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The Routledge Handbook of African Development

Tony Binns, Kenneth Lynch, Etienne Nel

The African idea of development

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315712482-3 Sabelo J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni Published online on: 18 Apr 2018

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Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 11:49 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315712482, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315712482-3 ideas astheyconstantlyandconsistentlymadesenseoftheirlives andtheirenvironment. tive Africanpractices,forexample.Likeallhumanbeings,Africans developedcomplexreligious narratives of‘thecreationtheuniverse’.Mythsfoundation andlegendscapturedthemedita- being humanmeant.ThisiswhyAsanteandAbarry’s(1996)workopenswithafocusonAfrican beings, Africansevenmeditatedonthemeaningoflifeitself,theirorigins,aswellwhat chiefdoms, kingdoms,states,andnationsofvaryingsizescomplexities.Justlikeotherhuman better environmentsthatenhancedlifechances.Theyformedsociopoliticalsystems:lineages,clans, and animals.Theyimprovedtheirtechnologiesfromstonetoirontools.migratedinsearchof originality. Inthiswork,Africansarecapturedasactiveandindependentdomesticatorsofplants invention, culturaldynamism,politicalengineering,religiousandeconomicsophistication, African Intellectual Heritage: A Book of Sources inventive andinnovativeinmanyways.OnecanreadMolefiKeteAsanteAbusS.Abarry’s other humanbeings,constantlyandconsistentlyimprovedtheirliveslifechances.Theywere ent Africansearchforself-improvement.Indeed,priortocolonialism,people,likeall African development can be defined from ’s perspective as constant and consist- Introduction event (colonisation) of conquest and rule over by Europeans. Rather, it must be viewed ference itinaugurated.Ekehargues that‘colonialism’cannotbesimplisticallyunderstoodas an highlight thestructuralstraitjacket withinwhichAfricaisentrappedandtheparadigmof dif America. modernity thatcapturesthe negativeimpactofmodernityoutsideEuropeandNorth niality’. Colonialitynamesthe silencedconstitutivepartofEuro-NorthAmerican-centric Grosfoguel (2007),NelsonMaldonado-Torres(2007)and manyothershavetermed‘colo- American scholarssuchasAnibalQuijano(2000),Walter D.Mignolo(2000),Ramon and neo-liberalism?Takentogether,theseinimicalprocesses constitutewhattheLatin lonialism andunderdevelopment,aswellimpositions oftheWashingtonConsensus from theinimicallegaciesofenslavement,colonialism, imperialism,apartheid,neoco tion: Whatdoesdevelopmentmeanforapeoplestruggling toemergeandfreethemselves But thehistoricalexperienceofAfricainpast500years invokesafundamentalques African scholarssuchasPeter Ekeh (1983)prefertousethecommonterm‘colonialism’ The Africanideaofdevelopment (1996), which contains African works of imagination, (1996), which contains African works of imagination, Sabelo J.Ndlovu-Gatsheni 3 19 - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 11:49 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315712482, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315712482-3 transcend the‘myth ofdecolonisation’(Grosfoguel, 2007;Ndlovu-Gatsheni, 2013b). Europe, 60yearsafter‘decolonisation’. ThismeansthatideasofdevelopmentinAfricamust dependency. That dependency is still a central part ofthe asymmetrical relationsof Africa and able historicalprocessescascading fromtheencounterbetweenAfricaandEuropethatproduced say about its limits, it correctly identified constraining structural conditions born out of identifi- caused byperipherisationthatbred dependency.Whatevercriticsofdependencyscholarship can Gunder Frank were already articulating the lack of development in ex-colonised regions as opment tothoseregionsoftheworldthatexperiencedcolonial difference. combination ofenslavement,colonisation,apartheidandneocolonialism activelydenieddevel right todevelopment.Thismadesenseinaglobalterrainwithin whichitwasknownthata ples increasingly demanded that development be made one of the important human rights – the project (Ndlovu-Gatsheni,2015a,2015b).After1945,Africans andother(ex)-colonisedpeo understood fromadecolonial‘re-membering’perspectiveis basically arestorativeandrecovery ‘a questforwholenessafteroverfivehundredyearsof“dismemberment”.’ Developmentas struggle forwhatNgugiwaThiong’o(2009a,2009b)understood as‘re-membering,’thatis scramble forAfricannaturalresources,conceptions of developmentcontinuetobea neocolonialism, underdevelopmentandstructuraladjustmentprogrammes,aswellthenew Because of enduringlegaciesandrealitiesenslavement,colonialism,imperialism,apartheid, and elaboratedonthelong-termconsequencesinthiseloquentmanner: Euro-North American-centric modernity in its colonial and imperial phase as a ‘cultural bomb’, inventor ofallpositivehumanvalues.NgugiwaThiong’o(1986)definedwhatwasunleashedby logical deformations’of our time as itfalselyinvented Europe as the centre of the world and as the They carryEurocentrism.SamirAmin(1990)describedEurocentrismasoneofthegreatest‘ideo cascading fromEuropeandNorthAmerica,arebasicallylocalideasthathavebeenuniversalised. ventional economics’.Conventionaleconomics,justlikeallotherunderstandingsoftheworld of autocentricdevelopment’inAfricathatisfreefrom‘economicrationalityobservedbycon on Africanconceptionsofdevelopment,arguingthatthereisno‘implementationtheprinciple about eachother,hasbeenprofoundlyinfluencedbytheWest’. tions’, concludingthat‘whatAfricaknowsaboutitself,whatdifferentpartsofknow of colonialism,AliMazrui(1986:13)understoodcolonialismas‘arevolutionepicpropor articulated it