Assessments of Community‟S Perception Toward the Practices of Female Genital Mutilation in Oromia Regional State: the Case of Wonchi Woreda, Central Ethiopia

ASSESSMENTS OF COMMUNITY‟S PERCEPTION TOWARD THE PRACTICES OF FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION IN OROMIA REGIONAL STATE: THE CASE OF WONCHI WOREDA, CENTRAL ETHIOPIA

MA THESIS BY KEBEDE WOLDE MULETA

AUGUST, 2018 ARBA MINCH, ETHIOPIA

ASSESSMENTS OF COMMUNITY‟S PERCEPTION TOWARD THE PRACTICES OF FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION IN OROMIA REGIONAL STATE: THE CASE OF WONCHI WOREDA, CENTRAL ETHIOPIA

BY: KEBEDE WOLDE MULETA

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES, COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE AND HUMANITYS, SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES, ARBA MINCH UNIVERSITY

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN GEOGRAPHY

AUGUST, 2018 ARBA MINCH, ETHIOPIA

Declaration I hereby declare that this MA thesis is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other university, and all sources of material used for this thesis have been duly acknowledged. Name: Kebede Wolde Signature: ______Date: ______

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

ARBA MINCH UNIVERSITY

ADVISORS‟ THESIS SUBMISSION APPROVAL SHEET

This is to certify that the thesis entitled “Assessments of Community’s Perception toward the Practices of Female Genital Mutilation” submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master‟s in the Graduate Program of the Department of Geography and environmental Studies and has been carried out by Kebede Wolde Id. No SMA /018/2006 under my supervision. Therefore I recommend that the student has fulfilled the requirements and hence hereby can submit the thesis to the department for defense.

Abera Uncha (PhD) ______Principal advisor Signature Date

______

Name of Co-Advisor Signature Date

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

ARBA MINCH UNIVERSITY

EXAMINERS’ THESIS APPROVAL SHEET

We, the undersigned, members of the Board of Examiners of the final open defense by Kebede Wolde have read and evaluated his/her thesis entitled “Assessment of community’s perception toward the practices of Female genital mutilation”, and examined the candidate‟s oral presentation. This is, therefore, to certify that the thesis has been accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree with minor corrections. ______Name of the Chairperson Signature Date ______Name of Principal Advisor Signature Date ______Name of Co-Advisor Signature Date ______Name Internal examine Signature Date ______Name of External examiner Signature Date ______SGS Approval Signature Date

Acknowledgement First of all I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my advisor, Dr. Abera Uncha for giving valuable advice, critical comments and constructive suggestion starting from research proposal to the end of thesis write up. I believe that this study would have been impossible without this constructive dedication and encouragement.

I would like to thanks Ministry of Education for financial grant used for my research works. I would like to express my gratitude to Wonch woreda educational office, Wonch woreda agricultural office, Wonch woreda land and natural resource management office, Wonch woreda health office, and Wonch woreda women and children affairs office for providing me various data and information for successfulness of my thesis. My appreciation also goes to the chair mans and managers of Merega Abeyi, Chebo Senselati and Haro Sonqolle kebeles for facilitating my study and assisting me in identifying responsive respondents.

I am also indebted to all of my research assistants, friends and who all helped me during my data distribution and collection, and you are all very much appreciated.

Finally, I will like to thank, my family for their key and principal role in the success of my study. Special thanks should go to my wife Bilise Duguma and my son Lencho Kebede for their love and continuous encouragement towards my success.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTENTS PAGE

Acknowledgment………………………………………………………….….………….…...I

Table of content………………………………………………………………..…...... ………II

List of tables………………………………………………………...... III

List of figures……………………………………………………………...... IV

Acronyms…………………………………………………………………………..……...….V

Abstract…………………………………………………………………………..………..…VI

CAPTER ONE…………………………………………………………………..…………...1

1. INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………..…….…....1

1.1 Background of the Study……………………………………………………..…………...1 1.2 Statements of the Problem…………………………………………………..…………….2 1.3. Objectives……………………………………………………………...... 4 1.3.1 General Objectives...... 4 1.3.2 Specific Ojectives……………………………………………….….……………...4 1.4 Research question………………………………………………………..……….……….5 1.5 Significance of the Study……………....…………………………………………...……..5 1.6 Scope of the Study………………………………………………………….…..………....5 1.7 Limitation of the study ………………………………………………….…..……...…..5 1.8 The Organization of the Study…………………………………………………………….6 1.9 Operational Definition of Terms……………………………………………………...…...6

CHAPTER TWO……………………………………….……………………………...….....7

2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE…………………………………...…...…...... 7

2.1 Concepts of Harmful Traditional Practices……………………………………….…….....7 2.2 Female Genital Mutilation………………………………………………………….….….8 2.2.1 Concepts of FGM……………………………………………………………….….8 2.2.2 Female Genital Mutilation in the World……………………………...…….….…..9

2.2.3 Female Genital Mutilation in Africa………………………………….…..…..…..10 2.2.4 Female Genital Mutilation in Ethiopia…………………………...….……….…..11 2.3 Perception toward Female Genital Mutilation Practice in Ethiopia...... 12 2.4 Legal and Policies Framework...... 13 2.5 Religious View...... 15 2.6 Theoretical Framework...... 16 2.6.1 Cultural Relativism Theory………………………………………………...….…16 2.6.2 Feminist Theory………………………………………………………...……...…17 2.6.3 Modernization Theory……………………………………………….……...... 17 2.6.4 Social Convention Theory………………………………………….….…….…...18 2.7 Conceptual Framework……………………………………………………..……...….…19

CHAPTER THREE……………………………………………….…………..….….……..20

3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY……………………………………………..….….….20

3.1 Description of the Study Area………………………………………………..…….…....20 3.1.1 Location………………………………………………………………..…….…...20 3.1.2 Population……………………………………………………………..……..…...20 3. 1. 3 Climate and Topography……………………………………………...…...…….20 3.1.4. Socio-Economic…………………………………………………...……….…….20 3.1.5 Culture………….…………………………….…………………..……….….…..21 3.2 Methodology...... 24 3.2.1 Research Approach and Research Design………………..……..……………...... 24 3.2.2 Data Sources………………………………………………………..……….…....24 3.2.3 Sampling Method and Sample Size Determination……………...…..……….…..24 3.2.4 Instruments for Data Collection……………………………………..………..…..26 3.2.5 Data Analysis Technique………………………………..…………..…..………..27 3.2.6 Ethical Consideration…………………………………………………....…..……27

CHAPTER FOUR…………………………………………………..……………...……….28

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS……………………………..………………..………..28

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4.1 Socio-Economic Characteristics of the Respondents………………..…………….…….28 4.2 Perception of Community on Harmful Effect of FGM……………..…………….……..30 4.3 Causes that Forced Community to Practice FGM…………………..……………..….…35 4.4 Reasons for Continued Practice of FGM……………………………..…...……….….…39 4.5 Supportive Intervention Strategies for Reducing FGM………………..………….……..41

CHAPTER FIVE………………………………………………….….…..……………..….43

5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS………………….…...……………...43

5.1 Conclusions………………………………………………………………..…….…….…43 5.2 Recommendations………………………………………………………..………...….....44

REFERENCES……………………………………………………………..……….…..…..46

APPENDENCE…………………………………………………………….……….…...….55

LIST OF TABLES TABLES PAGE Table 3.1Total household heads and sample size…………………………….……….....25 Table 4.1 Socio-Economic characterstics of respondents……………………..………....29 Table 4.2 Perception of community on harmfulness of FGM……………………...…….31 Table 4.3 Reason that forced community to practice FGM………………….…….…….36 Table 4.4 Reason for continued practices of FGM…………………………….….……...41 Table 4.5 Intervention strategies for lowering FGM…………………………….…….…42

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURES PAGE Figure 2.1 Conceptual frame work……….…………………………………………….....19 Figure 3.1 map of Wonchi district……………….…………………………………..……23

List of Acronyms ACRWC=African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child AU=African Union CEDAW=Committee on Elimination of Discrimination Against Women CESCR=Committee Economic Social and Cultural Right CIFA= Center for Interfaith Action CSW=Commission on the Status of Women ECFE=Evangelical Churches Fellowship of Ethiopia EDHS=Ethiopia Demographic Health Survey EGLDAM=Ethiopia Gojii Limadew Dirgitoch Aswagajii Mahiber EOC=Ethiopian Orthodox Churches FBO=Faith Based Organization FDRE=Federal Democratic Republics of Ethiopia FGM=Female Genital Mutilation GDN=Gender Development Network HTP=Harmful Traditional Practices ICCPR=International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights MoWCYA=Ministry of Women, Children and Youth Affairs NCTPE=National Committee on Traditional Practices of Ethiopia NSHTP=National Strategy on Harmful Traditional Practices SCD=Save the Children Denmark UDHR=Universal Declaration of Human Rights UN=United Nation UNAMA=United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan UNCSW=United Nations Commission on the Status of Women UNFPA=United Nation Population Fund UNGA=United Nation General Assembly UNICEF=United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund VAWC=Violence Against Women and Children VD=Vienna Declaration WACSF=West African Civil Society Forum WHO=World Health Organization

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Abstract

The practices of FGM are a trans-generational problem across the world. It is a national problem and a sensitive cultural issue in Ethiopia. It affects the live of girls and women in the country. The objective of the study is to assess community‟s perception toward the practices of FGM in wonchi district. The researcher used mixed research approach and triangulation design for the study. Data source for the study were generated from primary and secondary data sources. By using simple random sampling three kebeles were selected from 26 kebeles of the study woreda and 285-sample household heads were selected from 998 total household heads. The data for the study were collected through questionnaire, interview and focus group discussion. Quantitative data were analyzed by using table, frequency and percentage. While, qualitative data were analyzed in description form by using words. The findings of the study from both quantitative and qualitative information revealed that all community do not have similar perception on harmfulness of FGM. Underlying reasons that forced community to practices FGM are: culturally uncircumcised girl is not get husband in the community. Similarly, there is discrimination and insult against uncircumcised girl in the community. The main reasons for the continued practices of FGM in the community includes FGM is very much intertwined with long held cultural beliefs and social norms within the community, and the existing laws against FGM is not put in to practice effectively. Based on the findings the following recommendations were suggested. Government should strengthen public awareness on harmfulness of FGM, and mobilize all educational institutions and media to change negative attitudes and customary action towards women and children. Similarly, community should collaborate with local authorities and other institutions to learn, teach, and take violators to legal bodies.

Keywords: harmful traditional practices, female genital mutilation

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CAPTER ONE

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study According to United Nation harmful traditional practices are the result of gender inequality and discriminatory social, cultural, and religious norms, as well as traditions, which relate to women‟s position in the family, community and society to control over women‟s freedom including their sexuality (UN, 2011).

The National Strategy on Harmful Traditional Practices (NSHTP) against women and children in Ethiopia, prepared by the Ministry of Women, Children and Youth Affairs (MoWCYA) in collaboration with development partners and recognized in 2013, defined HTPs as “traditional practices, which violate and negatively affect the physical, sexual, psychological well-being, human rights and socio-economic participation of women and children‟‟(MoWCYA,2013).

Harmful Traditional Practices act as root cause for discrimination and violence against girls. The international, regional and national legislation and frame works mentioned universal attitudes of patriarchy and male dominance and culture of violence in which women and children are victims (Oyekanmi, 2000).

According to World Health Organization (WHO) Female Genital Mutilation or Cutting refer to all procedures involving partial or total removal of the external female genitalia, or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons (WHO, 2010). United Nations International Children‟s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) stated that around the world, women and girls suffer from the harmful and life-threatening effects of traditional and cultural practices that continue under the guise of cultural, social, and religious beliefs, one of which is female genital mutilation (UNICEF, 2000).

According to the WHO (2010) about 100–140 million women in the world have circumcised, and 2 million girls estimated to circumcise each year. FGM is often performed without sterile instruments, there by risking the transmission of HIV/AIDS, hepatitis and other infection.

According to United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF), female circumcision has affected an estimated 125 million women in 29 countries, 27 of which are in Africa and up to 30 million girls are considered to be at risk during the next decade (UNICEF, 2013). FGM harm women‟s and children‟s or reverse the enjoyment of a wide range of human rights and freedoms by society. These are physical, sexual, Psychological, and economic violence (UN, 2006).

Several international, regional and national human right instruments adopted by UN assumed obligation to eradicate the various harmful traditional practices including violence against women by taking several measures. For instances, UDHR, 1948; VD, 1997; UN, 2007; EU, 2009 and AU, 2003 etc. are recommended that the state parties take appropriate and effective measures with a view to eradicating HTPs that violets the rights of women. In addition, state parties take effective legal measures, including legal sanctions, civil remedies and compensatory provisions to protect women against all kinds of violence.

Ethiopia is a country where harmful traditional practices continue to harm, the health, economic and social condition of girls and women. These harmful traditional practices include early marriage, marriage by abduction, female genital mutilation, inheritance marriage, menstruation taboo, and messaging abdomen before and during delivery etc. (Dawit et al., 2005).

1.2 Statements of the Problem

According to Gender and Development Network (GDN), across the world as well as our country the rights and lives of millions of girls and women are threatened by HTPs. Violence against women and girls, is the major obstacle to achieving human rights, justice and equality across societies. It also makes it difficult to meet international and national development targets. Women‟s participation in all spheres of life at national and regional level cannot be realized unless the issue of HTP is properly addressed and treated (GDN, 2012).

There are around 140 HTPs affecting mothers and children in almost all ethnic groups of Ethiopia, including: early marriage, marriage by abduction, female genital mutilation, milk teeth extraction, messaging abdomen before and during delivery, feeding fresh butter to a new born child. In addition to this keeping a baby out of the sun, inheritance marriage, menstruation taboo, food discrimination against girls, etc. are the major HTPs in Ethiopia

(Dawit et al., 2005).

According to UNICEF‟s recent report, among the 29 African countries that are officially known with an official national data, Egypt (27.2million), Ethiopia (23.8million) and Nigeria (19.9million) have the highest circumcision rates of girls and women. According to this report, Ethiopia is classified under Group 2 country, with a moderately high FGM prevalence. Group 2 countries have a prevalence of between 51%-80%. UNICEF calculated that 23.8 million women and girls in Ethiopia have undergone FGM. In terms of numbers, this is one of the highest numbers of girls and women who have undergone FGM in Africa, second only to Egypt (UNCEF, 2013). According to UNICEF (2016), half of the girl and women who have been cut live in three countries: Egypt, Ethiopia and Indonesia.

