CHAPTER 16 INTEREST GROUPS

Chapter Goals and Learning Objectives

One of the most influential men in Washington during the late 1990s and through much of the first term of George W. Bush was a Washington, D.C. lobbyist named Jack Abramoff. As a former President of the College National Republican Committee, Abramoff used his long-standing college political alliances to advance his career, eventually joining a prominent law firm’s Washington, D.C. office as a lobbyist after the Republican take over of the U.S. House in the mid-1990s. He developed friendships with such Republican luminaries as Ralph Reed and House Majority Leader Tom DeLay. Abramoff’s influence grew with the Republican controlled Congress and the new administration of President George W. Bush, even serving on the 2001 Bush Administration’s Transition Team. However, in January of 2006, Abramoff pled guilty to several felony criminal counts in a Washington, D.C., federal court on fraud and corruption of public officials charges. In March of 2006, he was sentenced to over five years in prison and ordered to pay restitution of more than $21 million.

Abramoff’s case was exceptional. Most lobbyists in Washington go about their business of representing clients in the halls of Congress and before federal agencies without committing fraud or bribery. Yet the Abramoff scandal caused an intense focus on the business of lobbying and the role of special interest groups in American politics and government. Special interest groups spend incredible amounts of money in an attempt to sway the votes of members of Congress and decision-makers in the executive branch. One must question, however, whether the interests of the working man and woman, the student, the poor, the mid-level executive, the elementary teacher and other Americans without the wherewithal to hire million-dollar lobbyists are being forgotten in Washington thanks to the power and influence of wealthy corporate special interest groups.

James Madison in the Federalist Papers warned against “a number of citizens, whether amounting to a majority or minority of the whole, who are united and actuated by some common impulse of passion, or of interest, adverse to the rights of other citizens or to the permanent and aggregate interest of the community.” Madison called these groups “factions.” Today we might call them interest groups.

Thomas Hobbes and other early political philosophers discussed the designs of self- interest among men in society—beasts in competition. Some Americans today fault interest groups as “selfish interest groups,” seeking benefits for the few at the expense of the many. Yet, as a society that has its roots in the concept of individual freedom, do we not want individuals and groups to seek support for their unique, individual interests? What is the role of interest groups in American government? Participation in the political

277 process is necessary for a democracy to flourish. Is it necessary and beneficial that individuals and groups pressure policy makers at all levels of government? What are interest groups today? What do they seek and how do they operate? Do they supplement and complement political parties? Do they enhance representation? Or are they vehicles for powerful and wealthy interests to take over policy making? Do you have interests that could be served by participating in an interest group? This chapter addresses these questions and others about the nature of interest groups and participation in America.

This chapter is designed to give you some ideas about the nature and desirability of interest groups. The main topic headings of the chapter are:

• What Are Interest Groups? • The Origins and Development of American Interest Groups • What Do Interest Groups Do? • What Makes an Interest Group Successful?

In each section, there are certain facts and ideas that you should strive to understand. Many are in boldface type and appear in both the narrative and in the glossary at the end of the book. Other ideas, dates, facts, events, people, etc. are more difficult to pull out of the narrative. (Keep in mind that studying for objective tests [multiple choice, T/F] is different than studying for essay tests. See the Study Guide section on test taking for hints on study skills.)

In general, after you finish reading and studying this chapter, you should understand the following:

• what interest groups are • the historical roots and the development of interest groups in America • what interest groups do, their strategies and tactics to further their agendas • what makes an interest group successful

Chapter Outline and Key Points

In this section, you are provided with a basic outline of the chapter and key words/points you should know. Use this outline to develop a complete outline of the material. Write the definitions or further explanations for the terms. Use the space provided in this workbook or rewrite that material in your notebook. This will help you study and remember the material in preparation for your tests, assignments, and papers.