intermsof‘howEuropeunderdevelopedAfrica’.Concurringwiththisepicschool consequences of colonialism and coinedthe term ‘neocolonialism’, and (1972) the endofdirectcolonialism(Ekeh,1983).KwameNkrumah(1965)capturedlong-term as asystemicsocialmovementofepochaldimensionswhoseenduringconsequencesoutlive Sabelo J.Ndlovu-Gatsheni 20 When RodneywroteHowEuropeUnderdevelopedAfrica(1972),otherscholarssuchasAndre Samir Amin (1990: 58) highlights the epistemic implications of Eurocentrism and colonialism Samir Amin (1990: 58)highlightstheepistemic implications of Eurocentrism and colonialism intended resultsaredespair,despondencyandacollectivedeath-wish. of struggle.Possibilitiestriumphorvictoryareseenasremote,ridiculousdreams.The would stoptheirownspringsoflife.Itevenplantsseriousdoubtsaboutthemoralrightness makes them identify with that which is decadent and reactionary, all those forces which from themselves;forinstance,withotherpeople’slanguagesratherthantheirown.It non-achievement anditmakesthemwanttoidentifywiththatwhichisfurthestremoved capacities andultimatelyinthemselves.Itmakesthemseetheirpastasonewastelandof language, intheirenvironment,heritageofstruggle,unity, The effectofaculturalbombistoannihilatepeople’sbeliefintheirnames, (Ngugi waThiong’o,1986:3) - - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 11:49 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315712482, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315712482-3 (Grosfoguel andCervantes-Rodriguez,2002:xxvi). years sincethedawnofdecolonisation,‘thepromisedlanddevelopmentremainedanillusion’ also improving the socio-economic conditions of the formerly colonised peoples. However, 60 inequality gap between economies of ex-coloniesandthoseerstwhilecolonialpowers, but enable themtolaunchautonomousdevelopmentaltrajectoriesaimedatnotonlyreducingthe the colonially crafted colonial state, but that they would achieve full sovereignty, which would extent thattheystronglybelieveddecolonisationwouldnotonlyresultintakingoverof Inevitably, Africanleadersweresoenchantedbythepost-1945developmentalpromiseto popularisation and universalisation of development as a human aspiration that is itself entrapped popularisation and universalisationofdevelopment asahumanaspirationthat isitselfentrapped liberatory thought. At the same time,such an approach remains consistently sensitive to the while atthesametimespeaking toAfricanconceptionsofdevelopmentinformedbydecolonial approach enablesonetocapture modernconceptionsofdevelopmentasanideaanddiscourse idea caughtupwithin‘aterrain ofhegemonyandcounter-hegemony’(Pieterse,2010:9). This as abroadprocessof‘re-membering’ ofaformerly‘dismembered’peopleandhighlycontested Cervantes-Rodriguez, 2002:xi–xxix). American-centric worldsystemthatisinformedbypowerpolitics andcoercion(Grosfoguel lenge hasbeenhowtodecoloniseanddemocratisetheracially hierarchisedandEuro-North contested andquestioned(Ndlovu-Gatsheni,2013a,2013b). For Africa,thelong-standingchal cursive contextwithinwhichthenotionsofdevelopmentemerge, aredefinedandarticulated, world powerandglobalinterests,aswellcolonialmatrices ofpowerthatconstitutethedis with theahistoricalandapoliticalapproachisthatitdoesnot takeintoaccounttherealitiesof sisting ofdeliberateeffortsaimedatimprovementhuman life (Thomas,2000).Theproblem which societiesaretransformedoverlongperiods.Finally,development isconceivedtobecon being ofadesirablesociety.Second,developmentisunderstood asaprocessofsocialchangein three ways.First,developmentisunderstoodasavision,descriptionormeasureofthestate cal andapoliticaltechnicist-liberalapproach.Inthisperspective,developmentisunderstoodin people wereforcedtoinhabit.Itischaracterisedbydepravityandsuffering. the ‘zoneofbeing’.Thezonenon-beingisacoloniallyinventedspacetowhichAfrican ofdevelopmentaspartlong-standingstrugglestorisefromthe‘zonenon-being’ idea (1968) ideasofthe‘zonebeing’andnon-being’toelaborateonAfrican restoration of denied, if not lost, ontological density. One can even evoke FrantzFanon’s 32). Consequently,atthecentreofAfricanideadevelopmentisstruggle for linguicides, variousprocessesofalienationanddispossessions(Ndlovu-Gatsheni,2015b: Gatsheni, 2015b).Thetechnologiesofdismembermentincludegenocides, epistemicides, ‘technologies of dismemberment’ underpinning ‘genealogies of dismemberment’ (Ndlovu- Torres (2007)as‘colonialityofbeing’,whichcapturesinminutedetailswhatIhavecalled Maldonado- by process afterlongyearsofdeniedhumanity.Thisdenialbeingiswelldocumented Today, developmentcanbeunderstoodfromtwovantagepoints.Thefirstisanahistori This chapter favours a historical and political perspective where development is understood This chapterfavoursahistoricalandpoliticalperspectivewhere developmentisunderstood At thegloballevel: In thiscase,developmentispartlyastruggletoenddependencyandbroadlyre-humanising the worldexceptintheseterms. ability topromoteit.Indeed,itseemsdifficultfindanywaytalkaboutlargepartsof its name.Entiresystemsofgovernmentandphilosophyareevaluatedaccordingtotheir ‘development’ inourtimeissuchacentralvalue.Warsarefoughtandcoupslaunched The Africanideaofdevelopment (Ferguson, 1990:xiii) 21 - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 11:49 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315712482, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315712482-3 of theAfricanideadevelopment. sion oftheTrumanandBandungversionsdevelopmentaspartenhancingdistinctiveness within post-Enlightenmentmodernistconceptionsofprogress(Escobar,2012).Belowisadiscus Sabelo J.Ndlovu-Gatsheni 22 1973; theRevised FrameworkofthePrinciples fortheImplementationof NewInternational of theAfricanDeclarationon Cooperation,DevelopmentandEconomicIndependence