The government of Ethiopia has adopted, ratified, and further revised various legislation and policy documents specifically addressing violence against women. Notable among these are the revised criminal law (2004), the revised family law (2000) and National Strategy on Harmful Traditional Practices (NSHTP) (2013). The existences and problems of FGM in Ethiopia was reported by Ethiopian government as well as by different local and world organizations. It also criminalized as harmful traditional practices and provide sanctions and punishment for their practice by Ethiopian government.

Ethiopian constitution, enacted in 1995, recognized that, “the state has the duty to guarantee the rights of women to be free from the influence of harmful customary practices.” However, instead of all legislativeand all other measures FGM, still persist and continue to suffering the right and live of millions women and girls in Ethiopia as well as in the study area. According to Ministry of Women, Children and Youth Affairs (MoWCYA) report in Ethiopia 50-60% of women experienced domestic violence in their life time mostly FGM. Regions with the highest rates of FGM/C are Afar (95%), SNNPR (91%), and Oromia (89%) (MoWCYA, 2013).

Wonchi is one of the district in South West Shoa zone which, the practices of FGM has been widely taking place traditionally by old women. The practice still remains and several girls are at risk and many of them are living with its complications. The practice has been caring out without bearing in mind the complications of FGM on girls and women. In other words, the harmful effects of FGM were not carefully examined or poorly understood by the

community. As a result, majority of girls and women‟s are suffering from the harmful effects of FGM in the study area. Minimal efforts have been made by government to address the problem of FGM in Wonchi district in the past decade. However, instead of this movements there is no observed change in the study area. The practice is still continued even if, there is some efforts to eliminate it.

Many researches were conducted on the impacts of FGM at national level by individuals and by different organizations. However, perception related problems were not conducted at national level as well as in the study area. In other words, there is no enough investigation on community‟s perception toward the practices of FGM and on factors that perpetuating the persistence of the practice have not been explored in the study area. By examining this, the researcher required to explore communities‟ perceptions and motives behind this practice and what have made it persist until today in the study area. Therefore, there is a gap due to the fact that, why FGM is became continue and how community‟s perception became less instead of growing awareness of its dangers on the victims. Thus, this study was intended to bridge this gap by assessing community‟s perception toward the practices of FGM and suggested appropriate recommendations that used to achieve real change through collective efforts of various actors at different levels.

1.3. Objectives

1.3.1 General Objectives

The general objectives of the study was to examine community‟s awareness concerning the practices of female genital mutilation in Wonchi woreda of Oromia regional state.

1.3.2 Specific Objectives

1. To evaluate awareness of community on harmful effects of FGM in the study area.

2. To explore the underlying belief of the community that forced for the practices FGM in the study area. 3. To assess reason for the continued practice of FGM in the study area. 4. To assess institutional and policy related gap regarding the practices of FGM in Wonchi woreda

1.4 Research Questions

1. Are the societies aware of the harmfulness of FGM in the study area?

2. What are the major reasons that forced community to practice FGM in the study area?

3. Why FGM resist change despite of growing awareness of its dangers in the study area?

4. Which policy options and strategies are appropriate for reducing the practices of FGM in the study area?

1.5 Significance of the Study

The results of the study will helps to examine the general perception of the community on the practices of FGM on women in the study area. It deepens the knowledge of community‟s on the social, economic and health impacts of FGM on Women‟s. It also helps government, administrators, policy makers, and non-government organizations to mitigate the impacts of FGM on women in the study area. The study could also serve as reference material for researcher, who wants to conduct further study on similar or related topics.

1.6 Scope of the Study

To assess the perception of communities toward the practices of FGM on women in Wonch woreda, the researcher to carry out the study selected only three kebeles (peasant association). Namely, Chebo Senselet, Merege Abey and Haro Sonkole. If the study conducted in all kebeles of the woreda, the results would be more complete and dependable. However, since it was difficult to cover the whole aspect of the study area with the available time and resources, it was needed to bounds the scope of the study to manageable site.

1.7 Limitation of the study While carrying out this study, there were many obstacles and challenges facing the researcher. Some of the major constraints the researcher has faced in undertaking this study were the shortage of time and money, lack of internet access and transportation, unfavorable weather condition, lack of the available data and unwillingness of respondents to give reliable data were problems that faced the researcher. Additionally, since the study focused

on cultural reasons certain respondents had a difficulty of openly speaking about it and bureaucracy of different sectors were another problems.

1.8 The Organization of the Study

This thesis was organized in five chapters. The first chapter was the introduction part, which covered, statements of the problem, objectives, research questions, significances of the study, and scope of the study. Chapter two contained review of related literature, while the third chapter presented research methodology includes: description of the study area, research approach and research design, data sources, sampling method and sample size, instruments for data collection, and methods of data analysis indicated. The fourth chapter contained results and discussion. Finally, in the last chapter conclusion and recommendations were indicated.

1.9 Operational Definition of Terms

Culture: It is a collection of learned beliefs, traditions and code of common behavior that is shared by members of a particular community (Said, 2015).

Female Genital Mutilation (FGM): refer to all procedures involving partial or total removal of the external female genitalia, or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons (WHO, 2010).

Harmful Traditional Practices: It is a practices, which violate and negatively affect the health, physical, sexual, psychological well-being, human rights and socio-economic participation of society especially women and children‟‟ (MoWCYA, 2013).

Social Norms: are beliefs, held by groups of people, about the way they must act to be an accepted member of society. Social norms are the “unwritten rules” that show the values that a society holds dear and that govern how people should behave in a given context or situation. Not to keep within the social norms would mean being isolated or excluded by society (GAN, 2012).

CHAPTER TWO

2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Concepts of Harmful Traditional Practices

According to African Union (AU) Harmful Traditional Practices (HTP), refers to all form of physical or psychological violence that prejudice the bodily integrity or mental well-being of women or girls on the basis of their inferiority position in the social grouping, that are considered to the long established and community accepted practices deserving tolerance and respect (AUC, 2012).

According to Gender and Development Networked (GDN), Harmful Traditional Practices (HTPs) are a form of discrimination and violation of human rights, which affect all communities particularly women and girls. They arise from gender inequality and discriminatory values, which lead to unequal power relations in communities and societies and to violence against women and girls. The roots of HTPs are in particular cultural, social norms, beliefs, and particular interpretations of some religions (GDN, 2012).

Gender discrimination by parent begins on the day of childbirth. Most ethnic groups in Ethiopia prefer boys and well come differently for boys and girls during birth. According to Lindsey (2005), “Gender socialization in early child hood helps boys develop wings which permit them to explore realms outside the home.‟‟ In 2006, UN General Assembly again committee to strengthen legal measures for the promotion and protection of women‟s full enjoyment of all human rights and elimination of all forms of violence against women and girls.

Harmful traditional practices have worrying consequences on girls‟ and women‟s bodies, minds, and spirits. HTP‟s lead to inter-generational poverty and disadvantage, plus prevent us reaching international development goals. The violence against girls and women, is a huge barrier to achieving human rights, justice, and equity across societies and internationally (GDN, 2012).

2.2 Female Genital Mutilation

2.2.1 Concepts of FGM

According to World Health Organization (WHO), Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C), refer to all procedures involving partial or total removal of the external female genitalia, or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons (WHO, 2010).

According to Committee on Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) female genital mutilation or female circumcision is referred to involve surgical removal of parts or all of the most sensitive female genital organs. It is an age-old practice, which is perpetuated in many communities around the world simply because it is customary. FGM forms an important part of the rites of passage ceremony for some communities, marking the coming of age of the female child (CEDAW, 1979).

Female genital mutilation, commonly known as female circumcision, is a collective name given to several kinds of traditional practices that involve the excision (cutting) of female genitals. It is commonly done by old women, traditional birth attendants, or other traditional practitioners, who are paid in cash to do the mutilation at her/his place. Instruments for the operation includes kitchen knives, razorblades, and pieces of glass are used (Amare et al., 2006).

According to World Health Organization (WHO), the practices of FGM is a trans- generational problem consequently has been risking the physical and psychological wellbeing of girls and mothers through sexual and gender based inequality. It is one of the ways by which inequality between men and women has been manifested and embedded in structures of social, economic, and political conditions of societies (WHO, 2008). Despite of, its bad consequences on health and human rights abuse, the progress of decline after many international and local interventions is not much satisfactory. According to the United Nations Population Fund‟s (UNFPA) recent report the reduction rate of FGM per year is estimated only 1%; and the projected rate of reduction per year to bring the practice down to half by 2015 is about 12.9% (UNFPA 2013).

In 2008, the World Health organization classified FGM/c into four broad categories:

Type 1 or Clitoridectomy: Partial or total removal of the clitoris and/or the clitoral hood.

Type 2 or Excision: Partial or total removal of the clitoris and the labia minora, with or without excision of the labia majora.

Type 3 or Infibulation: narrowing of the vaginal orifice with creation of a covering seal by cutting and placing together the labia minora and/or the labia majora, with or without excision of the clitoris.

Type 4 or Unclassified: all other harmful procedures to the female genitalia for nonmedical purposes, for example, pricking, piercing, incising, scraping, and cauterization.

2.2.2 Female Genital Mutilation in the World

According to William and Smith (2012) and Doherty (2012), as cited in Fosu et al., (2014), FGM is practiced in Africa, the Middle East, Indonesia, and Malaysia as well as some migrants in Europe, United States and Australia. It is also seen in some populations of South Asia. The highest known prevalence rates are in 30 African countries, in a band that stretches from Senegal in West Africa to Ethiopia on the east coast, as well as from Egypt in the north to Tanzania in the south.

According to the WHO (2010) report100–140 million women in the world circumcised, and two million girls estimated to circumcise each year. FGM often performed without sterile instruments, there by risking the transmission of HIV/AIDS, hepatitis, and other infection.

Female genital mutilation (FGM) occurs worldwide to subjugate women in the name of culture and religion. It has been registered in 28 African countries, parts of the Middle East and Asia. In Europe, USA, Canada, and Australia this practice can mainly be found among immigrants from these regions (Ahmady, 2015).

According to UNICEF, FGM practiced across the world. However, there is a regional difference in the prevalence within countries where, the practice takes place. About half of 29 countries where FGM is done to girls who are under age 5. About half of the girls are mostly between 5 and 14 years of age. Girls are often considered „ready for marriage‟ after undergoing FGM (UNICEF, 2013).

Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C) is a culturally rooted global practice that not only is considered an evident human rights violation but also has resulting health and social

consequences on girls and women. It has been implicated in serious health consequences, significant morbidity, health burden, and poor health indicators (WHO, 2006).

2.2.3 Female Genital Mutilation in Africa

According to UNICFE‟s most recent report, among the 29 African countries that are officially known with an official national data, Egypt (27.2million), Ethiopia (23.8million) and Nigeria (19.9million) have the highest circumcision rates of girls and women so far; and with the same report the current prevalence of the practice of FGM in some countries is higher. Somalia is taking the leading percentage (98%) followed by Guinea (96%) and Djibouti (93%) (UNICEF 2013).

FGM is especially common in the countries in the Horn of Africa (Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea and Djibouti), followed by neighboring Egypt and Sudan, East and West Africa, for example in Nigeria its prevalence is 60 percent (Child Rights International Network, 2016). The prevalence of FGM in African countries shows a prevalence of more than 70% in Burkina Faso, Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Guinea, Mali, Mauritania, Northern Sudan, and Somalia (Wondimu et al., 2012).

In some African countries, such as Egypt, Sudan, Somalia, and Ethiopia, the external female genitals are considered dirty. The purpose is to have the hair and all extended genitals removed to have a smooth skin surface and therefore you have a clean body. It is also considered that, if female genitalia is not cut, there is a beliefs that the clitoris may grow and hang between ones legs. However, the effect of the procedure gives the unhygienic consequences of the urine and menstrual blood that cannot escape naturally, which results in the discomfort, odor, and infection (Dorkenoo, 1994).

According to the World Health Organization, the FGM procedures are mostly carried out on young girls between infancy and age 15. In Africa about three million girls are at risk of FGM annually. Between 100 and140 million girls and women worldwide are living with the consequences of FGM. In Africa, about 92 million girls aged 10 and above are estimated to have undergone FGM (WHO 2010). Recent national figures for African countries show a prevalence of FGM/C of more than 70% in Burkina Faso, Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Guinea, Mali, Mauretania, Northern Sudan, and Somalia (Rigmor, 2010).

2.2.4 Female Genital Mutilation in Ethiopia

Ethiopia Gojii Limadew Dirgitoch Aswagajii Mahiber (EGLDAM) stated that harmful traditional practices, such as female genital mutilation is considered as a sensitive cultural issues falling within the spheres of women and the family in Ethiopia. Most children in Ethiopia undergo some form of harmful traditional practices, particularly girl‟s experience female genital mutilation (EGLDAM, 2008).

According to Ministry of Women, Children and Youth Affairs (MoWCYA), in Ethiopia 50- 60% of women experienced domestic violence in their life time. Harmful Traditional Practices related violence like female genital mutilation, early marriage, and abduction are commonly manifested violence perpetuated against women in Ethiopia. Regions with the highest rates of FGM/C are Afar (95%), SNNPR (91%), and Oromia (89%). Tigray and Amhara have the lowest rates of FGM/C (40% in Tigray; 54% in Amhara) (MoWCYA, 2013).

According to the UNICEF classification, Ethiopia is classified as a Group 2 country, with a moderately high FGM prevalence. Group 2 countries have a prevalence of between 51% and 80%. UNICEF calculates that 23.8 million women and girls in Ethiopia have undergone FGM. In terms of numbers, this is one of the highest numbers of girls and women, who have undergone FGM in Africa, second only to Egypt (UNCEF, 2013).

A number of factors contribute to the practice of FGM/C in Ethiopia, among which patriarchal attitudes and the values attached to the girl child and women, the desire to control women‟s sexuality and decision making power and the socio economic subordination of women are some of the key factors (UNICEF, 2015).

According to Boyden et al., “traditionally in Ethiopia uncircumcised girl will not get a husband. This is commonly expressed as „komaqerech,‟ i.e. „she remains standing,‟ which is translated as becoming an „old maid‟ in a local proverb, „kaltegerezech koma tikeralech,‟ which literally means „if she is not circumcised, she will remain standing‟ or she will not get a husband” ( Boyden et al., 2013).