importance of citizen participation in political or civic interest groups—

the changing face of interest group politics in the U.S.—

“bowling alone”—

278 social capital—

civic virtue—

What Are Interest Groups?

interest groups—

disturbance theory—

Kinds of Organized Interests

Public Interest Groups—

Common Cause—

MoveOn.org—

Economic Interest Groups—

business groups (including trade and professional groups)—

labor organizations—

most fully and effectively organized of all types of interest groups—

reason for existence—

Governmental Units—

state and local interests—

federal earmarks—

Political Action Committees—

1974 amendments to the federal Election Campaign Act—

PACs—

nature and characteristics of PACs—

Multi-Issue Versus Single-Issue Interest Groups—

multi-issue groups (and examples)—

279

single-issue groups (and examples)—

Profiles of Selected Interest Groups (Table 16.1)—

The Origins and Development of American Interest Groups

James Madison and factions—

concern over any one individual or group of individuals becoming too influential—

role of decentralizing power—

National Groups Emerge (1830-1889)

effect of the improvement of communications networks—

Women’s Christian Temperance Union—

The Grange—

larger role of business interest after the civil war—

oil, steel, and sugar industries—

railroad industry—

lobbyist—

Progressive Era (1890-1920)

changes by the 1890s—

Progressive movement—

national government begins to regulate business—

Organized Labor—

American Federation of Labor—

open shop laws—

1914 Clayton Act—

280 Business Groups—

National Association of Manufacturers (NAM)—

President Wilson denounces NAM’s tactics—

trade associations—

U.S. Chamber of Commerce—

1928 FTC investigation of lobbying tactics of business groups—

The Rise of the Interest Group State

rise of the Progressive spirit in the 1960s and 1970s—

ACLU—

NAACP—

AARP—

Common Cause—

Public Citizen, Inc.—

Ralph Nader—

Unsafe at Any Speed—

“Nader Network”—

AARP—

Conservative Response: Religious and Ideological Groups

conservative response to Progressive groups of the 1960s and 1970s—

1978, Jerry Falwell and the “Moral Majority”—

1990, Pat Robertson and the Christian Coalition—

Bush and his Office of Faith-Based and Community Initiatives—

National Rifle Association (NRA)—

281 Focus on the American Family—

Students for Academic Freedom—

Business Groups, Corporations, and Associations

some business people dissatisfied with NAM or Chamber of Commerce—

Business Roundtable—

Kyoto Protocol—

corporations with their own government affairs departments also hire D.C.-based lobbyists—

527 groups—

527 groups’ 2004 contributions—

congressional family members as well as former members of Congress work as lobbyists—

Organized Labor

Labor Union Membership (Figure 16.2)—

American Federation of Labor (AFL) merges with Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) in 1955—

AFL-CIO—

labor members (and clout) diminishes—

electoral weaknesses evident in 2004 presidential primaries—

split at 2005 annual AFL-CIO meeting—

Service Employees International Union (SEIU)—

Change to Win Coalition—

Andrew Stern—

James Hoffa—

282 What Do Interest Groups Do?

what interests groups do—

working for their members’ interests—

NAACP efforts for its members—

downside to interest groups—

interest groups play important role in U.S. politics—

Lobbying

lobbying—

how term came about—

hiring lobbying firms—

Groups and Lobbyists Using Each Lobbying Technique (Table 16.2)—

Lobbying Congress—

efforts to reform lobbying—

wide variety of lobbying techniques—

outright payment of money (bribery)—

former members and staff as lobbyists—

skills of lobbyists—

developing close relations with members of Congress—

symbiotic relations—

lobbyists and representatives who share interests—

lobbyists reputation for fair play and accurate information—

Leaving Congress for Lobbying Careers (Figure 16.4)—

Tom DeLay’s K Street Project—

283 Lobbying the Executive Branch—

importance and frequency of lobbying executive branch increasing because of what?—

many potential access points—

influencing policy decisions at formulation and implementation stages—

importance of ability to provide decision makers with important information and sense of public opinion—