of Unity (OAU);thedemandfor aNewEconomicInternationalOrder(NIEO);thecrafting development initiativesandstrategies thatincluded:theformationofOrganisationAfrican Truman imperialversionofdevelopment throughenablingthecraftingofcounter-hegemonic development aspartofacontinuationtheTrumanversion (Therien,1999). (IGOs) andmultinationalcorporations(MCs).Theyadvance a‘BrettonWoodsparadigm’of World Bank(WB),theTradeOrganization(WTO), intergovernmentalorganisations 2004: 223).TheDMSexistsasaconsortiumoftheInternational MonetaryFund(IMF),the ‘space readytobepenetrated,workedover,restructuredand transformed’fromoutside(Slater, a people‘shornofthelegitimatesymbolsindependentidentity andauthority’,aswella ofadministrativecolonialism. ItstillapproachesAfricaasaspaceinhabitedby dismantlement sentation oftheother’(Slater,2004:223).TheDMSmaintains colonialitylongafterthe constituted by‘interweavingof geopoliticalpower,knowledgeandsubordinatingrepre 2002: 4).AtthecentreofDMSiswhatDavidSlatertermed ‘imperialityofknowledge’ (BWI), whichfinancetheimplementationofanexogenous developmentagenda(Adedeji, Institutions Woods Breton the by termed the ‘development merchant system’ (DMS) driven whichdevelopment, isof version backedTruman hegemonic up by what Adebayo Adedeji But Africanstrugglesfordecolonisationanddevelopmenthaveremainedtrappedwithinthe 2011). lated development as liberation and a human right that has to be fought for (Mkandawire, of developmentcascadingfromtheBandungConference1955.Theversionarticu would betheorderoflife,onother(Mignolo,2005). ern societywheresalvation,civilisation,progress,economicgrowth,freedomanddemocracy and exploitation,onthe one hand,and the rhetoricofmodernity that promised a bravemod and longhistory mediated by the logicsof coloniality informed by domination, oppression development asanoffspringofEnlightenmentandmodernitybecameentangledinacomplex such asAfricathatweredescribedthe‘heartofdarkness’(Conrad,1902).Consequently, entailing the spreading of civilisation, modernity, commerce and Christianity to those places imperialism and colonialism. These processes were articulated from a colonial perspective as became knownas‘voyagesofdiscovery’thatopenedthewayformercantilism,slavetrade, Y. Mudimbetermsthe‘paradigmofdifference’(Mudimbe,1988,1994).Itistraceabletowhat the modernworldsystemandinventionofAfricathatwasaccompaniedbywhatValentin (Cheru, 2009). power calculations, as well as the consistent rhetoric of humanitarianism that conceals coloniality ‘the imperial project’ that is informed by geopolitical considerations and the Global North’s 1964 [1949]). At the centre of the Truman version of development is what Fantu Cheru termed entrusted bymodernhistorywiththetaskofdevelopingThirdWorldinitsimage(Truman, Truman version of development whereby Europe and North America claimed to have been The apogeeofpost-Enlightenmentconceptionsdevelopmentculminatedintothepost-1945 The TrumanversusBandungversionsofdevelopment At another level, the Bandung decolonial version of development continues to contest the bytheBandungdecolonialversion contested ofdevelopmentbecame version Truman The The Trumanversionofdevelopmentisdeeplysituatedinthelonghistorymaking - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 11:49 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315712482, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315712482-3 is whyPaulTiyambe Zelezaposed the question:‘Is autonomy of African historypossible, can history experiencedusurpation, ifnotitsdisplacementandsilencing(Depelchin,2005). This Hegelian denialofAfricanhistory. SincetheencounterbetweenAfricaandEurope,African the colonised. Inevitably, the discourse of development in Africa commenced as a struggle over came into being in the fifteenth century.Coloniality is underpinned by theft ofthehistory of and democratisationoftheracially hierarchisedandWestern-centricmodernworldsystem that unity at the continental level, and fighting for deimperialisation, deracialisation, decolonisation ‘Re-membering’ Africa entailed buildingunityinside individual states, aspiring for pan-African peoples soastoregaintheirlostontologicaldensity. and developmentalismconstitutedeffortsat‘re-membering’thosedismemberedsocieties ment andfreedom.Therefore,inAfricaotherex-colonisedpartsoftheworld,nationalism articulated asinseparableprocessessimplybecausecolonialismdeniedAfricansbothdevelop 1964). Forallthestatesthatemergedfromcolonialism,nationalismanddevelopmentwere the rightofgovernmentstofreelychoosetheirownpoliticalandeconomicsystems(Abdulgani, under statemediationanddirection(Berger,2004).TheBandungConferencealsoendorsed colonialism andcoloniality,aswellintermsoffreedom,self-determinationself-reliance Economic Order(NIEO)(Kahin,1956).Developmentwasarticulatedintermsoftranscending equitable representation in global decision-making bodies as it called for a New International the basisforstruggletodecoloniseanddemocratiseinternationalsocietysoasachieve decolonisation, South–South solidarity and the principle of non-alignment. The conference laid its emphasisonhumandevelopment.TheBandungConferencewasinformedbythespiritof New PartnershipforAfricanDevelopment(NEPAD)of2001(Adesina of 1990;theUnitedNationsNewAgendaforDevelopmentAfrica1991;andcurrent and Transformationof1989;theAfricanCharterforPopularParticipationDevelopment Alternative FrameworktoStructuralAdjustmentProgrammeforSocialEconomicRecovery of Africa1980;theAfricanPriorityProgrammeforEconomicRecovery1986; Economic OrderinAfricaof1976;theLagosPlanActionforDevelopment Renaissance. ThispointwaswellcapturedbyNigeriannovelistChinuaAchebewhenhesaid: African