Similarly, according to Boyden et al., “traditionally, uncircumcised girls are considered to be unclean which is locally called „lumbutam‟ very harassing kind of term and a big insult. If

one girl insults another girl saying lumbutam, the insulted girl can easily feel ashamed. The actual meaning of lumbutam is „unclean,‟ but it has become identical to „uncircumcised‟. So, girls choose to be circumcised rather than being insulted.”

According to Demographic Health Survey (DHS), the prevalence of FGM by type performed, as a total and according to other characteristics. Of those women who have undergone FGM, 8% have experienced Type III infibulation, and 92% Types I or II. Type III infibulation is most prevalent in Afar and Somali, but is also carried out to a lesser extent in Harari, Dire dawa, and other regions (DHS, 2005).

All the above literatures makes Ethiopia the heartlands of FGM and the persistence of FGM is still a real threat in the country. Despite its bad consequences on health and human rights abuse, the practices is widely spread across the country. So, the big question is why the practice is continued despite, condemned as illegal practice and backward culture that has no value for the community as well as for the victims.

2.3 Perception toward Female Genital Mutilation Practice in Ethiopia

According to UNICEF, female circumcision is prevalent in Sub-Saharan Africa and common traditions in Ethiopia. Commitment to end them has been expressed by the African Union and Ethiopia has taken a strong stand through legislation, campaigns, and concerted action by government, international organizations and civil society. However, these practices remain common in parts of Ethiopia and there is some resistances to abandoning them when and where people are not convinced of their harm or fear consequences (UNICEF, 2014).

Many women in Ethiopia may have a positive view of FGM because it connects them to their community. Being circumcised may make a woman consider herself beautiful and allow her to be married. These wrong beliefs make eradicating of FGM more challenging. This is due to lack of awareness and poor knowledge on the impacts of FGM has been found to be common among community in Ethiopia (Boyden et al., 2013).

According to Wondimu et al., it is a great challenge to change community‟s perception of FGM in Ethiopia because they inherited FGM as a legacy from their ancestors Wondimu et al., (2012). This perception related challenge on the practices of FGM in the community,

needs social and cultural change of communities in order to change attitudes that cause its persistence.

According to UNICEF (2013) stated that in Ethiopia, due to wrong perception, FGM was not believed to have a negative effect on women‟s sexual pleasure, neither on marital happiness. Support for FGM was deeply rooted in people‟s mind, and the major motivation was a belief that FGM was a necessary and effective way of ensuring women‟s virtue. Similarly, according to Wondimu et al., (2012) indicated that lack of education, poverty, insufficient information, and inadequate knowledge may put women at risk of becoming victims of FGM in Ethiopia. Therefore, education appears to play an important role in shifting such normative outlooks of FGM and facilities its eradication.

According to Boyden et al., (2013) even though the practice is considered illegal, different sections of the communities have expressed their belief in its importance and their interest in its continuance, for various reasons. For example, in some parts of Ethiopia community disagreed with the health impacts of FGM. Regarding bleeding as harmful, they claimed that losing blood by circumcision may even wash out some diseases. Similarly, there is a very strong belief that FGM is necessary during childbirth.

2.4 Legal and Policies Framework

As a world in 1948, Universal Declaration Human Rights (UDHR) prohibits all forms of discrimination based on sex and ensures the rights to life, liberty, and security of parson; it recognizes equality before law and equal protection against discrimination and in violation of human rights (UDHR, 1948).

United Nations Commission on the Status of Women (UNCSW) argued that all member States to review and, where appropriate, revise, amend or abolish all laws, regulations, policies, practices and customs, in particular female genital mutilation, that discriminate against women or have a discriminatory impact on women and girls, and to ensure that provisions of multiple legal systems, where they exist, comply with international human rights obligations, commitments and principles (UNCSW, 2007). Vienna Declaration (VD) stated the issue of gender based violence and exploitation, which provides that “Gender- based violence and all forms of sexual harassment and exploitation, with the dignity and worth of the human person, and must be eliminated” (VD, 2003).

UN passed an historic resolution, calling on countries to eliminate FGM. The 57th UN Commission on the Status of Women‟s (UNCSW) agreed conclusions included a reference to the need of states to develop policies and programs to eliminate FGM as well as other forms of violence against women (UN, 2011). In April 2009, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe adopted a resolution inviting member states to adapt their national legislation in order to prohibit and penalize forced marriages, female genital mutilation, and any other gender-based violations of human rights (EU, 2009).

In 2007, United Nations Commission on the Status of Women (UNCSW) adopted a resolution on ending female genital mutilation, which emphasized the importance of adopting legislation to address female genital mutilation. It urged member states to take all necessary measures to protect girls and women from female genital mutilation, including by enacting and enforcing legislation to prohibit this form of violence against women (UNCSW, 2007).

The African Union adopted the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and People‟s Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa in 2003. It requires that states parties take all legislative and other measures to eliminate all forms of harmful practices, which negatively affect the human rights of women (AU, 2003).

African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (ACRWC) in Article 12 and Article 16(1), “States Parties to take specific legislative, administrative, social, and educational measures to protect the child from all forms of torture, inhuman or degrading treatment, physical or mental injury or abuse, neglect or maltreatment including sexual abuse, while in the care of a parent, legal guardian or school authority or any other person, who has the care of the child‟‟ (ACRW, 2009).

The 1995 Ethiopian constitution adopted a law on harmful traditional practices. The Federal Constitution of Ethiopia under article 35 states on the right of women prohibited laws, customs, and practices that oppress or cause bodily or mental harm to women. Article 35(4 and 5) of the constitution states the elimination of harmful customs, provides women with rights and protections equal to those of men. It also goes into more specific rights, including the rights to equality in marriage; to maternity leave with full pay; to full consultation in national development policies; to acquire, administer, control, use and transfer property, with

an emphasis on land and inheritance issues; and to equal employment, pay and promotion (FDRE, 1995).

Ethiopian criminal code of 2004 on article 565, 587 and 648 criminalize all acts of violence against women including all forms of harmful traditional practices prescribing diverse penalties including imprisonment. Ethiopian Constitution (1995) on article 35(7) declared the equality of women and men with respect to access, use, administer, and inheritances of property. The Federal Cultural Policy of 1997 mentions the need to abolish harmful traditional practices step-by-step (FDRE, 1997).

The above literatures indicated that many countries of the world including Ethiopia are committed to protecting the rights of women and children through ratification a number of international and regional agreements that address the problem of FGM and other violence practices against women. However, despite of different laws and regulations for prohibition FGM in Ethiopia, actions are rare because, still community allow FGM on their own baby girls against the state laws. The practices is going against international declarations on women and child rights ratified by Ethiopian government. So it needs appropriate investigation in order to know the reason for continued practices of FGM in the country.

2.5 Religious View

Ethiopian Orthodox Church (EOC) produced statement on October 2011 regarding FGM and other form of gender-based violence. The statement condemns the practice of FGM as inappropriate, going against God‟s complete creation of female body, and women‟s human and constitutional rights. (EOC, 2010).

The Evangelical Churches Fellowship of Ethiopia (ECFE) declared on 26 January 2010 in which they condemned FGM as unbiblical and going against the divine principle of caring for the body, as well as being unjust and degrading women and depriving them of their basic human rights. It affects physically, psychologically, and emotionally diminishing women sexual pressure causing marital difficulties, pain and suffering during childbirth (ECFE, 2010).

Many times FGM is considered as a religious requirement in Ethiopia as well as in money countries of the world. But, the above literatures indicated that there is no religious approval

for FGM in Ethiopia, even if, the practice is performed by the followers of Muslims and Christians. Similarly, there is no concrete evidence from major religious books like the Bible and Qur‟an. If the practices is not imposed by any religion, further investigations is needed to know the reason that forced community for the practices of FGM in the community.

In Afghanistan religious leaders or United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA) together with the ministries of Hajj and Religious Affairs and Women‟s Affairs develop and deliver training and awareness-raising programmer for mullahs, imams and religious teachers about women‟s rights, violence against women and law on elimination of violence against women; and religious leaders should speak out about harmful traditional practices that are inconsistent with Islamic teachings and hold open discussions among Sharia experts on Islam and women‟s rights (UNAMA, 2010).

2.6 Theoretical Framework

2.6.1 Cultural Relativism Theory

Cultural relativism theory generally oppose the current United Nation‟s Declaration of Human Rights protocol of African charter on the right of women and children‟s. The theory indicated that female circumcision is important part of cultural heritage, as a result, efforts to discourage the practice were perceived as weakening or killing culture. They believed that the protocol is one of the western influence to change cultural and internal structure of African.

According to Herskovits (1972) as cited in Jasser et al.,(2013) cultural relativism argue that it need to respect other cultures in order to preserve their legitimacy and ability to develop in their own right. In most African society FGM was widely continued to maintain the ability to marry their daughter to a good family. Cultural relativism also oppose United Nation‟s Declaration of Human Rights and protocol of African charter on the right of women. It is the copier of the United States‟ constitution to spread Western ideas of human rights. The protocol changes the internal structure of African societies by judging those practices as wrong which then alters the philosophy of how African men and women think upon the practice of FGM. They believed that having outside interferences in what that culture may or may not do, changes that society or clans ability to mature independently.

The theory illustrate that Africa have become influenced by changes in policy, which then trickled down to changes in their own cultures. Marriage is culturally a very vital, social adhesive and strengthening bond within the families and clans, ensuring social cohesion. Culturally it is the legitimate way of creating an adult female prepared for marriage. Thus, criminalization of such practices without consent may affect the social cohesion, which could possibly lead to a sanctified cultural violence. The theory explain that prohibiting of FGM through legislation is still a major influence in African culture (Jasser et al., 2013).

2.6.2 Feminist Theory

Feminist theory unlike Cultural Relativism theory support the current international, regional and national laws that against the practices of FGM and other violent practices. They believed that eradication of FGM is possible through promoting girls education, increased empowerment of women, and improvement of women‟s rights etc.

According to El Dawla (1999) as cited in Tara (2012) Feminist theory views FGM through the lens of patriarchal dominance over women. In this model, increased allocation of rights to women should be correlated with decreased support for FGM. Feminist theory predicts that abandonment of FGM will be correlated with increased rights for women, including improved education for women, protection from domestic violence, property rights, and other factors related to the improvement of women‟s rights more broadly. For instance, Feminist theory predicts that increased empowerment of women, improved education for women significantly correlated with decreased support of FGM and lower tolerance for domestic violence. Generally, feminist theory unlike Cultural Relativism theory support the current international, regional and national laws that against the practices of FGM and other harmful practices.

2.6.3 Modernization Theory

Unlike Cultural Relativism modernization theory support the elimination of FGM. They assumed that the abandonment of FGM is linked with modernization that is changing life style, increased access to education, increase assets, fulfilling all social services etc.

According to Williams (1997) as cited in Tara (2012). Modernization theory postulated that FGM abandonment is correlated with societal modernization, including improved education

in society, increased wealth, increased access to modern media, and other indicators linked with modernization. The theory supposes that the abandonment of FGM is linked to increased modernization and the change from traditional lifestyles to more modern styles of living. Accordingly, common variables of interest in modernization models include increased assets/wealth, increased education, move from rural to urban environments, and access to modern means of living like electricity and piped water.

2.6.4 Social Convention Theory

Unlike modernization theory Social Convention theory support the eradication of FGM. However, what makes Social Convention theory different from other, they believed that eradication of FGM is only achieved through collective effort of the whole communities rather than by individuals or single family. They supposed that since the practices of FGM driven by traditional and social norms, if single family first stop this traditional practice can face isolation or rejection from one‟s community.

According to Mackie (1996) as cited in Tara (2012) an initial assumption of this theory with respect to the decision-making process would be parents‟ love toward their daughters. This means as parents love their daughters, they want to do what is best for them. They supposed that FGM is driven by socio-cultural, psycho-sexual, religious and aesthetic or hygienic arguments. In communities where FGM is considered as a criterion for marriage, no single family wants to abandon the practice because it affects the possibility of their daughters being married. Convention theory struggles that practices like FGM will only be abandoned by whole communities rather than by individuals or single family, because of the challenges in being the first to abandon this traditional practice and face isolation or rejection from one‟s community. The theory demonstrates that if a single family alone chooses to abandon the practice, it effectively deprives the daughter from becoming a full and recognized member of her community. The choice to abandon FGM must therefore be collective.

2.7 Conceptual Framework

Reason for continuous practice of FGM

Cultural Social influences Perception related Ineffective law influences challenges enforcement

FGM

 At government level  At community level Policy related options -Law enforcement bodies -Schools and intervention -Law and policy makers strategies for fighting -Elders

FGM -Local leaders -Religious leaders - Media - Individuals

- Continuous awareness creation program - Strengthen girls club at school - Effective law & policy implementation - Promotion of girls‟ education to oppose FGM - Clear policy& strategies for eradication of FGM - Collective and strong effort to eradicate FGM

- Legal measures on practitioners - Active participation on eradication of FGM

- Spreading information on harmfulness of FGM

Figure 2. 1 Conceptual frame work (by Researcher)

CHAPTER THREE

3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Description of the Study Area

3.1.1 Location

Wonchi woreda was astronomically located between 8º48´48"N to 8º49´16" North Latitudes and 37º47´27"E to 37º58´58"East Longitudes. Borders by Woliso Woreda from the East, by Amayya and woreda from the West, by Goro woreda from the South, Dawo woreda from North East and Ambo woreda from the North. It covers total area of 46,510.851km2, and currently divided in to 24 rural kebeles and two-woreda town. It found at 123km South West of Addis Ababa and 9 km North West of Woliso town (Wonchi woreda land and natural resource management office).

3.1.2 Population

The total population of the study area is about 138,742, of which 69,094(49.8%) are males and 69,648(50.2%) are females. Children under age 15 are 62,989(45.4%), from 15-64 age are 71, 591 (51.6%) and above 65 are 4,162 (3%) (Wonchi woreda community vital event registration office). It is one of the densely populated area from the region. An estimated population density of the woreda is about 250 peoples per square kilometer (Wonchi woreda agricultural office).

3. 1. 3 Climate and Topography

The woreda has dega and woina dega agro-climatic zones, of which 40% dega and 60% woina dega .Altitude varies from 1700m to 3385m sea level. The mean annual rain full varying from 1200mm to 1450 mm. The average annual temperature ranges from 10cº to 20cº (Wonchi woreda Agricultural office).

