Title An overview of copper mining in Zambia's Copperbelt province Author(s) Sinkala, Pardon; Fujii, Yoshiaki; Kodama, Jun-ichi; Fukuda, Daisuke Citation Proceedings of Spring Meeting of MMIJ Hokkaido Branch, 2018, 35-36 Issue Date 2018-06-16 Doc URL http://hdl.handle.net/2115/70843 Type proceedings (author version) Note 2018 MMIJ Spring Meeting of Hokkaido Branch. June 16 2018, Kitami Institute of Technology, Kitami, Japan. File Information PardonSinkala_MMIJ-BH_20180616.pdf Instructions for use Hokkaido University Collection of Scholarly and Academic Papers : HUSCAP An overview of copper mining in Zambia's Copperbelt province Pardon SINKALA, Yoshiaki FUJII, Jun-ichi KODAMA and Daisuke FUKUDA Hokkaido University 1. Introduction saw an exceptional investment in the construction of new schools, hospitals and roads. Corresponding to the oil crisis of Copper production plays a vital role as one of the major driving 1974 and 1979, copper price declined and the economy of forces in Zambia's economy. On the overall, Zambia has about Zambia began to decline. In addition to falling copper prices, eight (8) major underground mines, and five (5) major open pit the industry faced a number of challenges such as lack of mines operating in copper production. These are private owned investment, over-staffing, poor technology, and the cost of companies with the government of the Republic of Zambia production relatively increased as mining progressed to deeper (GRZ) holding some shares. This paper illustrates a summary of levels in the underground mines, which left Zambia the 25th copper mining in Zambia's Copperbelt province in terms of poorest country in the world in 1994. In the year 2000, the social, technical and environmental issues. mines were re-privatized with the government holding some minority shares through Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines – Investment Holdings (ZCCM-IH). 2. Historical background Post-colonial period In Zambia, the first commercial copper mine was established in 3. Geology 1928. This was a mine owned by the Rhodesian Selection Trust The Zambian Copperbelt is comprised of rocks of the (RST). However, copper would be produced in small scale as Neoproterozoic Katanga Supergroup which is the host of the early as 1908 and 1911 at Kansanshi and Bwana Mkubwa mine Cu–Co deposits, as well as numerous other deposits of Cu, Pb, respectively (Sikamo et al., 2016). From 1928 to 1969, two Zn, U, Au, Fe, etc. (Master et al., 2005), with the average ore private mining firms operated in Northern Rhodesia (now grade of 3 wt. % for Cu and 0.18 wt. % for Co, (Bohdan et al., Zambia) namely; Rhodesia Select Trust (RST) and Anglo 2009, Ondra et al., 2011). Fig. 1 shows the geological map of American Corporation (AAC). These were subsidiaries of two Zambia, and illustrates how much of the Copperbelt is covered multinational corporations, American Metal Climax Inc. and by the Katanga Supergroup. These are meta-sedimentary rocks Anglo American Corporation respectively (Robert, 1966). which are believed to have been metamorphosed and deformed Post-Independence period during the age (600–544 Ma) as a part of the north–west south– When Zambia gained political independence in 1964, the east trending Lufilian Arc (Ondra et al., 2011). In Zambia, the government had great hopes for development, which were copper-cobalt deposits are predominantly found in the influenced by the rapid growth of the copper industry due to Copperbelt province, and the same copper mineralization also favourable world prices of copper through the late 1960s and extends to the North-western province, but at a lower grade. early 1970s. Despite the rise in copper prices, there was still dissatisfaction among the workers. Mining nationalization era Therefore, during the Mulungushi economic reforms of 1968, Copperbelt the government announced it’s intention to acquire equity holding in the mining companies. This became part of a series of reforms called the “Zambian Economic Revolution”. In 1969, the government announced the Matero reforms, which resulted in the government getting 51% shares in the mining companies. This marked the beginning of mining nationalization, and in 1970, the two mining firms were renamed Roan Select Trust (RST) and Nchanga Consolidated Copper Mines (NCCM), and these were operated under Zambia Industrial Mining Corporation (ZIMCO). In 1973, the government completed payments for the purchase of 51% shares in the mining companies. In 1982, Roan Select Trust (RST) and Nchanga Consolidated Copper Mines (NCCM) were merged to form Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines Limited (ZCCM), in which the government owned 60.3% shares and Anglo American Corporation (AAC) owned the remaining shares. Economic crisis and re–privatization of copper mines After the nationalization process, the mines took on several social services as part of their responsibility