humanism,socialism(s),theBlackConsciousnessMovementand , Negritude,pan-Africanism(s),Africanpersonality,Afrocentricity,consciencism, term struggleforthe‘re-memberingofAfrica’thatencapsulatessuchinitiativesasEthiopianism, conceived indecolonialhistoricalandpoliticalAfrica-centredtermscanbedefinedasalong- labour, frompower,andmemory’(NgugiwaThiong’o,2009a:22).Thus,development aimed at ‘re-membering’ Africans after centuries of being ‘dismembered from the land, from In thelanguageofNgugiwaThiong’o,Africandevelopmentinitiativesconstitutedefforts Development as‘re-membering’Africaandthetrapsofcoloniality The Bandungversionsharedsomecommonalitieswiththe‘UnitedNationsparadigm’and the nextmanbutthatwearebetter. Jean-Paul Sartrehascalledananti-racistracism,toannounce notjustthatwearegoodas But forthemomentitisinnatureofthingsthatweneed tocounterracismwithwhat help us get on our feet again. Once we are up we shall not need any of them anymore. ism; ofNegritude,andsoon.Theyareallpropswehavefashioned atdifferenttimesto You haveallheardofAfricanpersonality;democracy; ofAfricanwaytosocial (cited inMoore-Gilbert,1997:179) The Africanideaofdevelopment et al.,2006). 23 - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 11:49 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315712482, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315712482-3 dominance ofhumanist nationalismresultedin variousexperimentationswith Africansocialism, zens occupiesacentralplacein Government’sconcerns?’(KaundaandMorris,1966:41). The can wehumaniseourpolitics in Zambiasothatthehumblestandleastendowedofour citi centrality ofManwillgetpolitics backontherighttrack’,andheposedquestion:‘How ‘meditations onman’,Kaunda expressedhisconvictionthat‘onlytherecoveryofasense the a humanesocietyandworldwhere everyhumanspecieshadspacetolivecomfortably.In his and peoples,itwasactualisingitslong-standingabandonment ofhumanistideasthatenvisioned Kaunda notedthatwhenEuropeembarkedonenslavement andcolonisationofotherspaces ism ‘devaluedman’(KaundaandMorris,1966:19–21).Kaundapositedthat: process. KennethKaundadefinedhumanismasa‘philosophyoflife’andnotedthatcolonial to culminateinrestorationoflostAfricanontologicaldensityaspartthe‘re-membering’ ism andresultedinadenialofhumanitytoblackpeople.Independencedevelopmenthad rialism, colonialism,capitalism,apartheidandneocolonialismweretheantithesisofhuman questioned anddenied.AmongAfricans,therewasisastrongfeelingthatslavery,impe- African thoughtisacentralleitmotifof‘re-membering’forpeoplewhoseverybeingwas by theslavetrade,imperialism,colonialism,apartheidandneocolonialism.Humanismin Julius NyerereandNelsonMandelaemphasisedtheimportanceofhumanismthatwasdenied Such AfricanleadersandtheoristsasFrantzFanon,LeopoldSedarSenghor,KennethKaunda, then thatstateofbeingwasslavery,imperialism,colonialism,apartheidandcapitalism. being thatischaracterisedbydepravityandsufferingtowardsanothermoredesirable, If, toAfricannationalistthinkersandtheorists,developmentmeantmovingfromonestateof of society.Thisishowheputit: constituent elementsofanewemergentideologyfortheharmoniousgrowthanddevelopment African developmentasembracingtraditionalAfrica,IslamicAfricaandEuro-Christian personality’ (Nkrumah,1964).Nkrumah’sconceptofphilosophicalconsciencismarticulated rewrite thehistoryofAfricaaspart‘re-membering’continentandcentring‘African the epistemologicaltrapsofEurocentrism,“coloniallibrary”?’(Zeleza,2005:1). this historybewrittenwithoutEuropeanreferents,isitpossibletoliberateAfricanfrom Sabelo J.Ndlovu-Gatsheni 24 This isalsowhyEdwardWilmotBlydenandlaterKwameNkrumahemphasisedtheneedto stage inthefreedomstrugglehadwematerialpower ormilitarymightofcolo we coulddotogetherasmen[andwomen],andonly men[andwomen]–atno It wasnationalism,ofcourse,whichrestoredourself-confidence, forittaughtuswhat of humanistprincipleswhichunderliethetraditionalAfricansociety. they fitintotheAfricanpersonality.Thepersonalityisitselfdefinedbycluster Islamic andtheEuro-ChristianelementsinAfrica,developthemsuchawaythat the dispositionofforceswhichwillenableAfricansocietytodigestWesternand referred toasphilosophicalconsciencism:consciencismisthemapinintellectualtermsof The philosophythatmuststandbehindthissocialrevolutioniswhichIhaveonce discarded it. ity of Man is a discovery which Africa appears to be making long after the West has Man-centred societyoveraPower-centredsociety.Thisintense beliefinthepossibil nialists. It was humanity in revolt that won us freedom. [. (Kaunda andMorris,1966:21)

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.] It was the triumph of a (Nkrumah, 1964:79) - - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 11:49 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315712482, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315712482-3 ‘exploitation ofmanbyman’(Nyerere,1967). Nyerere, whichsoughttoprovideanescaperoutefromcapitalism’sideaofhappinessbasedon the mostwell-knownexamplebeingthatof‘’(familyhood)TanzaniaunderJulius (1956) capturedthedecolonialessenceofBandungConference intheserevealingwords: coming fromsuperpowers’(Jansen,1966:309).RichardWright’s bookTheColourCurtain independent statesinthefaceofa‘mixturewooing,bullying, flattery,threatsand“presents” the BandungConference.Whatwasemphasisedsolidarity andcooperationamongnewly workers wassubstitutedwiththesloganofunityallex-colonised peoplesoftheworldat understanding ofthisideologicalcoloniality.Inthefirstplace, theMarxistideaofunity imperialism. Wecancallitideologicalcoloniality.Those who metatBandunghadaclear States ofAmerica’srisetosuperpowerstatusinauguratedother formsofglobalcolonialityand became knownastheColdWar. dispensation that was troubled by