3.1.4. Socio-Economic

Agriculture is the most important economic activities in the woreda. Especially mixed crop and livestock faming system is the mode of agriculture practice in the district. Enset is the most dominant plant used as source of food in the study area. Enset is not used as a source of food only, but also used as a cash crop for sale in the form of kocho, kacha (fibir), bulla, and

mintaf (mat) for floorcovering and sometimes for sleeping. The main crops cultivated in the district are teff, barley, wheat, sorghum, bean, pea and lentil. The major animals reared in the district are cattle, horse, donkey, goats, sheep and mules (Wonchi woreda Agricultural office). In additions to agriculture trade is also an important economic activities in the woreda. Most of women are engaged in non-farming in small trading activities.

3.1.5 Culture

Elders have the highest social position and a great respect within the community. At meetings or gatherings normally reserve the most comfortable area for the seniors of the group. They respected as counselors and advisors to the community. Elders have the responsibility to resolving family disputes, disagreement and other conflicts arise in the community. There is culture of supporting each other during the time of death, sickness and other difficulties in the form of money, food and physical labor (Wonchi woreda cultural and tourism office)

Community well-known by giving attention in child rearing practice. Child discipline is achieved by teaching respect for elders and parents from an early age, through correcting bad behavior, and occasionally spanking (physical punishment) to manage unwelcome behavior, to achieved productive behavior and preserve good name of the families (Wonchi woreda cultural and tourism office)

In regards to marriage culture the boy picks the girl he is interested in and inform to his family member usually his father, and then the father send elders to contact with the girls family to ask the girl. If the girl‟s family accept the question they set appointment to inform their decision. If the question was rejected girls family prohibit elders from entering their house by closing the door. But, if the question is accepted, at appointment day girls family prepared special food and drinks for the well come of the elders. Following to this the process of marriage started (Wonchi woreda cultural and tourism office)

Concerning food culture Kocho with meat and milk product, chachabsa and chuko are the most popular cultural food in the community. Especially kocho with kitifo and cheese, chachabsa and chuko are an important cultural diet during festival and different celebrations. Additionally, Tela, Teji, birz and cultural ketikela are an important cultural drinks in the community (Wonchi woreda cultural and tourism office)

Harmful traditional practices like female genital mutilation, milk teeth extraction, uvula cutting and sometimes abduction are still have been practicing in the community. Religious Orthodox 49%, Protestant 50% and Muslim 1 % (Wonchi woreda cultural and tourism office).

Figure 3.1 Map of wonchi district (Source: Ethio-GIS 2007).

3.2 Methodology

3.2.1 Research Approach and Research Design

To conduct the study the researcher used a “mixed approach” (both quantitative and qualitative research approaches) were used for the study. It enables to get a better and reliable research outcome for the study. This is because of, this approach involves employing diverse methods of data collection and analysis (Creswell, 2003).

The researcher used triangulation design. Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected and analyzed simultaneously in correspondence to the main research questions. Both data were cross-checked for factual verification and then both methods integrated during interpretation. This design is used when a researcher wants to directly compare and contrast quantitative statistical results with qualitative findings or to validate or expand quantitative results with qualitative data (Creswell, 2003).

3.2.2 Data Sources

The data for the study were generated from primary and secondary sources. The primary data were collected from elders, religious leaders, community, healthy workers, victims of FGM, woreda women‟s and children affairs bureau, from woreda health office, and secondary data sources include census records, project reports, thesis, books, journals as well as others un published materials.

3.2.3 Sampling Method and Sample Size Determination

The total population of Wonchi woreda is 138,742 and out of which 20,354 are household heads. The study Woreda contains 24 rural kebeles and 2 woreda towns. By using simple random sampling technique three kebeles namely, Merega Abeyi, Haro Sonkole and Chabo Senselet were selected, as representative sample for the whole kebeles in the woreda. Reason for the use of simple random sampling technique, all kebeles in the woreda were homogenous by culture, life-style and practices of FGM.

To calculate the sample size out of the total population of the three selected kebeles, researcher used Yamane (1967).

N___ Where N=population size

1+N (e) 2 n=sample size

e=the degree of confidence desired, 0.05

Based on the above formula the researcher selected 285-sample respondents out of 998 the total household heads in the three selected kebeles. After determining the total sample size, the researcher used proportional allocation formula, to determine the sample size of each kebeles (k1, K2, k3).

N=998 k1=403 Where N=Total household heads p=Proportion

n= 285 K2=314 n=Total sample size k=Kebele

k3=281

p1=k1/N=0.403 n1=p1*n n2=p2*n n3=p3*n p2=k2/N=0.314 =0.403*285 =0.314*285 =0.281*285 p3=k3/N=0.281 =115 = 90 = 80

Table 3.1Total household heads and sample size

Name of Selected Total house Sample size woreda kebeles hold heads

Merega Abey 403 115

Wonchi Chabo Senselet 314 90

Haro Sonkole 281 80

Total 998 285

Source: Wonch woreda agricultural office.

After determining the sample size of each kebeles, the researcher took a list of total household heads of each kebeles and selected representative sample from the three selected kebeles by systematic sampling technique. That was, by obtaining a list of recent household‟s

heads of each kebeles from Kebele administration, and then selected nth number by using N/n formula for the starting point and the continued choosing additional unit at equal spaced interval until the desired number fulfilled.

3.2.4 Instruments for Data Collection

Questionnaire: The questionnaire contained of different parts. The first section socio- demographic characteristics of the sample households, second section perception on harmful effects of FGM, third section to explored causes that forced community to practices FGM, fourth section to assess reason for continued practice of FGM and finally the fifth section to explore policy options, interventions and strategies for reducing FGM.

The questionnaire was developed first in English language, then translated into the local language (Afan Oromo). Data collectors who had graduated from different college were trained before they administered the questionnaire. The translated Oromic version was administered by research assistances (data collectors) to the respondents, who were living in the study area. The questions included both close-ended and open-ended questions for quantitative and qualitative data respectively.

Interview: Interview was used by the researcher to get additional data to support the information obtained by questionnaires. In-depth interviews questions was prepared and translated into local language “Afan Oromo,” then collected qualitative data from key informants like health workers, woreda women‟s and children‟s affairs office , woreda health office and from victims of FGM .

Focus Group Discussion (FGD): Three FGD were conducted, one in each three selected kebeles for the sake of providing qualitative data, which gives an insight to attitude, opinion, feelings, perceptions and experiences of the respondents toward the practices of FGM and to recommended possible solution for future intervention. The compositions of focus group members included 9 community elders and 9 religious leaders. The data collected through FGD were analyzed using words or in descriptive qualitative analysis.

3.2.5 Data Analysis Technique

The data obtained from interview and focused group discussion with government office experts, community elders, victims of FGM and religious leaders were analyzed qualitatively

in narrative explanation or in description form using words. With regard to the data gathered from household survey every completed questionnaire were checked. The pre-coded questionnaires were entered into a computer and analyzed quantitatively using the statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) computer software program. Both qualitative and quantitative the data were cross-checked for factual verification and incorporated in the final research report. Finally, the analyzed data information were presented based on the specific objectives used in the study in the form of tables, description and cases to make the findings simple and more readable.

3.2.6 Ethical Consideration

It was made sure that all participants were participated voluntarily. They were a choice of either participating or not participating. The researcher communicated with all respondents about the purpose and benefit of the study during the data collection process to avoid possible confusion and mistrust from the research participant.

Furthermore, confidentiality of the information obtained was assured by explaining, that their names and other identities of their statuses was not documented in the questionnaire and the information was kept confidential that no one has opportunity to see the responses except the researcher and the information they provided was not to be used for anything, other than research purpose.

Generally, the researcher respected the norms, values, and traditions of the research area community and also followed the rule of research ethics.

CHAPTER FOUR

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Socio-Economic Characteristics of the Respondents

Regarding sex compositions of household heads, 96.1% were males and 3.9% were females (table 4.1). This showed that most of respondents were males. Because, since the researcher used systematic sampling technique to select representative sample from total house hold heads of three selected kebeles, only 3.9% of female house hold heads were selected or incorporated in to the sample. Even though, some literatures indicated that sex of community influence level of perception toward the practices of FGM. For example, according to Masresha Yazew (2014) stated that women support more the practice of FGM than men because of, most of mothers insisted on authorizing their baby girls to be circumcised. Similarly, according to MoWCYA (2013) many women and girls may have a positive view of FGM in Ethiopia because they consider as it connects them to their community and due to lack of awareness about their rights incorporated in the laws of the country. This shows that how women‟s are sensitive for or support cultural practices than men. Because, most of mothers seek to ensure the future marriage of their daughters and protect good name of the family, because, culturally young girls are not get married unless they are circumcised.

Concerning age compositions of household heads (table 4.1), 21.1% of the sample households were from 21-40 years old, 52.3% of the sample household heads were from 41- 60 years old and the rest 26.7% of household heads were from >60 years. The age distribution of respondents indicated that minimum age of the respondents were estimated at 21 years and this implies that most of them were adults and may have matured and generated valuable experiences and information for the study. According to Agbaje et al., (2012) stated that age of community had influence perceptions towards harmful traditional practices. Similarly, Paige (2017) stated that older women are support more domestic violence than the younger women. This can showed that the older groups of community are more likely to support the practices of FGM than younger age group. Therefore, age of community play an important role to support or oppose the practices of FGM.

Table 4.1 Socio-Economic Characteristics of the Respondents

Variables Categories Frequencies % Sex Male 274 96.1 Female 11 3.9 Total 285 100% Age 21-40 60 % 41-60 149 21.1 >61 76 52.3 Total 285 26.7 Level of Illiterate 222 77.9 education read and write 28 9.8 primary school 30 10.5 secondary school 4 1.4 Diploma 1 0.4 Total 285 100.0

Source: Household survey, 2017

With respect to the educational level of respondents (table 4.1), 77.9% of respondents were illiterates, 10.5% respondents were attained primary education, 9.8% of the respondents attained some informal education and able to read and write, 1.4% respondents were attained secondary level education and the rest 0.4% respondent was attained higher education. This result showed that most of the respondents were illiterates. Fosuet al., (2014) indicated that modern parents who are so educated are less likely support the practices of FGM than uneducated parents. Similarly, according UNICEF (2013) stated that education appears to play an important role in shifting normative expectations FGM and facilities its eradication. As one can understood from the literatures since most of the community in the study area are illiterate, they are more likely to support the practices of FGM than educated. Because, education is play an important role in transferring relevant information on harmfulness of FGM.

4.2 Perception of Community on Harmful Effect of FGM

Item1 (table 4.2), regarding harmfulness of FGM, about 47.0% of respondents were disagree with the harmfulness of FGM. This result indicated that how the perception of community on harmfulness of FGM is low. Because of, almost half the community believed in usefulness of FGM. This result supported by Boyden et al., in some parts of Ethiopia community disagreed with the health impacts of FGM and expressed their belief in its importance for example, they claimed that losing blood by circumcision may even wash out some diseases and necessary for during childbirth (Boyden et al., 2013). Similarly, Wondimu et al., (2012) stated that limited knowledge of FGM in the community create a gap in understanding of the procedure and its impact on women‟s reproductive health and social life in Ethiopia. One can understood form this result there is wrong perception in the community on the practices of FGM, for the reason that, community still believe in usefulness of the practice. Therefore, it needs strong effort to change community‟s perception on harmfulness of FGM.

In item 2 (Table 4.2), relating to their opinion toward the practices of FGM, about 47.4% of respondents were recognized FGM as good practices. As one can assumed from this result that how perception of the community‟s on the harmfulness of FGM is very low. Because, just about half of the community perceived FGM as good practice. Similarly, according to discussion and interview with participants due to low perception on harmfulness of FGM, most of the community have been practicing FGM without any fear secretly by alcoholic abused of traditional practitioners. This is comparable with the findings of Kimani stated that cutting of girls‟ clitoris and labia is usually done with crude unsterile instruments and without care, by traditional practitioners, who have no knowledge on female anatomy Kimani (2016). Therefore, the use of sharp instrument for cutting by old and alcoholic abused traditional practitioners may cause danger on the body and health of the victims. Generally, this can showed that there is perception related challenge on the practices of FGM and its consequences on the life of girls and women in the community.

Table 4.2 Perception of community on harmfulness of FGMAQ

No Items Responses Freq. %

1 FGM is harmful 1) Agree 135 47.4 2) Disagree 134 47.0

3) Undecided 16 5.6

Total 285 100 How do you perceive FGM 1) Good 135 47.4

2 2) Bad 135 47.4 3) Undecided 15 5.2

Total 285 100

Source: Household survey result, 2017.

Case 1: Interview with Mrs. "X" from Chabo Senseleti kebele, a victim of FGM

“My name is chaltu (not her real name), I am 36 years old. I have four children. As I think, when I was circumcised around 6 years old. I was not assumed as they circumcise me .One day at the morning a fat old woman came to our home. My God mother also came bring along a few candy. I was so happy to get the candy. Similarly, my uncle and his wife were came. Suddenly my younger brother caught my hands and took me towards the old woman and the peoples. Immediately, some of them seized my legs apart and others held my two hands and be seated me on the pestle. I was so shouted! I started to call my mammy (mother), but no one heard me. Then, the old woman cut my body by using razor blade. Much blood was ruined from my wounded. She put fresh butter on my head and also added traditional medicine on my wounded. It was too burned me. I could not eat as well as drink the entire day. I also feared to urinate urine the whole day. But at the mid of the night, I released urine, because of I could not control more time. It was so painful!

On the next day, my wounding being started to bleeding for the whole day, I have fraught to notice what happened on me for my mother. At a noon as a chance mother was seen, when much blood was ruined on my legs. Immediately when she observed my wound, it had been too bleeding. Then, she called my father from neighbor and took me to the surrounding health center. But, they could not stops bleeding, because of my genital body had seriously teared during circumcision (the old women cut unwanted area seriously by razorblade during circumcision, due to that she had sighted problem). Immediately, they referred me to the hospital is called „Tikur Anbessa.‟ After blood was given for me, I saved from death. Starting from that time my health have been deteriorating from time to time, still now I have been feeling pain at different times on the scare area. I have been suffering from different health problems. I gave birth of my first child by surgery, after I was suffered more than 5 days. Privately, I did not support the practice of FGM, because I remember what happened on my life. However, still now community have been practicing FGM in secret in order to secure future marriage of their children and due to fear of discrimination, shame, and insults from community …”

As it can be understood from Mrs. ”X” interview, she was cut seriously by an old women, still she has been suffering from different health and physical problems throughout her life. This showed that, due to low perception on the harmful effects of FGM, community have been forcing their children to cut without any carefulness by an old women. This clearly indicated that there is perception related problems on the harmful effects of FGM in the community. It needs social and cultural change of communities in order to change perceptions and beliefs that cause its continuation. A similar study by WHO stated that in most cases FGM has been performed by traditional practitioners that are mainly elderly women those who probably have a vision problem (WHO 2001). Furthermore, this idea supported by Kimani (2016) stated that bleeding occurs due to cut or severing of branches of clitoral arteries, which have high blood pressure, causing a strong flow of blood during and shortly after the cutting process may cause death.