interest groups and regulatory agencies—

monitoring the implementation of laws or policies—

Lobbying the Courts—

types of efforts to lobby the courts—

amicus curiae briefs—

influencing nominations to federal courts—

paying for “informational conferences”—

Scalia, golf, and the Federalist Society—

Grassroots Lobbying—

grassroots lobbying—

efforts as early as 1840s—

efforts to persuade ordinary voters to serve as advocates—

expensive, carefully targeted television ads—

Protests and Radical Activism—

Boston Tea Party—

Shays’s Rebellion—

anti-war protestors—

284

other protests—

People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA)—

Operation Rescue—

Regulating Lobbying Practices—

lobbying unregulated for first 150 years of U.S. history—

Federal Regulation of Lobbying Act of 1946—

ACLU blocks expansion of lobbying in courts on First Amendment grounds—

Lobbying Disclosure Act of 1996:

1)

2)

3)

4)

how many lobbyists registered as of June 2005?—

how much money spent on lobbying for every member of Congress?—

Jack Abramoff—

“GOP culture of corruption”—

1978 Ethics in Government Act (Table 16.3)—

restrictions on executive branch employees becoming lobbyists—

Election Activities

Candidate Recruitment and Endorsements—

EMILY’s List—

WISH List—

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Nancy Pelosi—

Getting Out the Vote—

Rating the Candidates or Office Holders—

Political Action Committees—

what PACs allow—

role of PAC money—

significance of PACs for congressional incumbents—

What Makes an Interest Group Successful?

pressure politics—

what all the groups have in common—

shaping the public agenda—

groups claim credit—

getting leaders of groups elected—

phenomena that contribute to interest groups’ successes:

1) leaders

2) patrons and funding

3) members

Leaders—

role of leaders—

Patrons and Funding—

patron—

expense of activities of interest groups—

Members—

286

three kinds of members in interest groups:

1)

2)

3)

“upper-class bias”—

characteristics of interest group members—

Potential Versus Actual Interest Groups Members (Table 16.4)—

overlapping memberships—

collective good—

free rider problem—

factors that overcome the free rider problem—

why members join groups—

importance of alliances—

organizational advantage of small group—

Research Ideas and Possible Paper Topics

1) Research the role interest groups played in the 2004 and 2006 elections for both the presidency and the Congress. Which groups made what levels of contributions to which candidates? What do you believe were the goals of the groups in making those contributions? Which party’s candidates benefited the most from what interest groups?

2) Call, write, or visit the Web sites of a number of interest groups. What are they doing? What are their key issues and tactics? Who are their members? How many members do they have? How does this information correlate with what you have learned in this chapter?

3) Interview your member of Congress or their staff members about their views of interest groups and lobbyists (or have your professor invite them to class to

287 discuss the issue). What do they say? How much access do lobbyists actually have? How much influence? What kinds of tactics work best with Congress?

4) Interview several lobbyists (or ask your professor to invite several lobbyists to talk to your class). Discuss how they see their job and what tactics work and which ones don't. What issues do they deal with and what do they offer to politicians? How do they define a successful lobbyist? After talking with the professional lobbyists, what do you think about lobbying now? Does it seem less “unsavory”? Do the media do lobbyists justice in their coverage?

5) As a class project, form an interest group. Decide what issue(s) you will promote and how you would promote them. What strategies and tactics would you use? How would you attract members? How would you ensure the success of your group?

