le sophisme de simple inspection, ou procédé inductif, celle qui, selon Mill, sophisme a priori, quand la « solution » embrassant le plus grand nombre et la plus n'est pas démontrée mais présentée grande variété « d'inférences vicieuses ». comme évidente en soi. • Le sophisme par confusion enfin, • Le sophisme d'observation, quand il est provenant d'une conception vague et le fruit de non-observation (négligence de indéterminée des éléments de preuve. Non sequitur Non sequitur signifie, en latin, « qui ne suit pas les prémisses ». C'est un argument logique dont la conclusion ne suit pas les prémisses, autrement dit les propositions du raisonnement. Le terme non sequitur a une application spéciale en droit, sous une définition juridique formelle. C'est sans doute pourquoi il est souvent employé pour désigner un sophisme. Parfois mentionné comme une forme particulière, tout sophisme est en fait par définition un non sequitur. Exercice Les Sophismes Page 1 / 4 Espaces Multimédia de la Copavo Stage « Traitement de texte » - Mars 2015 Les sophismes On trouva ci-après les formes les plus courantes de sophismes : L'attaque personnelle ou argumentum ad hominem............................................2 L’argument d'autorité ou argumentum ad potentiam...........................................2 L’argument de la popularité ou argumentum ad populum..................................2 L'argument de la nouveauté ou argumentum ad novitatem.................................3 L'appel à la tradition ou argumentum ad antiquitatem........................................3 L'appel à l'ignorance ou argumentum ad ignorantiam........................................3 L'argument du silence ou argumentum a silentio................................................3 La raison du plus fort ou argumentum ad baculum.............................................3 L’argument par la conséquence ou argumentum ad consequentiam...................3 La pétition de principe ou petitio principii..........................................................3 Le sophisme des questions multiples ou plurium interrogationum.....................4 Le faux dilemme ou fausse dichotomie ou Manichéisme...................................4 La corrélation abusive ou Cum hoc ergo propter hoc.........................................4 La généralisation excessive ou dicto simpliciter.................................................4 Le déshonneur par association............................................................................4 La « loi de Godwin » ou Reductio ad Hitlerum..................................................4 Le sophisme de l'homme de paille ou de l’épouvantail......................................4 Le sophisme du chauve ou du tas........................................................................4 Le sophisme du joueur ou de Monte-Carlo.........................................................4 • L'attaque personnelle ou argumentum ad hominem L'argument est formulé contre la personne qui soutient une thèse et non contre la thèse elle-même. Exemple : « Comment Voltaire peut-il prétendre parler de l'égalité des Hommes alors qu'il avait investi dans le commerce des esclaves ? ». La variante Tu quoque (en référence à la célèbre locution attribuée à Jules César : tu quoque mi fili, « Toi aussi, mon fils ! ») consiste à jeter l'opprobre sur la personne en révélant une incohérence entre son passé et sa position actuelle. NB : L'argument ad hominem n'est un sophisme que s'il sert à démontrer la fausseté de la proposition présentée. Il est utilisé à bon escient s'il sert à évaluer la crédibilité de la proposition. • L’argument indécidable ou amphibolie Il consiste à user d'une phrase à double sens. Exemple : « L'oracle de Delphes dit à Crésus que s'il continuait la guerre, il détruirait un grand royaume » (Hérodote, Les Histoires). La phrase ne précise pas qu'il s'agirait de son propre royaume. Une variante est le sophisme crocodilien (énoncé par Quintilien) : un crocodile ayant attrapé un enfant dit à sa mère : « dis-moi la vérité et je rends ton enfant, mais si tu me mens, je le garde ». La