According to Mrs. "X"‟s indication, still community have been practicing FGM in the study area, due to fear of isolation and insult from the community. This showed that how negative attitudes and aggressive statements against uncircumcised girls negatively reinforce the community to practice FGM. This result is comparable to the findings of Rigmor (2010)

indicated that in most of the society‟s failure to practice FGM leads to difficulty in finding a husband for the girl, shame, stigmatization, loss of social position, honor, and protection from the community. However, Article 553(1) of the Ethiopian criminal code prohibit all harmful traditional practices. It provides that “Whoever intentionally or by negligence causes bodily injury to another or impairs health, by whatever means or in any manner, is punishable in accordance this law includes all manner of bodily assaults, blows, wounds, maiming, injuries or harm, and all damage to the physical or mental health of an individual.” However, despite of the laws that against the practices of FGM in the country, there is still some resistance in the community. Because, still community performing FGM carelessly by using force on their children. Generally, this situation showed that how perception of the community on harmfulness and illegality of FGM is low.

Case 2: Interview with Mrs. "Y" from Haro Sonkolle kebele, a victim of FGM

“My name is "Y".I am 44 years old. I have 7 children. As I estimated, when I was circumcised around 7 years old. As I remember that mother prepared tella and ketikela for circumcision ceremony. I asked mammy, why she prepared drinks, but mammy told me that as her brother would come from Germany, so I believed her. Father also went to the market bought sheep and cock for meat as well as new dress for me. I was so happy forgot new dress. On the other day, at the morning an old woman came with my both grandmother and father. I heard when they were discussed in small sound (undertone) about my circumcision with mammy. Immediately, I raised up from sleeping, left from home, then I turned to our garden climbed on mango tree. After all conditions were arranged father came to took me from sleep, but he cannot got me.

All peoples took different directions to search me, all neighbors were asked and all place were searched, but they cannot got me. As I think it became around 4 hours, as a chance my older brother saw me on the tree, when he was passing under the tree. As soon as he saw me, he climbed on tree to catch me, I was fell down from a tree by great fear, and one of my leg (knee) was injured. After he had beaten me, held my hands gave me to the women. Peoples held my legs wide apart and others held my hands. After circumcision was completed, locally prepared traditional medicines was applied on my wound to stop the bleeding. I cannot move, because my knee was too swelled. I was suffered too much. My

parents took me to the wise man is called “wagesha” to massage the swelled. I was not left from house for two months. Still I have been suffering from different pains. Still, my leg have been snapping or scuffing and I have been feeling some pain on my womb and back bone, especially during heavy work. Even though, FGM is fearful and suffered my life, I was circumcised all my children, because I have no any alternatives. I forced to practice FGM due to, fear of isolation and insults from their friends and society…”

As the researchers understand from interview, she has been suffering from the practices of FGM. She forced to undergo FGM by using brutal force without her will. This practices also, put lifetime scar on her life. Still she has been suffering from serious physical, psychological, and health complications. This can display that, how perception of community on the harmful effects of FGM is low. This findings supported by (Rigmor, 2010 and Wondimu et al., 2012) indicated that since the practice of FGM is forceful and aggressive, and performed without the will of the victim, it causes removal of sexually responsive vascular tissue, this also reduce a women's capacity for sexual enjoyment, and even more put them to enormous sufferings. However, articles 568 and 569 of the Ethiopian criminal code are criminalizing harmful traditional practices that cause the deaths of human lives, injury to person and health (FDRE criminal code, 2004).

However, despite of this and others laws that against the practices of FGM in the country, the practice is still persist. Communities are still performing FGM by giving value for their customs rather than care for the health and lives of their children. This is showed that there is low perception on harmfulness of FGM in the community which, makes law enforcement bodies and communities indifferent to the law, in spite of its illegality and its bad consequences on health of the victims.

Even though, "Y" was excessively suffered by the practices of FGM, she was circumcised all her children, due to fear of isolation and insults from the community. This displayed that how parents would be forced their daughter to put in to hazardous practices in order to keep community‟s harmful culture. However, 1995 Ethiopian Constitution, under article 35 on the rights of women, prohibited laws, customs and practices that oppress or cause bodily or mental harm to women (FDRE, 1995). Similarly, Article 224 of the 2004 revised penal code of Ethiopia specifically prohibited traditional practices that cause bodily injury. However,

these laws are not putted in to practices successfully. It is only textual recognition. This can showed that there are some traditional and social pressure which, push community to perform the practices of FGM. It needs strong work to put the existing law in to practice effectively. In addition, continuous awareness creation movement needed to increase community‟s perception on harmfulness of FGM as well as to correct negative outlook toward uncircumcised girl in the community.

4.3 Causes that Forced Community to Practice FGM

As indicated in table 4.3, with respect to „causes that forced community to practice FGM,‟ 84.6% of respondents responded that fear of isolation and insult from the community. Whereas, only 11.6% of respondents were responded that to reduce sexual desire. This result showed that there is a fear on the part of the parents that if girl is not circumcised she may not get husband. This findings supported by Wondimu et al., (2012) stated that some families are forced to practice FGM to avoid shame and due to fear of social isolation for deviating from community norms and to increase marriage opportunities of girls. This displayed that still community have negative feelings toward uncircumcised girl in the study area. The practice was accepted in the community as one form of ceremonies through which the female gets acceptance by the society and her peers.

Table 4.3 Reasons that forced community to practice FGM

No Reason for practice of FGM Responses

Freq. %

1 Reasons for practicing FGM 1) Reduce sexual desire 33 11.6

2) Make girl happy 1 0.4 3) Fear of isolation and insult from community 241 84.6 4) For religious purpose 10 3.5

5) For economic reason - -

Total 285 100 Source: Household survey result, 2017.

Similarly, FGD and interview participants disclosed that the cause for the practices of FGM in the community include uncircumcised girl is not get husband, because culturally no one can ask uncircumcised girl for marriage in the community. They also indicated that FGM is necessary to assure female stability and faithfulness, since it reduces sexual desire of women‟s. This is similar with ideas of NCTPE (1999) “in Ethiopia to many reasons have been given, for which female circumcision is done by the society. Some of these include respect for tradition, preservation of morality, secure stability, avoidance of shame, stigma, and to get husband.” Similarly, Boyden et al., (2013) stated that traditionally in Ethiopia uncircumcised girl will not get a husband and the community condemns and blames not only uncircumcised girl but also her parents. This can showed that the issue of female circumcision in this society is directly related to marriage. It also a means of creating qualification for marriage and used as a sign of respect for the girl and her family. One can understood from this how cultural and social factors forced community to practice FGM. It needs strong social and cultural transformation through awareness creation movements on harmfulness and illegality of FGM.

Case3: Ms. "Z" from Merege Abbayyi kebele, a psychological sufferers came from communities’ custom.

“I am 24 years old. I have one child. When I was circumcised, I was too small to remember what happened that day. But, I remember the most recent history of one girl of our neighbor. Her name is "Z". Her mother was dead without circumcise her. Her father also very poor and inactive man. Due to that, she was stayed without circumcision. For the reason that, always she was felt unhappy, shy, and not confident to play with her peers. As I think it is not more than 3 years. One day, I went to the river to fetch water. "Z" also came to the river to fetch water with children. She was fought with one girls at the river. She insulted by a very harassing word in local language „Gadhe dhaqina hin qabanne,‟ which means „you bad uncircumcised girl!‟ .All children presented there laughed to her. After that she was too ashamed and she has not self-confident to defend herself as well as to speak anything. She was very irritated and cried. She said, „I was insulted for the reason that, I have not a mother, after this I will not prefer to live.‟ By a great sorrow, she was thrown herself along the deep side of the river. All of us were shouted for help loudly. Many peoples were came from surrounding area brought out her from the water. Her body was excessively injured and bleed. On the next day, she was circumcised secretly at night by the arrangement of her aunt. Really instead of its impact FGM is not supported, but we have no choices until community view will improved…”

One can understand from the above interview, "Z" was severely affected by mental illness and distortion of social relationships that arisen from isolation and insult by using abusive words from the community. This can displays that, how uncircumcised girl has been suffering from social, moral, and psychological disorder, as well as how community have been developing bad feeling toward uncircumcised girl in the study area. This showed that community forced to practices FGM, due to fear of negative sanctions when they against or disrespect cultural and social norm of the community in the study area. This is comparable with the findings of Christopher (2013) indicated that uncircumcised girls were being stigmatized by other peers through the use of provoking words and verbal insults or vulgar words, such girls are not required to mix or be friends with circumcised girls at homes or school settings.

Similarly, this findings supported by CEDAW (1979) stated that among women in Djibouti, Ethiopia, Somalia, and the Sudan, circumcision is performed to reduce sexual desire, secure stability, to maintain virginity until marriage, and to avoid shame and insults from the community especially her peers. However, Article 35(4) of FDRE Constitution, enacted in 1995 states: “The State has the duty to guarantee the right of women to be free from the influence of harmful customary practices…”

Case 4: Interview with Mrs. "A" from Haro Sonkolle kebele, a victim of FGM

“My name is "A", I was 51 years old. I have one son. When I was circumcised around 6 years old. My mother told me that „circumcision is good for acceptance in society and makes girl to get rich and good husband, but nobody would marry a girl who is not circumcised.‟ So, I believed Mammy (mother) very well. After that day, I was started to request mammy to circumcise me repeatedly. But mammy has not money for the preparation of circumcision ceremony. My father had died, when I was 2 years old. After a time she borrowed money from people and she prepared ceremony for my circumcision. One day at the morning the old woman that I always hate came to our home. My uncle as well as our neighbors were came. They were held my two legs and hands then, she was cut my genital body. It was too bleed. After cutting was completed she added burnable traditional medicine on my wound. I resisted all this miserable conditions by expecting what mammy told me before, which is by expecting circumcision will make me a good and acceptable girl in a society as well as favor a condition to get rich and good husband.

However, became as a chance, I was married and divorced four times. All what I expected became a dream. All my husbands had loved me, especially my first husband loved me too much, but I was not want to see his face, particularly when it becoming a night, I starting to feared him. Repeatedly, I flew away to my parents. He was sent elders and discussed on the matter for many times, but they could not solved the problem. I was not want to talk about my secret problems, because as it is taboo to discuss it with others. After 6 months of miserable life, I divorced him. I was pregnant, when I was separated from my first husband. I gave birth at my parents‟ house. Again I was married after a year to my second husband, but again I was separated after two months. Continuously, I married and divorced four times. I was not happy with all my marriage. Know, I have been living with my son. Always I have

been feeling a senses of lowliness and inferiority. Many times peoples cannot related to me, because of community considered me as an aggressive women, for the reason that, I divorced many times. But I am not aggressive women…”

As one can understand from interview, Mrs. "A" was initiative to push her mother to circumcise her as a matter of tradition. She believed that, she is not being marry without circumcision. Even though, the practice is considered illegal, her mother also believed the usefulness of FGM. She believed that circumcision favor condition to get rich and good husband for her child. This showed that not only parents need to circumcised their daughters, but also girls themselves enforce their parents to get circumcise them, because of there is strong cultural and social pressures against uncircumcised girls in their locality. This supported by the findings of Boyden et al., (2013) stated that in Ethiopia girls required circumcision to avoid insults and peer pressure, and pushed her parents into organizing the event, which was conducted secretly at night to avoid punishment.

As one can understand from the above interview, FGM causes many complex and complicated problems on her life. Even if, she was not mentioned (as it is taboo), one can estimate from her idea, as the results of FGM she may severely affected during intercourse and exposed to physical, health, and psychological problems. This supported by the findings of Kimani (2016) stated that lack of sexual satisfaction, difficult in penetration and infertility arisen from FGM affect sexual life of women and may cause divorce.

On the other hand, Mrs. "A" also felt a senses of lowliness and inferiority, as a results of divorce resulted from FGM. This displayed that how community have been developing wrong attitude toward women, for the reason that, simply due to she was divorced from her husband‟s repeatedly, community considered her as an aggressive women, and discriminated her from social life. This idea supported by Rigmor (2010) indicated that consequences of FGM/C influence women‟s relations with their partner, children, relative and society. This showed that how FGM exposed to physical, social, psychological, and health complications on the lives of victims.

4.4 Reasons for Continued Practice of FGM

As indicated in table 4.4, with respect to „reasons for continued practice of FGM,‟ 62.5% of respondents responded that due to dominance of traditional norms and 35.8% of respondents

responded that awareness related constraints were mentioned as reasons for continued practice of FGM in the study area. Similarly, there is awareness related challenge on the harmfulness of FGM in the community. As one can assumed from this result community‟s traditions and social norms are played a great role in preserving FGM in the study area. This findings supported by MoWCYA (2013) stated that the influence of culture is so strong that even officials may fail to see harmful traditional practices as a wrongful and criminal act. This can showed that how traditional and social factors forced community to practice FGM in the study area. Because, family fear negative sanction that arise from community, if they against traditional beliefs and social norms of their community.

Similarly, FGD and interview participants mentioned cause for the continued practice of FGM is, the practice is very much intertwined with long held traditional beliefs and social norms of the community. This is supported by Wondimu et al., (2012) indicated that it is a great challenge to change community‟s perception of FGM in Ethiopia because they inherited FGM as a legacy from their ancestors. Participants also indicated that mostly older and illiterate group of community are rigid to accept the idea of modern system, mainly idea that against their traditional and social norms. This idea supported by UNICEF (2013) stated that education appears to play an important role in shifting normative expectations FGM and facilities its eradication. This can displayed that the influence of traditional and social norms are create favorable condition for the continued practices of FGM in the community. It needs strong and continuous awareness creation movement on harmfulness of FGM.