in order to appease the workers. The mines did not just look after their workers, but provided services to the whole communities in the mine Fig. 1 Geological map of Zambia townships (Lungu, 2008), and during a short period the country 5. Environmental Impacts of Copper Mining The major environmental problems in the Copperbelt are related to the geotechnical integrity of waste dumps. More than 12000 hectares of land is covered with mineral waste, which has also led to Acid Mine Drainage. Other impacts include air pollution due to sulphur dioxide (SO2) emission, soil contamination, surface water pollution and siltation in the Kafue River, accumulation of metals in vegetables, fruit and fish (Joanna, 2014). However, the Zambian government is implementing various mitigation measures towards these environmental impacts through a body called Zambia Environmental Management Agency (ZEMA). 6. Conclusion According to the report written by AFRODAD in 2016, within the range of time from 2010 to 2015, Copper exports accounted for a minimum of 27 percent of GDP and a maximum of 34 percent (AFRODAD, 2016). Various research contributions have indicated that Zambia's GDP growth changed in direct proportions to change in copper prices since the post- Fig. 2 Geological map of the Zambian Copperbelt independence era. Therefore, copper is likely to continue playing a major role as Zambia’s major export for many years Copper deposits in the Katanga Supergroup are hosted primarily to come. in the Lower Roan Subgroup. Therefore, mining generally takes place in the Lower Roan Formation, where ore mineralogy is References dominated by pyrite (FeS2), chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), bornite African Forum and Network on Debt and Development (Cu5FeS4), chalcocite (Cu2S), digenite (Cu9S5), linnaeite (AFRODAD) (2016). Impacts of Fluctuating Commodity (Co3S4), and carrolite (Cu(CoNi)2S4), embedded in carbonate- Prices on Government Revenue in the SADC region. The Case rich shale, argillite or in sandstone (Ondra et al., 2011). of Copper for Zambia. Retrieved from 4. Mining Methods and Copper Production http://www.afrodad.org/index.php/center-of excellence/ research?download=22:impacts-of-fluctuating-commodity- The most common mining method used in underground mines prices-zambia is Sublevel Open Stoping, and even some of the other mining Bohdan K., Vladimír, M., František, V. and Nyambe, I. (2009). methods used are just variations of Sublevel Open Stoping. Discrimination of Lithogenic and Anthropogenic Sources of Table 1 shows a summary of common mining methods used. Metals and Sulphur in Soils of the Central-northern Part of the However, some mines apply more than one mining method. Zambian Copperbelt Mining District: A topsoil vs. subsurface Different contributions from many authors have indicated that soil concept. In: Journal of Geochemical Exploration (JGE), copper production peaked in 1969 to about 750 000 tonnes, but Vol. 104, No. 3, pp. 69-86. soon afterwards gradually began to decline until it reached Joanna, L., Geological Survey of Sweden (July 2014). about 250 000 tonnes in the year 2000. After privatization, Environmental Impacts of Mining in Zambia. Towards better copper production began to increase. Fig. 3 gives the trend of environmental management and sustainable exploitation of copper production from the year 2010 to 2017. mineral resources. Retrieved from http://resource.sgu.se/produkter/sgurapp/s1422-rapport.pdf Table 1. Common mining methods Lungu, J. (2008). Copper Mining Agreements in Zambia: Renegotiation or Law Reform? Review of African Political Underground mining method Number of mines Economy Journal, Vol. 35 issue 117, pp. 403-415. Vertical Crater Retreat 1 Master, S., C., Rainaud, Armstrong, A., Phillips, D., Robb, L. J. Sublevel Open Stoping 3 (2005). Provenance Ages of the Neoproterozoic Katanga Mechanized Continuous Retreat 1 Supergroup (Central African Copperbelt), with Implications Sublevel Caving 2 for Basin Evolution. Journal of African Earth Sciences, Vol. Cut and Fill 1 42, pp. 41-60. Room and Pillar 1 Ondra, S., Bohdan, K., and Nyambe, I. (2011). Mining-related Contamination of Surface Water and Sediments of the Kafue 1000000 River Drainage System in the Copperbelt District, Zambia: An example of a high neutralization capacity system. Journal of 800000 Geochemical Exploration (JGE), Vol. 112, No. 3, pp. 174 - 600000 188. 400000 Robert, E. B. (1966). Economic Development and Export 200000 Growth: A Study of Northern Rhodesia, 1920-1960. University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 0 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 66-13091, pp. 32- 34. Sikamo, J., Mwanza, A., Mweemba, C. (2016). Copper Mining Copper production in metric tonnes in Zambia-history and Future. Journal of Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy. Vol. 116, pp. 491-496. Fig. 3 Trends of copper production .