ideological rivalry between the West and the East, which Conference washowtocreateconditionsforglobalpeacefulcoexistencewithinapost-1945 hasten theprocessofdecolonisation(Kimche,1973).Butby1955,focusBandung decolonial nationalism.WhentheAfro-Asianmovementwasformed,itsspecificaimto the highestpointofAfro-Asiansolidaritymovementthatwasinformedby The Asian-AfricanConferencethatwasheldinApril1955BandungIndonesiaconstituted The Bandungspiritandstruggles:NewEconomicInternationalOrder live’ (Ndlovu-Gatsheni,2016). decolonise theWesternconceptionsofpoliticsinterms‘willtopower’ratherthan reflect thepracticalpoliticalpracticesofAfricanleaderspartlyreflectshowdifficultitwasto racism, exploitationandoppression.Thatthesedeclarationschartersdidnoteventually ters anddeclarationswerepartofnationalisthumanistimaginationsabetterworld,freefrom the CommonMan’sCharter(Uganda)andMulugushiDeclaration(Zambia).Thesechar ters and declarationsasthe Freedom Charter(South Africa), the Arusha Declaration (Tanzania), ment thatisunencumberedbyglobalcolonialmatricesofpower. New EconomicInternationalOrder(NEIO)amenabletothepossibilitiesofAfricandevelop the implicationsofBandungdecolonialspiritandlegitimatedemandfora nationalist-inspired developmentinitiativessincethedawnofdecolonisation,beginningwith erty anddisease’(Mkandawire,2005:13).ItisthereforeimportanttotakestockofAfrican desire toeradicatewhatThandikaMkandawiretermedthe‘unholytrinityofignorance,pov develop andmodernise.Anotherimportantelementofnationalistdevelopmentalismwasthe 2005: 13).Therefore,forAfricatosurvivedominationandhumiliation,therewasaneed nial domination was imposed on Africa successfully because of ‘guns and steel’(Mkandawire, The searchforahumanesocietybyAfricannationalistsisfurtherexemplifiedsuchchar The Cold War was another layer of coloniality. Both the Soviet Union and the United But atanotherlevel,nationalistdevelopmentalismwasinformedbyarealisationthatcolo upon theWesternworld! world hadmadethemfeel.This meetingoftherejectedwasitselfakindjudgement in common?Nothing,itseemed tome,butwhattheirpastrelationshiptheWestern global scale. Who had thought of organizing such a meeting?And what had thesenations human raceweremeeting.Here wereclassandracialreligiousconsciousnessona The despised,theinsulted,hurt,dispossessed–in short,theunderdogsof The Africanideaofdevelopment (Wright, 1956: 12) 25 - - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 11:49 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315712482, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315712482-3 tion ofallbinding internationaldecision-making basedontheprincipleof ‘one-nation,one self-reliance amongThirdWorld countries,therighttonationaliseassets,anddemocratisa ideas, UNCTAD’sdemandsincluded greateraccesstoindustrialcountries’markets, Third World. He was appointed UNCTAD’s first Secretary General. Informed by dependency was pushingforwardthedependency thesistoexplaintheproblemofdevelopmentin the 2003). Atthetimeoflaunch ofUNCTAD,theLatinAmericaneconomistRaulPrebisch America andotherindustrialpowersrejectedanyroleforthe body intradenegotiations(Taylor, UNCTAD playedamarginalroleinglobaleconomicgovernance astheUnitedStatesof UNCTAD asanagencytoaddressThirdWorlddevelopment issues.Theproblemisthat Cairo Summitof1962arecreditedforputtingpressureon theUnitedNationstoestablish West dividethatpreoccupiedtheWesternpowers(Nesadurai, 2005:12). taking the form of the ‘haves’ and the ‘have-nots’, rather than the ideologically informed East– out thatthemoredangerousdivisionofworldwas North–Southdivide,whichwas Economic Conferenceof1962,theAfro-AsianandLatinAmerican stateshadalreadypointed pushing theagendaofreforminginternationaleconomic andpoliticalsystem.AttheCairo and Africancolonies.TheLatinAmericanstateshadbeenactive withintheUnitedNationsin included LatinAmericanstatesthathadgainedpoliticalindependencefarearlierthanAsian Movement (NAM),whichwasformerlyconstitutedatasummitinAlgiers1971.NAM and Development(UNCTAD)informedtheideasthatproducedNon-Alignment in theUnitedNations,which1964constitutedNationsConferenceon Trade of interactionthathasbeeninplacesincethefifteenthcentury(Ndlovu-Gatsheni,2013a). principles that were informed by the spirit of domination and coercionasaninternational mode of thosestatesemergingfromcolonialismtomakeaparadigmshiftimperialandcolonial and cooperation,justice,fairnesspeacefulcoexistence.Theseprinciplesindicatedthedesire principles forinternationalsocietyinformedbyengagementbasedondialogue articulated theproblemofinternationaleconomicinjustices(Krasner,1981). of AfricanandAsianstatesontheUnitedNationsSecurityCouncil.TheBandungspiritalso issue ofequalitystateswasstressed,includingraisingconcernsaboutunder-representation without beingcompelledtofollowtheimperial-hegemonicdictatesofsuperpowers.The to developandorchestrateanautonomous,freelychosentrajectoryintheinternationalsystem non-alignment spoketoanaspirationforanewinternationalnormthatgavestatestheright and racism,finallymodernisationeconomicdevelopment(Mayall,1990).Theideaof namely non-alignmentintheageofColdWar,eliminationallformscolonialism 2013b). ThisargumentisamplifiedbythefactthatthreeobjectivesdroveBandungspirit, as amajorhindrancetotheachievementofdevelopmentinAfricaandAsia(Ndlovu-Gatsheni, established togovernworldaffairs(Abdulgani,1964). were deeplytroubledbytheirlackofparticipationintheinternationalinstitutionsthathadbeen had novoiceinglobaldecision-making.ThisiswhytheparticipantsatBandungConference asymmetrical initspowerconfiguration–aworldwherethenewlyindependentAfricanstates centric. Decolonisationneededtobeexpandedgrapplewithaglobalsystemthatremained attained