Table 4.4 Reasons for continued practice of FGM

No Reasons for resistance to change of FGM Responses Fre. %

1 Reasons for continued practice of FGM

1) Connect with religion 3 1.1 2) Lack of knowledge 1 0.4 3) Due to dominance of traditional norms 178 62.5 4) Awareness related constraints 102 35.8

5) Poor economy of household heads 1 0.4

Total 285 100

Source: Household survey, 2017.

Additionally, according to FGD and interview with key informants the major gap identified for the continued practices of FGM in the contemporary time including, laws against FGM is not put in to practice effectively; awareness of women in keeping their right is low and most of the legal bodies and local administrators left the situation knowingly. This is supported by Save the Children Denmark (2008) a culture of silence and secrecy that prevails in Ethiopia has been having a negative influence on children and discourages them to report their violation. Therefore, it needs coordinated effort among community and different organs of government in order to assure effective law and policy implementation at all levels. Similarly, empowering women‟s through economic, political and social opportunities in order to keep their right.

4.5 Supportive Intervention Strategies for Reducing FGM

On table 4.5, concerning „intervention strategies for lowering of FGM,‟ 54 % of respondents replied that awareness creation at all level and 41.4% of respondents replied that taking legal measures against practitioners were answered as important measure for lowering FGM. As one can understood from this result there is perception related challenge on the harmful effects of FGM in the community. There is also a laxity to enforce the enacted laws to prohibit the practice of FGM in the community. Therefore, it requires continues and

sufficient awareness creation for the community on the harmfulness of FGM plus taking appropriate legal measure against practitioners are an important measure for reducing the practices of FGM in the community.

Table 4.5 Intervention strategies for lowering FGM

Supportive measures Responses Frequ %

1 Supportive measures for lowering of FGM 1) Awareness creation movements 154 54 2) Taking measures by community elders 6 2.1 3) Legal measures against practitioners 124 43.3

4) Nothing to do 1 0.4

Total 285 100 Source: Household survey result, 2017.

Similarly, FGD and interview participants were mentioned supportive intervention strategies for fighting female genital mutilation within the community includes: continuous awareness creation; strengthen women‟s and youths association through workshop, seminars and training; taking appropriate legal measures against practitioners; promotion of girls‟ education to struggle for their rights; effective policy implementation; cultural and social transformation through continuous education; and collaborative and strong effort among government, community, religious leaders, civil society, schools and the media to play a major role in spreading enough information for the community members on harmfulness and illegality of FGM.

CHAPTER FIVE

5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusions

The results of the study indicated that community have not similar understanding or perception on harmfulness of female genital mutilation in the study area. There is perception related constraints on harmfulness of FGM plus on its consequences on the life of the victims.

The findings of the study clearly showed that the practices of FGM still prevalent in the study area. This practice is taking place secretly during a night or early in the morning, due to fear of law. There are different motives for its practices. The major reasons according to the study was that culturally uncircumcised girl is not get husband plus there is discrimination and insult against uncircumcised girl in the community. Similarly, circumcision was assumed as a sign of honor and respect for the girl and her family. Therefore, not only the parents, but also girls themselves do not oppose the practice due to the influence of tradition. Farther more, in the community there is a belief that uncircumcised girl is unstable and talkative.

The result of the study revealed that underlying reasons for continued practice of female genital mutilation in present-day is, female genital mutilation is tide up with deep-rooted traditional beliefs and social norms of the community. Particularly the older and illiterate group of communities are support such like traditional belief and social norms that inherited from their insisters. Additionally, the existing laws against the practices of FGM were not put in to practice effectively; awareness creation for the communities on harmfulness of FGM was not enough; awareness of women in keeping their right is also low

The result of the study also clearly showed that there was no enough perception and proper understanding on policies, laws and regulations that against the practices of female genital mutilation in the community. This study also specified supportive intervention strategies for lowering female genital mutilation within the community. These activities are includes: strong and continuous awareness creation movement on existing laws and on harmfulness of FGM; cultural and social transformation through continuous education; effective policy implementation; promotion of girls‟ education to struggle for their rights and taking

appropriate legal measures against practitioners. Similarly, government should create collective and strong effort with different target groups such community, religious leaders, civil society, schools and media to play a major role in spreading enough information for the community members on harmfulness and illegality of FGM.

5.2 Recommendations

1. Government should increase community‟s awareness on the existing laws against the practices of FGM plus on harmfulness of FGM.

2. Media strongly work on awareness raising activities on impacts of FGM and in order to change negative attitudes and customary action toward girls and women.

3. School should establish anti-FGM club at school to provide good opportunity to address the impacts of FGM and encourage the young people to oppose the practice.

4. Religious leaders and community elders collaborate with government to take an active role in campaigns against the practices of FGM through awareness creation movements for the community.

5. Community should collaborate with local authorities and other institutions to learn, teach, and take violators to legal bodies.

6. Government should take appropriate measures to eliminate gender stereotyping from the educational system and removing gender bias from the curriculum and other teaching materials.

7. Women should organize and work together in their development team at all levels in order to keeps their right.

8. All individuals able to contribute directly or indirectly on the elimination of FGM and cooperate with government, religious institutions, local leaders and other traditional authorities in order to eliminate all harmful traditional practices including FGM.

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Kimani, S. (2016. “Health Impacts of FGM/C: A Synthesis of the Evidence,” Evidence to end FGM/C Program: Research to Help Girls and Women Thrive. New York: Population Council. http://www.popcouncil.org/EvidencetoEndFGM-C Kinyeki, S., Prithan, A. and Makala, M. (2013). Female Genital Mutilation: a case study of practices in Sierra Leone, Tanzania and Kenya. African Journal of Science and Research, 2013, 2(3): 11-17, Available Online http://ajsr.rstpublishers.com/ Leye, E., Deblonde, J., Garcia-Anon, J., Dotter, J. & Temmerman, M. (2007). An analysis of the implementation of laws with regard to female genital mutilation in Europe. Lindsy, L. (2005) .Gender roles: sociological perspective. Second edition. Maryville University of St. Louvis. Media & External Relations Section www.unicef.org/ethiopia. Masresha Yazew. (2014). The Difficulties of Ending Female Genital Mutilation (FGM): Case of Afar Pastoralist Communities in Ethiopia, degree of Master of arts in development studies, The Hague, The Netherlands.

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Edo South Senatorial District, Nigeria Africa Journal of Productive Health, 2009; 13:2. Paige, N. (2017).Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting and Intimate Partner Violence: A Senior Honors Thesis Submitted to the Department of Political Science, University of California, San Diego. Pankhurst, A. (2014). Child Marriage and Female Circumcision: Evidence from Ethiopia. Young Lives and save the children. London: young Lives policy Brief 21.2014.Retrived from: http://www.younglives.org para.31. Revised criminal law of Federal Democratic Republic Ethiopia (FDRE), 2005. Rigmor, B., Eva, D. and Atle, F. (2010). Psychological, social and sexual consequences of female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C): a systematic review of quantitative studies. Report from Kunnskapssenter nr 13−2010. Oslo: Norwegian Knowledge Centre for the Health Services, 2010. www.kunnskapssenteret Said, M. A. (2015). Stories and strategies of women living with Female Genital Mutilation in Auckland communities. Thesis in master public health, Auckland University Save the Children Denmark, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Women‟s Affairs, May 2008 Addis Ababa. Save the Children Denmark. (2008). A Study on Violence against Girls in Primary Schools and Its Impacts on Girls‟ Education in Ethiopia. Senger, J. (2005). The Atlas of women in the world. New revised third edition, earth scans in the UK. Short, A. (1998). Women and family property and power. Department of sociology and social policy, Queen‟s University of Belfast Statement”. WHO. Geneva, Switzerland: 1-35. Statement”. WHO. Geneva, Switzerland: 1- http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/66857/2/WHO/_FCH_/GWH_01.4.pdf. Stein, J. and Urdangh. (1973). (eds.). The Random House Dictionary of the English Language New York: Random House. Tara, S. (2012). Empirical Determinants of Female Genital Cutting, Evidence From Gambia. Master‟s Project, Sanford School of Public Policy, Duke University.

United Nation (UN). (2006). Study on Violence against Children. New York: United Nations 2006. Retrieved from: http://www.unicef.org/violence study/reports/SG- violence study-en.pdf United Nation General Assembly Resolution 1763(XVII), 1962. United Nation General Assembly Resolution 217(III), 1948. United Nation Population Fund. (2013). 'When Will we Achieve the Goal of Reducing FGM/C by Half?‟ New York: United Nations Population Fund. Accessed 19 September 2014. http://www.unfpa.org/webdav/site/global/shared/events/2013/UNFPA-FGMC- Posters-FINAL.pdf. United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA). (2010). Harmful traditional practices that violate women‟s rights widespread in Afghanistan: speedy implementation of the law on elimination of violence against women needed. UNAMA, December 2010, Kabul. Afghanistan. http://unama.unmissions.org. United Nations Commission on the Status of Women. (2007). Resolution 51/2 of 2007, paras. 9, 10 and 12. 41 UNCSW resolution 51/3 of 2007, para. 1(a). United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF). (2000). Domestic Violence Against Women and Girls. Italy. Innocent Digest 6. United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund. (2013b). 'Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A Statistical Over-view and Exploration of the Dynamics of Change'. New York: United Nations Children Fund (Accessed 01 May 2014. http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf. United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund. (2014) .Child Marriage and Female Circumcision (FGM/C): Evidence from Ethiopia. Young lives policy brief 21, July 2014 (revised December 2014). Available on our website: www.younglives.org.uk. United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund. (2015). „State of the World‟s Children‟, 2015. United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund. (2015). Harmful Traditional Practices. Child Protection Section and

United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund. (2016).A new statically report on FGM show harmful practices. NEW YORK, updated: 5 February 2016. United Nations Population Fund. (2013). State of world population; Motherhood in Childhood: Facing the challenge of Adolescent pregnancy. New York: United Nations.2013.Retreived from: http://www.unfpa.org/publications/state-population- 2013 United Nations. (1979). Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination against Women (art.5 (a)), adopted by General Assembly resolution 34/180 of 18 December 1979. United Nations. (2006). In-depth Study on All Forms of Violence against Women, Report of the Secretary-General, A/61/122/Add.1, 2006. United Nations. (2011). Handbook for Legislation on Violence against Women, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 10-70370-March 2011-2,740. New York. Available online at: http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/vaw/v-handbook.htm. Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). (1948). United Nation General Assembly Resolution 217(III), Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948. Vienna Declaration and program of Action, Adopted by the world conference on Human rights in Vienna on 25 June 1993, the world conference on human rights, Section 1, Paragraph 18. Wondimu, S., Nega, A., and Mengistu, W. (2012). Female Genital Mutilation: prevalence, perception and effect on women‟s health in kersa district of Ethiopia. International Journal of Women‟s health. Published online 2012 Feb 13.doi:10.2147/IJWH.S28805. www.hindawi.com/journals/ijpedi/2014/169795/. World Health Organization. (2001). Female genital mutilation: integrating the prevention and the management of the health complications into the curricula of nursing and midwifery. A student's guide (pp. 144). World Health Organization. (2006). Female genital mutilation and obstetric outcome: WHO collaborative prospective study in six African countries, The Lancet 367(9525): 1835–1841. World Health Organization. (2008). “Eliminating Female Genital Mutilation: An Interagency

World Health Organization. (2010). „Female Genital Mutilation‟, WHO Fact Sheet Number 241: February 2010, http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs241/en/.

APPENDENCE

Appendix-1 Survey questionnaire with household heads

ARBAMINCH UNIVERSITY SCHOOL GRADUATE STUDIES COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE& HUMANITY DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIROMENTAL STUDIES Questionnaire guideline: - Dear respondent!

The purpose of this questionnaire is to collect primary data for the work of a master thesis on the title “Assessments of community‟s perception on the practices of female genital mutilation (FGM)” in Oromia regional state: in the case of Wonch Woreda, central Ethiopia. Please! Cooperate in provide relevant data through this questionnaire. The data will be used in study that aims at assessing community‟s perception toward the practices of FGM and to suggest appropriate recommendations for reducing the negative aspects of FGM. Your individual answers will be kept strictly confidential. You are, therefore, kindly requested to fill in the questionnaire since the success of this study directly depends upon your honest responses to the following questions.

THANK YOU!

I. General Direction

1. Please do not write your name

2. There is nothing “right” or “wrong” answer here and, rather what you respond is

Just regarded and taken as a correct answer.

3. The information you give will be kept confidential.

4. For multiple-choice items circle the answer of your choice and if you have additional idea write your answer on space provided shortly and precisely.

5. For open ended questions please write your answer in space provided shortly and precisely.

I. General Characteristics of respondents

1. Sex: 1) Male 2) Female

2. Age: 1) 21-40 2) 41-60 3) >61

3. Marital Status: 1) Married 2) single 3) Divorce 4) Widow 5) Widower

4. Level of Education: 1) Illiterate 2) primary school 3) Secondary school

4) Preparatory 5) Diploma 6) Degree 7) Certificate

5. Occupation: 1) Farmer 2) Merchant 3) Gov.t Employee 4) day laborer

6. Religion: 1) Muslim 2) Orthodox 3) protestant

4) Traditional religious 5) catholic

Please specify, if any other------

II. Perception and Information on HTPs

7. Do you have information (perception) on Harmful Traditional Practices (HTPs)?

1) Yes 2) No

8. If you answer is yes, on which Harmful Traditional Practices (HTPs) you have more information?

1) Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) 2) Marriage by abduction

3) Early marriage

4) Milk teeth extraction 5) I have not information

If any others (specify) ------

9. If your response for Q 7 is yes, what is your sources of information?

1) Radio 2) School 3) Church 4)Mosque 5) Friends

6) Family 7) local administration 8) I have not information

If others (specify) ------

10. Which of the following harmful traditional practices (HTPs) widely practiced in your community?

1) Female circumcision 2) Marriage by abduction 3) Early marriage 4) Menstruation taboo 5) Milk teeth extraction 6) Feeding fresh butter new born baby If there is any other please specify------

III. Perception on harmfulness of FGM

11. How do you perceive FGM?

1) Good 2) Bad 3) Undecided

12. Do you believe that FGM is advantageous practice?

1) Yes 2) No

13. Did girls undergo Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) in your community?

1) Yes 2) No

14. Do you have enough perception on harmfulness of FGM? 1) Yes 2) No 15. If your answer for Q13 is yes, mostly at what age girls do undergo FGM?

