Read Ebook {PDF EPUB} Early Netherlandish and German Paintings by Alistair Smith Early Netherlandish and German Paintings by Alistair Smith. Lucas Cranach the Elder. The National Gallery, London. Object creator: Lucas Cranach the Elder. Object title / description: Portrait of a Woman. Object date: about 1525. File type / description: Digital image. Image / document description: Overall. Image date: 2005-07. Image created by / rights / credit: The National Gallery, London. Image source: The National Gallery, London. Citing from the Cranach Digital Archive. Entry with author: . <Name of Database> <<URL>> <date of document> (Accessed <date accessed>) Example: Karl Schütz, 'The Crucifixion of Christ', AT_KHM_GG6905, Interpretation. In: Cranach Digital Archive <http://www.lucascranach.org/digitalarchive.php> 01.01.2005 (Accessed: 21.10.2011) Entry with no author: <title of object, Inventory number, title of document or image>. <Name of Database> <<UR>> <date of document> (Accessed <date accessed>) Example: The Martyrdom of St Catherine, HU_HCBC, Description. In: Cranach Digital Archive <http://www.lucascranach.org/digitalarchive.php> (Accessed: 21.10.2011) Have some extra information about this object? Noticed a mistake? Please contact us. CDA ID / Inventory Number UK_NGL_291 Persistent Link https://lucascranach.org/UK_NGL_291 FR (1978) No. FR172. Portrait of a Woman [The National Gallery, revised 2011] Lucas Cranach the Elder [The National Gallery, revised 2011] about 1525 [The National Gallery, revised 2011] Owner The National Gallery, London Repository The National Gallery, London Location London. - the painting was in the collection of John Talbot, 16th Earl of Shrewsbury (1791-1852), at Alton Abbey, later Alton Towers, by 1835.[1] (According to the NG MS catalogue the picture was previously in a Nuremberg collection.[2] The Earl of Shrewsbury probably acquired it from Friedrich Campe of Nuremberg (1777-1846), a bookseller and publisher. Campe, who collected early Northern European paintings (including the portraits by Robert Campin, NG653.1 and 653.2), sold a picture named as a Van Eyck to the earl in 1829 to finance his journey to England, but the Cranach is not recorded in his possession.[3] - Earl of Shrewsbury Sale, Alton Towers, 8th July (3rd day) 1857, lot 259, bought for the National Gallery [4] [1] [Waagen 1838, vol. III, 259-60], recording his visit in 1835: 'A Female portrait, half the size of life; remarkably careful in the execution and in a very warm tone'; [Alton 1850, 21], 'Lucas Cranach - A Female portrait'. [2] The NG MS catalogue states that the picture was 'formerly in the possession of a family at Nuremberg from whom it was obtained by the late Earl of Shrewsbury'. As Levey noted (Levey 1959, p. 19), if the the Earl of Shrewsbury's picture came from the Campe collection, it is unlikely to be identical to the picture in the Ottley sale in London on 25 May 1811 (9, Cranach): 'it is probable that this is the Portrait of a Princess of Saxony', a provenance proposed in the 1929 catalogue. [3] [Passavant 1836, vol. II, 81] (referring to paintings by Van Eyck and Memling): 'The Earl purchased the two last-mentioned pictures from Mr Campe, of Nurnberg'. The painting named as a Van Eyck was sold to Shrewsbury by Campe in 1829 to finance his journey to England: see [Reynot 1962, 35]. The Cranach might have been sold at this time also, or on the London visit, but there are no records of it being in Campe's collection; it is not included in Umrisse zu Oelgemaelden aus der Dr. Fr. Campe'schen Sammlung . n.d., which contains 18 line engravings of paintings in Campe's collection, among which are three works by Cranach. [4]National Gallery Minutes of Board Meetings in the National Gallery Archive: 1st June 1857: 'Read a Report from the Director (Charles Eastlake), dated 1st June 1857, recommending that at the sale of the Alton Towers Collection the sum of £150 should be offered for No.269, the Virgin and Child with heads of two angels below; an early work of Raffaellino del Garbo. And that the sum of £80 should be offered for no.259, a small portrait of a lady, by Lucas Cranach. ' These purchases, at the prices named, were approved. 30th July 1857: 'Referring to the recommendation recorded in the minutes of a former meeting, and since sanctioned by the Treasury, that two pictures should be purchased at the sale of the Alton Towers Collection, at, or within prices named, the Director reported that one of the pictures, no.259, a small portrait of a lady by Lucas Cranach, had been purchased for the sum of £50"8".' File - NG5/227/1857: Contains the Director's Report on the Alton Towers Collection. On the Cranach, 'For this very agreeable specimen of the master I recommend that £80 should be bid.' [The National Gallery, revised 2016] Similar Motifs: PRIVATE_NONE-P152 Portrait of a Young Lady Private Collection DE_SGS_L796 Roundel Portrait of a Young Woman Staatsgalerie Stuttgart DK_SMK_DEP4 Portrait of a young woman. Princess Emilia of Saxony? Statens Museum for Kunst, Copenhagen US_WAM_37-269 Mary Magdalene (?) The Walters Art Museum, Baltimore (Maryland) Date: 08. 