withinamodernworldsystemthatwasraciallyhierarchisedandEuro-NorthAmerican- the African and Asian leaders realised that the development they urgently wanted could not be developmentasanurgentpriorityforAfro-Asianstates.ItisclearthatatBandung, identified At anotherlevel,a12-pointeconomiccooperationagendaoftheBandungConference Sabelo J.Ndlovu-Gatsheni 26 The resolutions of the first NAMSummit held in Belgrade in Yugoslavia in 1961 and the The BandungspiritlaidastrongbasisforthecrystallisationofThirdWorldcoalition What isalsoimportantabouttheBandungworldviewwastointroducenewandalternative One cansafelyarguethattheBandungConferencecorrectlyidentified‘globalcoloniality’ - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 11:49 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315712482, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315712482-3 achieve modernAfricaneconomiesbytheyear2000(Baah,2003). development process, ensuring Africa’s self-reliance in food production, and a commitment to tion of African economies, investment in science and technology as the backbone of Africa’s 1979. TheMonroviaDeclarationemphasisedcollectiveself-relianceandeconomicintegra dation forthedraftingofMonroviaStrategyEconomicDevelopmentAfrica Economic CommissionforAfrica(UNECA)andbecametheintellectualtheoreticalfoun New InternationalEconomicOrderinAfricaof1976.ItwasproducedbytheUnitedNations by theproductionofRevisedFramework Principles for theImplementationof world economythroughescalationofnationalandcontinentalself-reliance.Thiswasfollowed Independence in1973,whicharticulatedAfrica’sstrategyforgradualdisengagementfromthe African leadersadoptedtheDeclarationonCooperation,DevelopmentandEconomic South ascompensationforslaveryandcolonialism(Cox,1979).InthespiritofNIEO, demanded restitution based on thenotionthat the industrialised powers owed something to the and othereconomicinteractions(Cox,1979:257).ThemoreradicalmembersoftheG77 ism. The NIEO called for the restructuring of global structural regimes informingunequal trade favoured the industrial powers and disadvantaged those countries that emerged from colonial informed bythedependencyideasthatemphasiseddecolonisationofglobalcoloniality They pushed for this through the G77 – a coalition of developing countries. The NIEO was oil crisesof1971and1973 that theThirdWorldcoalitionunitedto push furtherfortheNIEO. period from1973to1980weredominatedbythedemandforNIEO.Itwasfollowing proposals wererejectedbyindustrialpowers. controlled allleversofinternationaldecision-makingandprofitableeconomicactivity.The Third Worldunderdevelopmentintermsofitsstructuraldependencyonacapitalistcorethat vote’ (Gosovic,1972).ThesedemandswereinformedbyPrebisch’sdecolonialdiagnosisof context dominated byadevelopmentmerchant systemthatcarriedimperiality andcoloniality. leaders continuedtotryforge aheadwithAfricandevelopmentinitiativesevenwithin a Anglo-American leadersMargaret ThatcherandRonaldReaganinthelate1970s.ButAfrican The NIEOwassooneclipsedby theeraofhegemonicneo-liberalismthatwasusheredinby the demise oftheNIEO: contributed tothefailureandcollapseofNIEO.Samir Aminhadthistosayaboutthe of EuropeandNorthAmerica.Thelackstrongunitywithin theThirdWorldcoalitionalso and demandsfromtheGlobalSouthsufferedrejectionby powerfulindustrialisednations their chosenpathofdevelopment(Murphy,2005).Butthe overallpictureisthatproposals the rightsanddutiesofallcountriestohelpotherdevelopeconomicallyinterms Duties ofStatesattheUnitedNationsGeneralAssembly,whichtoaminorextentincluded The littleconcessionmadewastheadoptionin1975ofCharterEconomicRightsand was madesimplybecausethepowerfulanddominantwantedtostaydominant. munist conspiracy, as irrational and as too revolutionary. Consequently, verylittleheadway The AfricandemandfortheNIEOwasresistedbyindustrialpowersaspartofacom Third Worldleadersdidnotgiveupthefightforareformedinternationalsystem.The at theperipheryofcapitalistsystem? do thesecircumstancesandweaknessesshowtheimpossibility ofautocentricdevelopment be attributedto‘tacticalerrors’bytheThirdWorld(itsown divisions andweaknesses)?Or causes havetobestudied.Aretheypurelycircumstantial(inthe economiccrisis)?Canthey So, intheend, battle forthe NIEO waslost. Aswell as thefailurebeingnoted, The Africanideaofdevelopment (Amin, 1990:56–57) 27 - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 11:49 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315712482, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315712482-3 capitalist development’(Amin,1990:59).Aminposedthequestion: the conventionalmethodology closely associatedwith theconventionalstrategyofperipheral paradigm anditsrobustcriticismofthecolonialneocolonial heritage,‘couldnotescape that doesnotthreatenthehegemonyofWest.TheLPA, despiteitsdeclaredself-reliance actively todestabiliseanyAfricandevelopmentinitiativesoas topushinanexogenousinitiative fought fordevelopment.WhatAdedejiidentifiedasthedevelopment merchantsystemworked tant tobroadenthecritiquelevelofglobaldiscursive terrainwithinwhichAfricans coloniality. Thus,whenoneassessesthefailureofAfricandevelopment initiatives,itisimpor initiative, itwasdestinedtosufferalackoffinancialsupport anddelegitimisationbyforcesof of self-reliance’(Amin,1999:59). a disturbinglackofimaginationandlowlevelconsciousnessthecharacteroption of theinitiative(Ikome,2007).Butmoreimportantly,LPAdocument‘demonstratedboth and offered some solutions, but without committing financial resources to the implementation capable ofdrivingAfricandevelopment.Moreimportantly,theLPAidentifiedproblems LPA issaidtohavebeenconceivedasatop-downprojectthatignoredotherimportantsectors and authoritarianismwerenotclearlyidentifiedasinternalconstraintstodevelopment.The