1) 1-3year 2) 4-6 year 3) 7-9year 4) 10-12year 5) 13-15 year

16. If your answer for Q13 is yes, does your culture encourage it?

1) Yes 2) No

17. If your answer for Q13 is yes, who decide for a girl to be circumcised?

1) Mother only

2) Father only

3) Brother& Sister

4) Father and mother

18. If there is female circumcision, who operate it? 1) Family member 3) Traditional birth assistant

2) Health Workers 4) Community elders

19. What instrument used for the practices of FGM? 1) Razor blades 4) Sharp rocks

2) Glass 5) Scissors

3) kitchen knife

20. Do you know a girl who undergo FGM? 1) Yes 2) No

21. If your answer is yes, do you see when these practices taken place?

1) Yes 2) No

22. If your answer of Q 21 is yes, what she said when FGM undergoing?

1) She was obeyed 4) Nothing she said

2) She was Shouted 5) I do not know

3) She was happy

23. How did she feel the pain?

1) Very high 3) very low 5) I do not know

2) low 4) high

24. How long does it take to undergoing FGM?

1) 1-10 minute 4) 31-40 minute

2) 11-20 minute 5) I do not know

3) 21-30 minute

25. How long does it take to heal?

1) 1-2 weeks 3) 5-6 weeks

2) b) 3-4 weeks 4) I do not know

26. Female genital mutilation (FGM) harmful 1) Agree 2) Disagree 3) Undecided How? Please explain ------

27. Do you have perception (information) on cause and impacts of FGM? 1) Yes 2) No IV Underlying reason or beliefs that forced community to practices FGM

28. What is your personal feeling towards uncircumcised girl?

1) Good 2) Bad 3) Undecided

Why? Please explain ------29. Do you think male marry uncircumcised girl in your community? 1) Yes 2) No

30. If you have a daughter in the future, do you intend to circumcise her?

1) Yes 2) No

Why? Please explain ------

------

31. If there is FGM in your community which of the following is reason or belief of community that forced for the practices FGM?

1) To reduce sexual desire 2) To make girl happy 3) Fear of isolation and insult from community 4) For religious purpose 5) For economic reason 32. As you think, what problem is face, if girl is not circumcised in your communities? 1) She becomes breaking objects 4) she becomes unclean

2) Lack of stability 5) Social isolation and lack of husband

3) High sexual desire

Mention if any------V. Reason for resistance to change of FGM in modern time

33. Does your religious encourages the practices of FGM?

1) Yes 2) No

34. Do you support the practices of FGM?

1) Yes 2) no

Why? Please explain ------

35. As you think why FGM still persist or resist change in spite of the growing awareness on its harmfulness on modern time?

1) Due to connected with religion

2) Lack of knowledge on modern life

3) Due to integrated with cultural beliefs and social norms

4) Due to low awareness creation

5) Due to poor economy

36. Do you have perception on the right of women‟s and children‟s?

1) Yes 2) No

37. As you think who support more the practices of FGM from family member? 1) Mother 2) Father 3) Brothers 4) Sisters

38. As you think which groups of community support more the practices of FGM?

1) Younger age group 4) Women

2) Medium age group 5) Males

3) Older age group

39. Do you think that the practice of FGM/C should continue?

1) Yes 2) No

Why? Please explain ------

VI. Intervention strategies for reducing of FGM

40. Is there any legal enforcement bodies‟ to addressing the issue of FGM in your community? 1) Yes 2) No

If your response is no why? Please explain ------

41. Do you have enough perception on laws against FGM passed by Ethiopian government? 1) Yes 2) No

42. Do you support legal measures against the practitioners of FGM?

1) Yes 2) No

43. If there is FGM in your community, what is important measure to eradicate FGM in Your community?

1) Awareness creation at all level 4) Penalty/taking legal measure/

2) Taking measure by community elders 5) Nothing to do

3) Self-protection mechanism

VII. Open ended questions 44. In your opinion, what should be the role of the communities in the eradication of

FGM? ------45. What intervention strategies do you suggest for reducing the negative aspects of F GM on Women?------46. What is the community‟s view toward uncircumcised girl?------

47. Does the religious play any role on FGM practice? Why?------

48. As you think what is the roles of the following bodies to eradicate FGM? a) Kebele leaders ------

b) Religious Leaders?------c) Community elders?------Thank for your cooperation!!

Appendix-2 Interview

2A: In-depth interview with victims of FGM

Interview guideline:

Dear respondent!

First, I would like to extend my best greeting for your cooperation to have an interview with you. I would ask you some questions regarding community perception toward the practices of FGM. The purpose of the study is to understand the main motives for the practices of FGM in your community and suggest appropriate solution for intervention program. Again, I would very much be pleased about your participation in this study as you are a key informant. Some of the questions are very personal, but your answer will not be shown to anyone. It is confidential. The purpose of the interview is just to hear your own opinion and experience about those issues raised. It will not take much of your time. The interview is completely based on your volunteer and if you come across to any question you do not want to answer, you just inform me and I will pass it. I hope that you will participate in the study since your views are important. As I have said earlier, everything is just between you and me. It will be kept in secret. Do you agree? Thank you!

Now, I am going to ask you each questions and you will respond as to your knowledge and experience in detail.

1. Do you have information on Harmful Traditional Practices (HTPS)?

2. Mention the major predominant HTPs in your community? 3. Which of the HTPs happened in your life? 4. If you were circumcised would you please tell us the problem you faced? 5. Why FGM persist change in your community? 6. What is your feeling toward uncircumcised girl? Why? 7. Do you think male marry uncircumcised girl in your community? 8. Do you support eradication of these practices? Why? 9. What do you suggest for Future intervention strategies?

Thank for your cooperation!!

Appendix-2B interview with health and office workers

Interview guideline:

Dear respondent!

Thank you!

Now, I am going to ask you each questions and you will respond as to your knowledge and experience in detail.

1. Mention the major predominant Harmful Traditional Practices (HTPs) in your community? 2. As you think what is perceptions of the community to wards HTP? 3. Why the practices of FGM persist change in your community? 4. Mention the major social, economic, psychological and health impacts of FGM on women‟s? 5. What is the feelings of the community toward uncircumcised girl? 6. Do you think male marry uncircumcised girl in your community? 7. Do you support eradication of these practices? Why? 8. As you think who support more the practices of FGM from community member? Why? 9. What do you suggest for Future intervention strategies?

10. As you think who are responsible body to eradicate the practices of FGM? Mention the roles of each body?

Thank for your cooperation! Appendex-3 Focus Group Discussion

FGD: with community elders and religious leaders

Focus Group Discussion (FGD) guideline: -

Dear respondent!

First, I would like to bring my best greeting for your cooperation to have discussion with you. I would rise some questions regarding FGM in your community. The purpose of the study is to understand the communities‟ perception toward the practices of FGM and suggest appropriate solution of intervention program. Again, I would very much be pleased about your participation in this study as you are a key informant. You can suggest your views, experience and opinions without any fear, and hesitation the ideas could be either shared/supported or opposed by any member of the group. The objective is to learn from your perceptions and arrive at a consensus, as you are the most knowledgeable person of the subject matter.

Now, I want each person in our group to offer your age, marital status, religious and the type of work you are currently engaged in.

(Researcher to begin) I will begin: My name is------, I was born in ------I was------years old, I worked at------, I am a postgraduate student in geography and environmental studies at Arbaminch University.

Now I am going to raise an issue one by one and you will be discussing about it.

THANK YOU!

1. Do you have information on Harmful Traditional Practices (HTP)? 2. Mention the major predominant HTPs in your community? 3. What are the perceptions of the community to wards HTPs? 4. Indicate the main reason for the continuity of FGM in the modern time? 5. What are the attitudes of the community toward uncircumcised girl?

6. Do you think male marry uncircumcised girl in your community? 7. Do you support eradication of these practices? Why? 8. What do you suggest for Future intervention strategies? 9. Mention the responsible bodies to eradicate the practices of FGM? Mention the roles of each body? Thank for your cooperation!

APPENDEX-4 AFAN OROMO VERSION

4A: Gaafilee filannoo

ARBAMINCH UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL GRADUATE STUDIES

COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE& HUMANITY

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIROMENTAL STUDIES

Gaafilee filannoo Afaan Oromoon qopha‟e

(Questionnaire Oromigna Version)

Kabajamoo hirmattota qo’annaa kanaa!!!

Kabajamoo Hirmaattoata Qo‟annoo kanaa, Kaayyoon qo‟annoo kanaa barmatilee boodatti hafoo kanneen dubartoota (shamarran) irratti miidhaa adda addaa geessisan keessa kittannaa shamarranii ilaalchiseet. Innis mataduree “Hubannoo ykn ilaalcha hawaasaa gocha kitannaa shamarranii irratti qabu maal fakkata?” kan jedhuudha. Kana jechuunis kittanna shamarranii ilaalchisee ilaalchi ykn hubannoon hawaasaa maal akka fakkatu qorachuu akkasumas sababbii kittannaan shamarranii bara jabanaa (qaroomaa) kana keessa illee baduu didee dhalootarra dhalootatti darbuu itti fufeef adddan baaasuu dha. Dabalataanis yaada furmaataa gara fuulduraatti kittannaa shamarraniii kana dhabamsiiisuuuf ta‟u kaa‟uu dha. Qaama qo‟annaa kana gaggeessuuf, gargaarsi isin asirratti gootan gayee guddaa taphata. Yanni isin irraa argamu fiixaan ba‟iinsa qo‟annoo kanaaf bakka guddaa qaba. Kanaafuu hirmaannaa guddaa akka gootan kabajaan isin gaafadha. Hirmaannaa keessaniif immoo galata guddaan isiniif galchaa.

Gaafiiwwan asii gadii kana deebisuuf qabxiiwwan armaan gadii irratti akka xiyyeeffatan isin hubachiisa.

I Kallattii walii galaa 1. Gaafiiwwan kana keeessatti, deebiin “sirrii” ykn “dhugaa dha” jedhamee fudhatamu, yaada gara keessaniin argamu qofa. 2. Maqaa keessan katabuu hinbarbaachisu. 3. Yaanni isin kennitan Qaama biraatiif dabarfamee hinkennamu. Icciitiin qabama. 4. Gaafiiwwan Filannoo qabaniif deebii sirrii ta‟e qofa filatuudhaan deebisaa. Filannoo kan hinqabneef ammoo, gabaabinnumaan katabuun deebisaa. Galatooma!

I. Gaafiiwwan haala hawaasummaa fi dinagdee hirmaattotaa ibsu

1. Saala: 1) Dhiira 2) Dhalaa M M

2. Umrii: 1) 21-40 M 2) 41-60 M 3) >61 M 3. Hala Gaa‟elaa: 1) Heerumee/Fuudhee 2) hinfuune/hin eerumne M M 3) Wal hiikan 4) Irraa du‟e 5) Jalaa duute M M M 4. Sadarkaa bauumsa: 1) hin baranne 2) Sadarkaa tokkoffaa M M 3) Sadarkaa lammaffaa 4) pirppii M M 5) Dippiloomaa 6) digirii 7) cartafikkeettii M M M 5. Hojii: 1) qotee bula 2) daldalaa M M 3) Hojjataa motummaa 4) hojii guyyaa M M 6. Amantaa: 1) Islaama 2) Ortodoksii 3) Piroteestantii M M M

4) Amantii aadaa M 5) katolikii M II Odeefannoo wa’ee barmaatilee boodatti hafoo ilaalhisee

7. Waa‟ee barmaatilee bodatti hafoo odeefanno yknhubannoo qabda?

1) Eeyyee 2) lakki M M 8. Deebiin kee eeyyee yoo ta‟ee maal irratti?

1) Kittannaa durbaa 2) butii 3) Heeruma yeeroo malee M M M Kan biroo yoo jiraate ibsa------9. Deebiin kee gaffii 7ffaa eeyyee yoo ta‟ee odeeffannoo essaa argatta?

1) Radiyoo 2) m/b 3) Waldaa 4) masqiida M M M M 5) Hiryaa 6) maatii 7) bulchiinsa nanno jireenya keenya irraa M M M Kan biros yoo jiraate ibsi------10. Barmatilee boodatti hafoo keessa hawaasa kee kessatti caalatti rawwataman kami? 1) Kittanaa durbaa M 2) Butii M 3) Eeruma yeeroo malee M 4) Yeroo daraaraa baatii saalfachuu M 5) Ilkaan annanii baasuu M

6) Daa‟ima dhalattu dhadha(addanuu) arrabsisuu M Kan biros yoo jiraate ibsa------III. Odeefannoo waa’ee balaa qabeessummaa kittanaa shamarraniin irratti

11. Kittannaa Shamarranii akkamiin ilaalta?

1) Gaarii 2) Badaa 3) Murteessuun narakkisa M M M 12. Kittannaan shamarranii fayidaa qaba jettee amantaa qabda?

1) Eeyyee 2) Lakki M M 13. Hawaasa kee keessatti durbi ni kittanamitti?

1) Eeyyee 2) lakki M M 14. Balaa kittannaan fidu irratti hubannoo ga, aa qabda?

1) Eeyyee 2) Lakki M M

15. Deebiin kee eeyyee yoo ta‟ee, shamarran Umurii meeqatti kittanamuu?

1) Waggaa 1-3 2) waggaa 4-6 3) waggaa 7-9 M M M

4) Waggaa 10-12 M 5) waggaa 13-15 M 16. Deebii gaaffii 13 eeyyee yoo jettee, aadaan kee kittannaa ni jajjabeessa?

1) Eeyyee 2) Lakki M M 17. Deebiin kee gaffii 13 eeyyee yoo ta‟ee kittanaa durbaa ilaalchisee eenyutuu murteessa?

1) Haadha 2) Abbaa 3) Obbolewwan 4) Abbaafi Haadha M M M M 18. Kittanaan durbaa yoo jira ta‟e eenyuutuu kittana?

1) Miseensa maatii M

2) Deesiftoota aadaa M 3) Hojjattota fayyaa M 4) Jaarsolee biyyaa M 19. Kittanaa durbaaf meeshalee akkamii fayyadamu?

1) Aadduu 2) haalbee 3) burcuqqoo cabaa 4) dhagaa qara M M M M 20. Shamarran kittanamte nanno keetti beekta?

1) Eeyyee 2) Lakki M M 21. Yammuu kittannaan raawwatu agartee?

1) Eeyyee M 2) Lakki M 22. Deebiin kee gaaffii 21 eeyyee yoo ta‟ee, yommu kittannaan raawwatu maali jette?