mère lui réponds : « tu ne me rendras pas mon enfant ». L'attitude de l'animal est alors indécidable. Il manque en effet dans tous les cas à sa parole, soit qu'il garde l'enfant (la mère ayant alors dit la vérité), soit qu'il le rende (la mère ayant alors menti). • L’argument d'autorité ou argumentum ad potentiam Il consiste à invoquer une « autorité » pour valoriser un argument en fonction de son origine plutôt que de son contenu. Dit aussi parfois Ipse dixit (« il l'a dit »). • L’argument de la popularité ou argumentum ad populum Il consiste à invoquer un grand nombre de personnes qui adhèrent à une idée. Exemple : « Des milliers de gens se servent de l'homéopathie, ça prouve bien que ça marche. » Exercice Les Sophismes Page 2 / 4 Espaces Multimédia de la Copavo Stage « Traitement de texte » - Mars 2015 • L'argument de la nouveauté ou argumentum ad novitatem Il consiste à prétendre qu'une idée ou une proposition est correcte ou d'une validité supérieure parce qu'elle est nouvelle et « moderne ». Exemple : « mettre à jour tous vos logiciels rendra votre système plus fiable ». • L'appel à la tradition ou argumentum ad antiquitatem C'est le contraire de l'argument de la nouveauté. Il consiste à prétendre que la tradition passée ou présente détient la vérité. Exemple : « c'est juste parce nous avons toujours fait comme ça ». • L'appel à l'ignorance ou argumentum ad ignorantiam Il consiste à prétendre expliquer une chose par le fait même qu'elle soit inconnue. Exemple : « on ne peux savoir ce que sont les ovnis, donc ce sont des engins spatiaux extraterrestres ». Une variante est le renversement de la charge de la preuve (« prouvez-moi que les extraterrestres n'existent pas. Sinon ils existent ») • L'argument du silence ou argumentum a silentio Il consiste à accuser son interlocuteur de l'ignorance d'un sujet parce qu'il se tait là-dessus. Souvent utilisé lors des débats politiques télévisés, l'argument est risqué parce que l'interlocuteur peut feindre l'ignorance ou se taire à dessein. • La raison du plus fort ou argumentum ad baculum Facilement compréhensible, il se décline en plusieurs variantes comme la raison du plus riche (argumentum ad crumenam) : « Ce n'est pas ce crève-la-faim qui va me donner des leçons de vie ») ; La raison du plus pauvre (argumentum ad lazarum : « seule la classe ouvrière connaît la réalité du pays donc la dictature du prolétariat est la seule solution ») ; La raison par forfait (argumentum ad nauseam : « vous n'avez pas lu les 1000 ouvrages que je viens de citer, donc vous n'avez rien à apporter à ce débat ». • L’argument par la conséquence ou argumentum ad consequentiam C'est un raisonnement qui consiste à déduire une conclusion à partir d'une conséquence réelle ou fantasmée. Il vient du refus d'admettre les conséquences désagréables d'une proposition même si elle est vraie, ou à l'inverse de la tentation d'accepter les conséquences agréables d'une proposition fausse. Exemple : « Dieu doit exister sinon de nombreuses personnes prient pour rien ». La variante appel aux sentiments existe sous de nombreuses formes : - L'appel à la terreur ou pente savonneuse ou technique du chiffon rouge (argumentum ad metum, « Si vous maintenez votre point de vue, il y aura des conséquences » ; - L'appel à la pitié (Argumentum ad misericordiam, « vous m'avez mal noté alors que j'ai passé tout l'été à réviser car ma carrière dépend de cette note ») ; - La reformulation odieuse (Argumentum ad odium, « Il faut respecter les animaux donc, d'après vous, il faut laisser les moustiques nous piquer ») - Le sophisme de la double faute (dit aussi « deux faux font un vrai » : « Et alors ? D'autres personnes font bien pire. »), - L'appel à la flatterie (« Comment un homme comme vous peut-il défendre cette position ? »), - L'appel au ridicule « Selon votre théorie de l'évolution, mon grand-père serait un gorille ? ». • La pétition de principe ou petitio principii C'est le fait de supposer par avance ce que l'on prétend prouver. Exemple : Dieu est parfait, or ne pas exister serait une imperfection,
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