the developmentofAfricancontinentanditspeople(Onimonde and ignoresuchinternalconstraintsasalackofseriouscommitmentAfricanleadershipto ment. TheemphasisonahostileexternalenvironmentledtheLPAtofocustoomuchtrade internal problems that are equally important in understandingtheproblemsofAfricandevelop crisis inAfrica.Itidentifiedhostileexternalenvironmentwithoutpayingequalattentionto Africanism. external environment.TheLPAwasinformedbybothdependencyideasandthespiritofpan- Conference, theLPAidentifiedAfrica’sdevelopmentasstructuralandexacerbatedbyahostile of supplyanddemand,mobilisationAfricansforproduction.JustliketheBandung among Africans,diversificationofproductiveeconomiccapabilities,internalisationforces the Africaneconomyandinformedbydetailedobjectivesthatincludedalleviationofpoverty and poor(Ikome,2007). international economicsystemthatwerekeepingAfricadependent,underdeveloped,weak the planwasnotcompletedelinking,butstrategicdisengagementfromthosefeaturesof This initiativebecameknownastheLagosPlanofAction(LPA)1980.Atcentre unified strategy to reduce dependence on external powers and to replace it with self-reliance. inward-looking pan-Africandevelopmentplanthatsoughttoarticulateacomprehensiveand decolonisation. ThisiswhytheOAUworkingcloselywithUNECAproducedaconsciously trialised powersoftheWest.Ithadtobeplannedforandfoughtaspartdeepening Africans thatAfricandevelopmentcouldnotbemerelyaphilanthropicgiftfromtheindus Over theyearssincedawnofdecolonisation,itbecameincreasinglycleartomany The searchforautonomousdevelopmenttrajectory Sabelo J.Ndlovu-Gatsheni 28 What mustbeemphasisedisthatiftheLPAwasanauthentically Africandevelopment The LPA of action has been criticised for articulating a one-sided cause of the development The LPAwasacomprehensiveinitiativeconsistingof13chapterscoveringallsectors versely canthelatteronlybe resultofthereverse‘adjustment’? transformed and‘adjusted’tothe prioritydemandsforThirdWorlddevelopment,orcon order, orconversely,isitnecessarily inconflictwithit.Cantheinternationalorderbe Should developmentbeconceived inaccordancewiththedemandofinternational et al.,2004).Corruption (Amin, 1990:60) - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 11:49 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315712482, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315712482-3 the majorculpritinhibitingdevelopmentinAfrica(Fukuyama, 2004). not identifiedasacauseofunderdevelopment.TheAfrican postcolonial statewasidentifiedas ers, inefficiencyandcorruption.Structuralbarriersintheinternational politicaleconomywere and economicgrowthinAfricawasexplainedtermsofpoor policychoicesbyAfricanlead was defendedasaprerequisiteforgrowthandpovertyreduction inAfrica.Lackofdevelopment Adjustment inAfrica opment inAfricathe1980s.In1994,WorldBank produced anotherreportentitled lack ofgoodgovernanceandpolicyreformasthecause economic crisisandlackofdevel debilitating form’(Mkandawire,2003:10). “unconstructive destruction”initsmostinstitutionally was result The ideas. institutional half-baked was aperiodofwantondestructioninstitutionsanduntrammelledexperimentationwith people andtheirleaders.ThandikaMkandawirearguedthat‘ForAfricathe1980s1990s African the on consequences development became driven from the outside, with devastating African stateslostthelittlethatwasremainingoftheircontroloverdevelopmentpolicy. practice of structural adjustment programmes (SAPs). As a result of the implementation of SAPs, markets, privatisationandderegulation.TheBergReportof1981introducedthephilosophy Washington Consensus,whichcarriedanti-statephilosophiesandastrongbeliefinthefreereignof of developmentinformedbypost-Keynesianism.Thispost-Keynesianismbecameknownasthe by thedonorcommunityandBretonWoodsInstitutions. New Agenda for the Development of Africa in the 1990s were not well received Transformation, theAfricanCharterforPopularParticipationDevelopment(1990)and Alternative FrameworktoStructuralAdjustmentProgrammesforSocio-EconomicRecoveryand of Action(1980–2000),theAfricanPriorityforEconomicRecovery(1986–1990); paradigms, alternativesandagendasareentertained.ItiswithinthiscontextthattheLagosPlan for reforming the modern world system and actively made sure that no alternative development becomes clearwhythepowerfulindustrialpowersofNorthhaveconsistentlyrejecteddemands of Euro-NorthAmericandevelopmentorthodoxyandcoloniality.Ifweunderstandthisreality,it DMS activelyworkstomakesureAfricandevelopmentinitiativesdonotoperateoutsidethegrip be firmlytiedtotheNorth’sneo-liberalshiponwatersofglobalization’(Adedeji,2002:4).The According toAdebayoAdedeji,‘theoverarchingobjectiveoftheDMSisforAfricancanoe African entrapmentinthedevelopmentmerchantsystem the WashingtonConsensus. It isimportanttorealisethattheLPAwaslaunchedinmidstofriseneo-liberalismand recommendations fellondeaf ears. the rejection (Tomori and Tomori, 2004). This African initiative was not taken seriously and its 1989. Throughthisdocument, AfricansrejectedSAPsandofferedwell-reasonedarguments for to StructuralAdjustmentProgrammes forSocio-EconomicRecoveryandTransformation of these effortsculminatedinthe productionandadoptionoftheAfricanAlternativeFramework tinent. Bythelate1980s,through UNECA,analternativetoSAPswasbeingsought, and produced adocumententitled bility fordrawingAfricadeeperintocrisisthroughtheintroductionofSAPs,WorldBank policy spacebyAfricanleaders.InsteadoftheBrettonWoodsInstitutionsacceptingresponsi erbation ofinternalinequalitiesandworseningpoverty,rehabilitationcoloniality,loss An AfricanconsensusemergedthatSAPswereadisasterfor thedevelopmentofcon The consequencesofSAPsincludedremovalthestatefromdrivingdevelopment,exac