1) Ni iyyite 2) Baay‟ee gammadde M M 3) Ni ajajamte (tole jette) M 4) omaa hin jenne M 23. Akka yaaddutti dhukkubbiin agam itti dhaga‟ame?

1) Bay‟ee guddadha 3) Xiqqadha M M 2) Baay‟ee xiqqa dha 4) gudda dha M M

24. Kittanaa raawwachuuf yeroo hagam fudhate?

1) Daqqiiqaa 1-10 3) Daqiiqaa 11-20 M M 2) Daqiiqaa 21-30 4) Daqiiqaa 31-40 M M 25. Akka ati yaaddutti fayyuuf yeroo hagam fudhate jetta?

1) Torbaan 1-2 3) Torbaan 3-4 4) Torbaan 5-6 M M M 26. Kittannaan shamarranii balaa qaba?

1) Ittin waliigala 2) Itti walii hingalu 3) Murteessuun narakkisa M M M 27. Miidhaa kittanaan fidu irratti hubannoo ykn odeeffannoo qabda?

1) Eeyyee 2) Lakki M M Akkamitti? Ibsa------

IV. Sababoota gurguddoo hawaasinni akka kittannaa raawwatu dirqamsiisan

28. Ilaalchi dhuunfaa kee shamarran hin kittamneef qabu maal fakkata?

1) Gaarii dha 2) Badaa dha 3) Murteessuun narakkisa M M M Maaliif? Ibsa------

29. Dhirri shamarree hin kittanamne nifuudha jettee yaadda?

1) Eeyyee 2) Lakki M 30. Gara fuulduraatti osoo shamarree qabaattee ni kittanta?

1) Eeyyee 2) Lakki M M 31. Kittanaan durbaa hawaasa kee keessa yoo jirate, sababiin ykn ilaalchi hawaasinni akka raawwatu dirqamsiisu maalii?

1) Fedhiii qunnamitti saalaa hirdhisuu fi qaanii ambisuuf M 2) Durbummaan ishee akka turuu fi akka tasgabboftuuf

3) Jibbaa fi arrabsoo hawaasaa sodaachuu M 4) Dhimma amantaaf M 5) Dhimma dinagdeef M 32. Hawaasa kee keessatti shamarreen yoo hin kittanamiin rakkoo maaliitu mudachuu danda‟a jedhamee yaadama?

1) Meeshalee cabsiti M 2) Tasgabbii dhabdi M

3) Fedhiin qunnamtii saalaa itti baay‟ata M 4) Qulqulluu hin taatu M 5) Namarra adda baati, abba manaas hin argattu M V. Sababoota kittannaan shamarranii bara jabanaa kana keessa, baduu didee akka itti fufu taasisan

33. Amantaan kee kittanaa shamarranii ni jajjabeessa?

1) Eeyyee 2) Lakki M M 34. Ati kittannaa shamarranii ni deggarta?

1) Eeyyee 2) Lakki M M Maaliif? Ibsa------

35. Akka ati yaaddutti, bara jabanaa kana keessa osoo waa‟een miidhaa kattanaa shamarranii irratti hubannoon kennamaa jiruu maaf baduu didee itti fufe jettee yaadda?

1) Barruumsa jabanaa dhabuu M 2) Beekumsa jireenya jabanaa dhabuu M 3) Aadaa, ilaalchaafi safuu hawaasaa yeroo dheeraaf ture wajjin gadifageenyaan walitti hidhamuu M 4) Hubannoon sirritti kennamuu dhabuu M

5) Adabbiin dhabamuu M Kan biros yoo jiraate ibsa------

36. Mirga dubartoota fi ijoolee ilaalchisee Odeeffannoo qabda?

1) Eeyyee 2) Lakki M M 37. Kittannaa caala Eenyutuu deggara?

1) Haadha 2) Abbaa 3) Obboleessa 4) Obboleettii M M M M 38. Garee hawaasaa keessaa caala kittanaa kan deeggaru?

1) Dargaggoota 3) Umurii giddugaleeyyii M M 2) Wareen dulloman 4) Dubarttoota 5) dhiirota M M M 39. Kittanaan shamarranii itti fufa jettee yaadda?

1) Eeyyee 2) Lakki M M Maaliif? Ibsa------VI Imammataa fi toftalee kittanaa shamarranii ittiin dhabamsiifamu 40. Hawaasa kee keessa qaamni seeraa kittanaa shamarranii dhabamsiisuuf hojjatu jira? 1) Eeyyee 2) Lakki M M Deebiin kee Lakki yoo ta‟ee, Maaliif akka jettan ibsa------41. Seerotaa kittannaa shamarranii dhabamsiisuuf ba,an irratti hubannoo qabda? 1) Eeyyee 2) Lakki M M 42. Osoo mootummaan kittanaa shamarranii ilaalchisee tarkaanffii fudhatee deeggarta? 1) Eeyyee 2) Lakki M M 43. Hawaasa kee keessa kittannaan shamarranii jira yoo ta‟ee, balleessuf maal hojjachuu barbaachisa jettee yaaddaa? 1) hubannoo sadarkaa hundatti kennuu M

2) Qaama dhimmi ilaalu hunda hirmaachisuu M 3) Toftaa ofiin of ittisuu M 4) Adabbii cimsuu /t tarkaanffii seeraa/ M 5) Omaa gochuun hin barbaachisu M Kan birros yoo jiraate ibsi------

VII. Gaafilee barrefamaa 44. Akka ilaalcha keetti kittannaa shamarranii dhabamsiisuuf ga‟een hawaasaa maali? ------45. Toftaaleen miidhaa kittannaan shamarraniin dhufu hir‟isuuf gargaaru jettu maali? ------46. Ilaalchi hawaasni shamarran hin kittanamneef qaban maali? ------47. Kittannaa shamarranii keessatti amantaan ga‟ee taphata? Maaliif? ------48. Akka ati yaaddutti kittanna shamarranii dhabamsiisuuf ga‟een qaamolee armaan gadii maali? a) Oggantoota gandaa ------b) Abbotii amantaa------

c) Jaarsolii biyyaa------

4B: Gaafannoo afaanii dubartoota kittannaan irratti raawwate walii Qajeelfama gaafannoo afaanii: - Kabajamoo hirmattota! Hunda dura kabaja guddaan isiniif dhiyeessa, ittiaansuun mataduree “hubannoo ykn ilaalcha hawaasni kittannaa shamarranii irratti qabu” irratti qorannoo adeemsisuun barbaada. Kayyoon qorannoo kanaas kittanaa shamarranii irratti ilaalchi hawaasaa maali fakkatu adda baasuu, sababoota kittannaan shamarranii akka dhalootarra dhalootatti akka darbu taasisan akkasumas rakkoleee kittanaan shamarraniin dhufu addaan baasuun yaada furmaataa kittannaa shamarranii gara fulduraatti dhabamsiiisuuuf ta‟u kaa‟uu dha. Hirmanna keessaniif gammachuu guddatuu natti dhaga‟ame. Yaanni isin biraa ka‟u furmaata gudda fida jedheen abiddii guddaan qaba. Yaanni isin kennitan kamiyyu Qaama birootti dabarsamee hin kennamu. Waanti hundi anaafi asin giddutti Kan hafu ta‟a. Yaada keessan dammaqinaan akka nuuf kennita dabalee kabajaan isin gaafadha. Dandeehimma irratti deebii kennu hin barbaanne yoo jiraate dhabisisuu. Yeroo keessan baay‟ee isin jalaa hin fudhu. Dhimma ka‟an irratti fedhii keessan guutun deebii akka kennita abdii guddan qaba.

Hirmaanna keessaniif galatooma!!! Hamma gaafilee koon jalqaba 1. Odeeffanno wa‟ee barmaatilee boodatti hafoo irratti qabdu?

2. Barmaatilee boodatti hafoo beekamoo keessaa caalatti Kan hawaasa keessan keessatti rawwataman jiran ibsa?

3. Barmaatilee boodatti hafoo keessaa kamtuu sirratti raawwate?

4. Yoo kittanamtetta ta‟e rakkoleee simudate nuuf himuu dandeessa?

5. Maaliif kittannaan shamarranii hawaasa kee keessaa baduu dadhabe?

6. Ilaalchi hawaasinni shamarran hin kittanamne irratti qabu maal fakkata?

7. Dhirri shamarree hin kittanamne ni fuudhu jettee yaadda?

8. Barmaatileen Kun akka hafu ati deggarta? Maaliif?

9. Toftaleen kittannaa shamarranii dhabamsiisuuf gargaaran maali fa‟ati jettee yaadda?

10. Barmaatilee kana dhabamsiisuuf eenyutuu ittigaafatamummaa qaba? Ga‟ee qaama hundaa ibsi?

Deggarsa keessan hundaaf galatooma 4C: Gaafannoo afaanii hojjattoota fayyaa fi wajjiraa waliin taasifamu Qajeelfama gaafannoo afaanii:- Kabajamoo hirmattota! Hunda dura kabaja guddaan isiniif dhiyeessa, ittiaansuun mataduree “hubannoo ykn ilaalcha hawaasaa kittannaa shamarranii irratti qabu maal fakkata?” jedhu irratti qorannoo adeemsisuun barbaada. Kayyoon qorannoo kanaas kittanaa shamarranii irratti ilaalchi hawaasaa maali maal akka fakkatu adda baasuu, sababoota kittannaan shamarranii akka dhalootarra dhalootatti akka darbu taasisan akkasumas rakkoleee kittanaan shamarraniin dhufu addaan baasuun yaada furmaataa kittannaa shamarranii gara fulduraatti dhabamsiisuuf ta‟u kaa‟uu dha. Hirmanna keessaniif gammachuu guddatuu natti dhaga‟ame. Yaanni isin biraa ka‟u furmaata gudda fida jedheen abdii guddaan qaba. Yaanni isin kennitan kamiyyu qaama birootti dabarsamee hin kennamu. Waanti hundi anaafi asin giddutti kan hafu ta‟a. Yaada keessan dammaqinaan akka nuuf kennita dabalee kabajaan isin gaafadha. Dhimmoota irratti deebii kennu hin barbaanne yoo jiraate dhabisisuu dandeessu. Yeroo keessan baay‟ee isin jalaa hin fudhu. Dhimma ka‟an irratti fedhii keessan guutun deebii akka kennita abdii guddan qaba.

Hirmaanna keessaniif galatooma!!!

Hamma gaafilee koon jalqaba 1. Barmaatilee boodatti hafoo beekamoo keessaa caalatti kan hawaasa kee keessatti rawwatamaa jiru ibsi?

2. Barmaatilee boodatti hafoo ilaalchisee hubannoon hawaasaa maal fakkaata?

3. Maaliif kittannaan shamarranii hawaasa kee keessaa baduu dadhabe?

4. Rakkolee fayyaa, dinagdeefi hawaasummaa kittanaa shamarraniin dhufu ibsi?

5. Ilaalchi hawaasni shamarran hin kittanamne irratti qabu maal fakkata?

6. Dhirri shamarree hin kittanamne ni fuudha jettee yaadda?

7. Barmaatileen Kun akka hafu ati deggarta? Maaliif?

8. Kutaalee hawaasaa keessaa eenyutuu caala kittannaa shamarranii deeggara? Maaliif?

9. Toftaleen kittannaa shamarranii dhabamsiisuuf gargaaran maali fa‟ati jetta?

10. Barmaatilee kana dhabamsiisuuf eenyutuu ittigaafatamummaa qaba? Ga‟ee qaama hundaa ibsi?

Hirmaanna keessaniif galatooma!! 4D: Gafilee marii manguddotaa fi jaarsolii biyyaa waliin taasifame Qajeelfama gafilee marii:- Kabajamoo hirmattota!!! Hunda dursee nagaa Koo ho‟aan kabaja waliin isiniif dhiyeessa. Itti dabalees waan nufaana maryachuuf bakka kanatti argamtaniif dabalee isin galateeffa dha. Ittiaansuun matadureen qoranno Koo “hubannoo ykn ilaalchi hawaasni kittannaa shamarranii irratti qabu maal fakkata?” Kan jedhu irratti qorannoo adeemsisuun barbaada. Kayyoon qorannoo kanaas kittanaa shamarranii irratti ilaalchi hawaasaa maali akka fakkatu adda baasuu, sababoota kittannaan shamarranii akka dhalootarra dhalootatti darbu taasisan akkasumas rakkoleee kittanaan shamarraniin dhufu addaan baasuun yaada furmaataa kittannaa shamarranii gara fulduraatti dhabamsiisuuf ta‟u kaa‟uu dha. Galma ga‟iinsa qoranno kanaaf hirmannan keessa bakka gudda qaba. Kanaafuu isinis muuxanno, yaada, hawwii fi ilaalcha mataa keessanii hirmanna ho‟aan akka nuuf kennitan dabalee kabajaan isin gaafadha. Yaadolee ka‟an mormuus ta‟ee deggaruu ni dandeessu. Mariin keenya yeroo keessan dabalataa osoo hin xuqiin yeroo jedhame keessati raawwata. Ani maqaan koo------, kanan dhaladhe------tti, waggaan koo------, hojiin Koo------dha, kanan hojjadhu------tti. Ani barataa yuniversiitii Arbaaminciti, kanan baradhu digirii 2ffaa gosa barnootaa „Geography and Environmental Studies‟ kan jedhu irratti. Galatooma! Amma garaa gaafilee marriikootiittan seena 1. Odeeffannoo waa‟ee barmaatilee miidha geessisan ilaalchisee qabdu?

2. Barmaatilee miidhaa geessisan keesssaa kan caalatti naanno keessanitti raawwatan ibsa?

3. Ilaalchi hawaasaa Barmaatilee Boodatti Hafoo (BBH) ilaalchisee maal fakkataa?

4. Sababii kittannaan shamarranii bara qaroomaa kana akka itti fufu taasise maal?

5. Ilaalchi hawaasni shamarran hin kittanamne irratti qabu maali?

6. Hawaasa keessan keessatti Dhirri shamarree hin kittanamne fuudha?

7. Barmaatileen Kun akka hafu isin deggartu? Maaliif?

8. Toftaleen kittannaa shamarranii dhabamsiisuuf fulduraaf gargaaran maali jettu?

9. Barmaatilee kana dhabamsiisuuf eenyutuu ittigaafatamummaa qaba? Ga‟ee qaama hundaa ibsa?

Hirmannaa keessaniif galatooma

Appendex-5: Photos

Interview with key informants

Focus group discussion with religious leaders and community elders