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Changing Perspectives on Biodiversity Conservation

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Changing Perspectives on Biodiversity Conservation 生物多样性 2008, 16 (3): 205–213 doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1003.2008.08037 Biodiversity Science http: //www.biodiversity-science.net Changing perspectives on biodiversity conservation: from species protec- tion to regional sustainability Jianguo Wu1,2* 1 Sino-US Center for Conservation, Energy, and Sustainability Science, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, China 2 School of Life Sciences and Global Institute of Sustainability, Arizona State University, P.O. Box 874501, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA Abstract: Biodiversity is the basis for ecosystem goods and services that provide for human survival and prosperity. With a rapidly increasing human population and its demands for natural resources, landscapes are being fragmented, habitats are being destroyed, and biodiversity is declining. How can biodiversity be effec- tively conserved in the face of increasing human pressures? In this paper, I review changing perspectives on biodiversity conservation, and discuss their relevance to the practice of biodiversity conservation. The major points include: The notion of balance of nature is a myth rather than a scientific concept; the theory of island biogeography is useful heuristically but flawed practically; the SLOSS debate is intriguing in theory but ir- relevant in reality; the concept of minimum viable population and population viability analysis are useful, but technically inefficient and conceptually inadequate; metapopulation theory is mathematically elegant but ecologically oversimplistic; and integrative perspectives and approaches for biodiversity conservation are needed that incorporate insights from landscape ecology and sustainability science. I further discuss some key principles for regional conservation planning, and argue that the long-term success of biodiversity conservation in any region will ultimately depend on the economic and social sustainability of that region. Both research and practice in biodiversity conservation, therefore, need to adopt a broader perspective of sustainability. Key words: biodiversity, conservation biology, landscape ecology, sustainability science Biodiversity is important for its intrinsic values and Introduction for the survival of humans. For example, biodiversity is crucial for maintaining ecosystem structure and Biodiversity, short for biological diversity and a term function (e.g., food webs, primary production, nutrient first introduced in 1988 (Wilson, 1988), usually refers cycling, decomposition) as well as ecosystem stability to all varieties of life on the earth which exist at three (Chapin et al., 2000). At the same time, biodiversity principal levels: (1) ecosystem diversity – the variety provides humans with essential goods (e.g., food, of ecosystems in a given region, (2) species diversity shelters, timber, fiber, and pharmaceuticals) and ser- – the variety of species that make up biological com- vices (e.g., water and air purification, climate control, munities, and (3) genetic diversity – the variety of nutrient recycling, carbon sequestration, and control of genes of organisms that form populations and species. pests and diseases). With the rapid increase in human Among the three levels, species diversity has been the population and escalating anthropogenic influences on most familiar to most people, scientists and otherwise, the natural environment, biodiversity loss has become because humans can readily relate themselves to spe- one of the most pressing problems for the survival and cies of other organisms. How many species are there? prosperity of the modern human society. Main causes Conservative estimates of the total number of living of biodiversity loss include habitat loss and fragmen- species on earth range from 3 to 30 million, with most tation, pollution (air, water, and solid wastes), of the species being arthropods (May, 1988; Ehrlich & over-exploitation of natural resources, and introduc- Wilson, 1991; Lawton & May, 1995). To date, about tion of exotic species. The Food and Agriculture Or- 1.4 to 1.5 million species of plants, animals and mi- ganization of the United Nations (FAO) reported that croorganisms have been classified and documented the deforestation rate for the tropical forests of the (Ehrlich & Wilson, 1991; Stork, 1997). The most bio- world, including tropical rainforest and other types of logically rich ecosystems are tropical rainforests, coral forests, was 15.4 million hectares per year during the reefs, and wetlands. Tropical rainforests occupy about 1980s (FAO, 1993). The deforestation and fragmenta- 7% of the earth’s surface, but host more than 50% of tion of tropical forests, the primary reservoir of biodi- species of all