Web sites

Open Secrets, sponsored by the Center for Responsive Politics, maintains a searchable Washington lobbyist database. http://www.opensecrets.org/lobbyists/index.asp

Public Citizen, a nonprofit, nonpartisan consumer advocacy group, maintains a special interests reports page listed by industry group. http://www.citizen.org/congress/special_intr/index.cfm

The University of Michigan Document Center Web site on the 2004 elections offers a wide-ranging list of links on subjects relating to the election including campaign contributions and interest groups. Click, under the heading “Campaign,” the “Lobby Groups,” and “Lobby Group Ratings” links in particular. http://www.lib.umich.edu/govdocs/elec2004.html#activ

American Association of Retired Persons (AARP) is an interest and advocacy group devoted to the interests of those over 50. www.aarp.org

American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) offers information on the entire Bill of Rights, including racial profiling, women's rights, privacy issues, prisons, drugs, etc. Includes links to other sites dealing with the same issues. www.aclu.org

AFL-CIO is the largest trade union organization in America. Their Web site offers policy statements, news, workplace issues, and labor strategies. www.aflcio.org

288 The United States Chamber of Commerce is a business-oriented interest group whose Web site offers articles of interest, policy information, and membership info. www.uschamber.org

The American Trial Lawyers Association is an interest group for trial lawyers who support access for citizens to civil courts and oppose business groups working to limit these rights. The Web site offers news and information for the reporters and citizens. www.atla.org

Common Cause, founded by Ralph Nader, was one of the first public interest groups. They promote responsible government. www.commoncause.org

Mexican American Legal Defense and Education Fund (MALDEF) Web site offers information on Census 2000, scholarships, job opportunities, legal programs, regional offices information, and more. www.maldef.org

Native American Rights Fund (NARF) Web site offers profiles of issues, an archive, resources, a tribal directory, and treaty information, as well as a lot of other information. www.narf.org

The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) website offers information about the organization, membership, and issues of interest to proponents of civil rights. Has sections on the Supreme Court, Census 2000, the Education Summit and includes links to other Web sites. www.naacp.org

The National Rifle Association (NRA) is a highly effective interest group on behalf of its members. Its Web site offers information on gun ownership, gun laws, and coverage of legislation on associated issues. www.nra.org

National Organization of Women (NOW) Web site offers information on the organization and its issues/activities including women in the military, economic equity, reproductive rights, and so on. They offer an email action list and the ability to join NOW online. Also has links to related sites. www.now.org

Public Interest Research Group (PIRG) is a public interest group that promotes issues such as the environment, anti-tobacco, and so on. www.pirg.org

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Practice Tests

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1) Political scientist David Truman argues that interest groups form to counteract other groups that already exist. This theory is called a. patron theory. b. disturbance theory. c. potential group theory. d. group formation

2) Groups such as Common Cause are often categorized as a a. public interest group. b. single issue group. c. economic issue group. d. All of the above.

3) An example of a multi-issue group is the a. Christian Coalition. b. NAACP. c. NOW. d. All of the above.

4) During the 1960s and 70s, interest groups often formed around issues important to groups, such as a. religious groups and economic organizations. b. minorities, the elderly, the poor, and consumers. c. elites, activists, and party regulars. d. economic, foreign policy advocates, and conservatives.

5) After developing close ties to George W. Bush before the 2000 election, a vice president of an interest group boasted: “We’ll have a president…where we work out of their office…[and have] unbelievably friendly relations.” This interest group contributed $20 million for the reelection of President George W. Bush in 2004. Its primary purpose is the protection and advancement of the Second Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, the “right to bear arms.” Which interest group is this? a. Christian Coalition b. U.S. Chamber of Commerce c. National Rifle Association d. American Civil Liberties Union

290 6) Labor unions were formed beginning in the 1900s and membership held steady through the middle of the century. In 2000, approximately what percent of workers were unionized? a. 50 b. 35 c. 25 d. 14

7) Almost all lobbyists and interest groups use as lobbying techniques. a. testimony at legislative hearings and personal contacts b. the endorsement of candidates and working on elections c. filing suit or otherwise engaging in litigation d. protest and demonstrations

8) In order to be effective, a lobbyist depends on a. a reputation for winning on behalf of his client, no matter what the cost or by whatever means possible. b. a reputation for providing accurate information and playing fair. c. a limited financial base in the interest group’s PAC in order to fund campaigns of those legislators who support the lobbyists’ goals d. All of the above.