The 1980sand1990switnessedtheascendanceconsolidationofneo-liberalmodel , in which the issue of sound macroeconomic and structuralmanagement From CrisistoSustainableGrowth in1989,whichtheyblamed The Africanideaofdevelopment 29 - - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 11:49 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315712482, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315712482-3 in TonyBlair’sCommissionforAfrica(Hurt,2007). Conventions wereaprecursortothehypocriticaldiscourseof ‘ourcommoninterest’contained the sustenanceofcolonialitylongafterenddirectcolonial administrations.TheLome only informedbytheimperiallogicofdonor–recipientrelationships, butwerebasicallypartof African developmentinitiativesbyputtingonthetablefakepartnership proposalsthatwerenot development. AttheLomeConventions,industrialisedEuropeancountriescountered with suchinitiativesastheLomeConventionsratherthanBandungdecolonialversionof It wouldseemthatNEPADfallsneatlywithinthediscourseofpartnershipscommenced is aprojectcascadingfromtheDMSbutmasqueradingasanAfricandevelopmentinitiative? tural inequalities?IsNEPADpartofAfrica’sindigenous/endogenousdevelopmentagenda,or Is NEPADnotpartofthosespuriousneocolonialpartnershipsthathidestherealitiesstruc the NorthopposedAfricandevelopmentinitiatives.WasNEPADreallyaninitiative? supporting NEPADwhenthroughoutthepostcolonialperiodindustrialisedcountriesfrom that developedinthemindsofmanyprogressiveAfricanscholarswaswhyG8openly African developmentwasemerging.TheG8pledgedtofullysupportNEPAD.question to believethattherewasaparadigmshiftandnewinternationalorderfavourable oped SouthandthedevelopedNorthremainsadestabilisinginhibitingforce. power structurethatsustainsasymmetricaleconomicrelationsbetweentheunderdevel African countriesandtheindustrialisedrichofNorth.Colonialityasaglobal been itsstrongconvictiononthepossibilitiesofmutualbeneficialpartnershipbetweenpoor and conflictsasresponsibleforAfricanunderdevelopment.WhatisdistinctiveaboutNEPADhas for Africandevelopmentfailures,NEPADhighlightedsuchfactorsasbadgovernance,corruption African development. the North.ThisoptimisticmoodmadesomeAfricansobliviousofcolonialityasanobstacleto allowed todriveitsowndevelopmentwiththepositivesupportofdevelopedcountries mood thatthetwenty-firstcenturywouldindeedbeanAfricanwhereAfrica in 2002. NEPAD was informed by positive millenarian thinking. There was an optimistic of AfricabecametheNewPartnershipforAfricanDevelopment(NEPAD)thatwasadopted sive frameworkforrelaunchingAfricandevelopment.Theflagshipprojectthenewleaders was increasinglyassociatedwithPresidentThaboMbekiofSouthAfricaprovidedthediscur century astheAfricanfordevelopment.ThephilosophyofRenaissancethat continent. ThenewleaderscommittedthemselvestoenablingAfricaclaimthetwenty-first who wereconsidered to belesscorruptand fully committed to theeconomicrenewal of the Sabelo J.Ndlovu-Gatsheni 30 natural resources. Africanideasmustdrivethe developmenttrajectory. is narrowlydefinedaseconomic growthdrivenfromoutsidebydemandforAfrican Rising’ predicatedonincreased demandsforAfricanprimaryproducts.Thistime,development ing thescramblersfromEast. Itiswithinthiscontextthattherealsothediscourseof‘Africa The scramblersarenolongerfrom theWestonly;theyalsocomefromEast.Chinaislead experiencing whathascometo beknownasthesecondscrambleforAfricannaturalresources. power arenotenablingthemcomparedtothetimeofrise ofAsianTigers.Today,Africais low the developmental path oftheAsianTigers. But the globalcolonialandimperialmatricesof Today, manyAfricansaretoyingwiththenotionof‘developmental states’inanattempttofol Conclusions: whereisAfricaheading? The politicalrhetoricoftheleadersindustrialisedcountriesNorthmisleadsone Inevitably, unliketheLPA,whichfocusedmainlyonexternalstructuralbarriersasresponsible The dawnofthethirdmillenniumwitnessedriseso-callednewAfricanleaders - - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 11:49 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315712482, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315712482-3 global democracyinwhichAfricawouldbeaffordedspacetodevelop. combination ofgenuinedeimperialisationonaworldscaleanddecolonisationwouldresultin decolonisation anddeimperialisationoftheworldsystemasaform‘re-membering’.Only international economicorder,thereisneedforEuropeandNorthAmericatogenuinelyaccept oping countriesforspaceandeconomicjustice.Toachievetheobjectiveofbuildinganew experience. Suchaspaceisdenied.ButAfricacontinuestoworkincohortwithotherdevel economic ideasandimaginenewdevelopmentalternativessuitablefortheAfricanreality system anditsinternationalorder. to preventanddestroyanydevelopmentinitiativethatthreatenssubvertthemodernworld cascading fromclassicaleconomicthoughtandcapitalistimperatives.TheDMSworksactively plans, butwhathasbeenlackingisimaginationofautocentricdevelopmentoutsidethetemplate the internationaldivisionoflabour.Africahasneverrunshortdevelopmentinitiativesand is one whereby African economies are adjusted and aligned to the imperatives and demands of economic orderwasvehementlyresisted. the BandungspiritwasconsistentlyfrustratedandAfricandemandforanewinternational the dominantlogicofcapitalistaccumulationthatcreatedAfricaasaperiphery.Thisiswhy subject Africandevelopmentinitiativesandplanstothelogicofclassicaleconomicthought system anewleaseoflife.Theworldanditsshiftinginternationalorderscontinueto ently workstowardsdisciplininganti-systemicmovementsandforcessoastogivetheworld modern world system thatisresistanttodecolonisationandaninternationalorder consist Amin, S.(1999) Amin, S. 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