kinds, including an estimated 5 million versity, have resulted in species loss and ecosystem species of plants and animals (Lovejoy, 1997). —————————————————— Received February 22, 2008; Accepted May 6, 2008 *Author for correspondence. E-mail: [email protected] 206 生 物 多 样 性 Biodiversity Science 第 16 卷 degradation at an astonishing rate (Wilson, 1988). alone, and that it can self-organize and return to its Evidently, biodiversity is essential for humanity, previous equilibrium after disturbances. The idea of and biodiversity loss has been greatly accelerated by the balance of nature has profoundly influenced both human activities. The real question is: how can biodi- the theory and practice of ecology for the past several versity be conserved with ever increasing human decades (Egerton, 1973; Botkin, 1990; Pickett et al., pressures on the natural environment? This central 1992; Wu & Loucks, 1995). The imprints of the bal- question begs a series of more specific questions: Is it ance of nature are obvious in the supraorganismic possible to keep the “balance of nature”, or is there concept of plant communities, the cybernetic concept such balance in nature at all? Are there sound scien- of ecosystems, and a number of similar concepts such tific theories and principles for biodiversity conserva- as equilibrium, steady-state, stability, and homeosta- tion? What are they? Is it enough to set aside a sis, which are central concepts of the classical equilib- certain number of protected natural areas and leave rium paradigm (Botkin, 1990; Wu & Loucks, 1995). them alone? How should humans and their activities Many ecology textbooks and influential scientific and be viewed and treated in planning and managing popular articles have claimed that populations, com- natural resources for conserving biodiversity? These munities, ecosystems, and even the entire earth are questions can be addressed at local, regional, and self-regulating systems that would be kept in a stable global scales, and indeed they must be addressed at all equilibrium by predictable forces without human dis- these scales if we are to achieve the goals of conserv- turbances. Such ideas have penetrated pervasively into ing biodiversity and sustaining the biosphere. the guiding principles and practices of biodiversity However, the regional scale deserves particular at- conservation and environmental protection in the tention because it represents the scale at which many 1970s and 1980s (e.g., the design of nature reserves; if not most environmental policies, planning activities, see Pickett et al., 1992). Unfortunately, our under- and implementation actions should and usually do standing of the natural world and ability to solve en- take place. One primary reason is that a region, with vironmental problems may have been significantly multiple interactive ecosystems in a geographic area hindered by myths and metaphors such as the balance with similar climate, geomorphology, and land use of nature (Botkin, 1990). and land cover patterns, is large enough to include the However, many ecologists have challenged the no- essential components and interactions of na- tion of the balance of nature and the related concepts ture-society coupled systems, but still small enough to of equilibrium and stability during the past several allow for relatively detailed studies and feasible im- decades. Little empirical evidence can be found any- plementation of policies and action plans. I have ar- where to support the existence of equilibrium states gued elsewhere that the human landscapes and re- for ecological systems; and on the other hand, studies gions, at which most landscape ecological studies are have repeatedly shown that spatial heterogeneity and conducted, are the most operationally important scales nonlinear dynamics, which are deemphasized or com- for sustainability research (Wu, 2006). For these rea- pletely ignored in the classic equilibrium paradigm, sons, the emphasis of this paper on landscape and re- are pervasive on all levels of biological organization. gional scales is intended. Specifically, the main goal Nature is not in constant balance; rather, it is in eternal of this paper is to explore the questions concerning flux (Wu & Loucks, 1995). Patchiness, both a source biodiversity conservation by reviewing and synthe- and consequence of the complex dynamics of nature, sizing the evolving perspectives in ecology and bio- is ubiquitous across all spatiotemporal scales and lev- diversity research in the recent decades. In addition, I els of organization. Since the 1980s, main-stream argue that these issues can be better addressed with ecological perspectives have shifted their focus from the new insights emerging from landscape ecology equilibrium, homogeneity, determinism, and sin- and sustainability science. gle-scale phenomena to nonequilibrium, heterogene- ity, stochasticity,
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