9) The Ethics in Government Act requires that executive branch employees must a. disclose the source and amount of their income. b. reveal any positions held in business, labor, or nonprofit groups. c. not represent anyone before their agency for one year after leaving office. d. All of the above.

10) Interest groups have a particularly strong link with a. Congress. b. the president. c. regulatory agencies. d. the courts.

11) Today, grassroots lobbying efforts by interest groups often use a. faxes, e-mail, and the Internet. b. carefully targeted television advertising. c. radio talk shows to stir up listeners to contact their representatives in Congress. d. All of the above.

291 12) A federally registered group that raises funds to donate to the political process is known as a(n) a. political action committee. b. interest group. c. political party. d. special interest.

13) Successful interest groups rely in varying degrees, on a. leaders. b. patrons. c. rank and file members. d. All of the above.

14) People who belong to an interest group often belong to more than one group. This overlapping membership can have the effect of a. increasing member activity in both groups. b. increasing the cohesiveness of the groups. c. reducing the cohesiveness of the groups. d. enhance the activity level of members.

15) Something of value, such as a clean environment, that cannot be withheld from a noninterest group member can reduce the number of paying members an interest group can attract. This is known as a. a collective good. b. the potential membership problem. c. the overlapping interest problem. d. cost of membership.

TRUE/FALSE QUESTIONS

1) The American Medical Association is an example of a public interest group.

2) Political Action Committees were first permitted by amendments in 1974 to the Federal Election Campaign Act.

3) Thomas Jefferson, from his days in the Virginia Assembly, warned of the development of factions in American politics.

4) As a result of intense lobbying by American business groups, corporations, and associations, President George W. Bush, early in his first administration, rejected U.S. participation in the Kyoto Protocol on Climate Change.

5) Few politically active groups use lobbying to make their interests heard by those in a position to influence or change governmental policies.

292 6) Interest groups often lobby the courts by filing amicus briefs in cases that go before the U.S. Supreme Court.

7) The Ethics in Government Act requires former executive branch employees to refrain from representing anyone before a federal agency for nine years after leaving government service on matters that came within the former employees’ sphere or responsibility.

8) Some 35 million people over the age of 50 belong to the AMA, which lobbies Congress on such issues as Social Security and Medicare.

9) People with low incomes are just as likely to join interest groups as those with low incomes.

10) Jack Abramoff’s felony conviction and prison sentence led to a promise by Congress to re-examine the role of lobbying in the legislative process.

COMPARE AND CONTRAST

potential vs. actual group membership

collective goods and free riders

multi-issue and single-issue groups

kinds of interest groups: economic, public, governmental

business groups, trade, and professional organizations

election activities of interest groups: endorsements, ratings, creating parties, PACs

ESSAY AND SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

1) Define interest groups and discuss their functions.

2) Why do interest groups form? Discuss a number of theories and their rationales for group formation.

3) Compare and contrast potential vs. actual interest group membership.

4) What is lobbying, and why is it important? Is it “good” or “bad” or neither?

5) How do interest groups lobby the courts?

293 6) Discuss the effect of campaign contributions by interest groups on the democratic process.

7) What makes interest groups successful?

8) Discuss the changes in the nature and outlook of interest groups from the 1950s and 60s to the 1970s and 80s.

9) Discuss the right-wing backlash to the rise of the interest groups 1960s.

10) Discuss the various reforms attempted in lobbying practices.

ANSWERS TO STUDY EXERCISES

Multiple Choice Answers

1) b 2) a 3) d 4) b 5) c 6) d 7) a 8) b 9) d 10) c 11) d 12) a 13) d 14) c 15) a

True/False Answers

1) F 2) T 3) F 4) T 5) F 6) T 7) F 8) F 9) F 10) T

294