2013 Scientific analysis Micro-sampling / cross-sections Instrumental material analysis. Very well preserved panel, canvas lined on the back which extends up the sides. Consequently there is a wax-resin mixture which has penetrated the edges and unfortunately this is the only place for sampling. Sample site: Dark red shadow of skirt pleat, bottom edge. Analysis methods: GC-MS/FTIR. FTIR-microscopy: Thin red glaze over black. Very small, - flakes of transparent red, black and a very yellow ground. The thin red is a lake on alumina, oil bound but there does appear to be some protein present. The FSD trace (and 2nd derivative) show – amide bands at 1645 (1650; 1659) and 1542 (1559; 1542). Traces of chalk, no wax. Are the blacks in Cranachs inorganic or organic? There are no phosphate bands, there are weak calcite type chalk bands, and much of the ill- resolved fingerprint region has weak derivatives. There is the possibility of some red lake being included as this is very difficult to see amongst the black. There does appear to be some protein – 3300; overtone at 3058; 1635; 1650; 1557; 1542. Also oil – CH stretches; C=O at 1704-1770. Some yellow/white paint in this sample gives a spectrum of gypsum with protein – is this ground? NB. DP – 1320 cm-1 suggests presence of oxalate rather than protein [DP; August 2013] GC-MS: The paint medium was identified as linseed oil [A/P 1.3; P/S 1.4; A/Sub 6.8] Inorg2B: Red lake, possibly madder. ATR (not priority) examined by: The National Gallery, London. Date: 15.11.2010 Technical examination / Scientific analysis X-radiography. created by: The National Gallery, London. Date: 02.02.1995 Technical examination / Scientific analysis Micro-sampling / cross-sections. CDA ID/Inventory No.: UK_NGL_291. Object No: FR172 Cross-section No.: Brief description of paint: black paint of background. Sample location: lower edge. Sample No.: 1 Methods: microscopy, EDX. - black paint layer. examined by: The National Gallery, London. Date: 02.02.1995 Technical examination / Scientific analysis Micro-sampling / cross-sections. CDA ID/Inventory No.: UK_NGL_291 Object No: FR172 Cross-section No.: Brief description of paint: bright red highlight of dress Sample location: bottom edge Sample No.: 2a Methods: microscopy. examined by: The National Gallery, London. Date: 02.02.1995 Technical examination / Scientific analysis Micro-sampling / cross-sections. CDA ID/Inventory No.: UK_NGL_291 Object No: FR172 Cross-section No.: Brief description of paint: dark brownish-red shadow of dress Sample location: bottom edge Sample No.: 3 Methods: microscopy. examined by: The National Gallery, London. Date: 02.02.1995 Technical examination / Scientific analysis Micro-sampling / cross-sections. CDA ID/Inventory No.: UK_NGL_291 Object No: FR172 Cross-section No.: Brief description of paint: bright red highlight of dress Sample location: bottom edge Sample No.: 2b Methods: microscopy. <a href="/tags/Jan_van_Eyck/" rel="tag">Jan van Eyck</a> - Biography and Legacy. Jan van Eyck was born in the small town of Maaseyck, then known as Eyck, near a bend of the river Maas about 14 miles from Maastricht, the provincial capital of modern-day Limburg. The history of the region can be traced back to the Roman Empire era, and later grew into a religious center during the early medieval period. Notably, the nearby district of Aldeneik traces its history back to the early eighth century, with the founding of the Aldeneik Abbey by two sisters from a noble landowning family who had been educated at a Benedictine Abbey in Valenciennes. Few details are known of van Eyck's childhood, including the artist's exact year of birth, which most scholars date between the years 1385 and 1395. He is commonly believed to be the younger brother of Hubert (also: Huybrecht), with additional siblings Lambert (or Lambrecht) and Margaret, all of whom are identified as painters. Hubert is theorized to have taken charge of Jan's artistic education and made him his younger "disciple" at his home in Ghent. Because little was written of Hubert during his life, he died in 1426 before the completion of the Ghent Altarpiece , his role as an artist and relationship with Jan remains a point of contention among historians. The younger brother, Lambert, is mentioned in later court documents and believed by some to have taken charge of Jan van Eyck's workshop after the death of his brother. Early Period. Although van Eyck is considered among the greatest masters of European art history, continued debate around the biography of the artist and even the authorship of some of his works abounds. The few works attributed as van Eyck's earliest paintings are among those works in contention. The best-known examples are the miniatures in the Turin-Milan Book of Hours , an illuminated manuscript with an astonishing history of its own. The book was commissioned c. 1380, soon thereafter the most famous section of the book, Tres Belles Heures de Nortre Dame painted by Jean d'Orléans, Maelwael brothers, and <a href="/tags/Limbourg_brothers/" rel="tag">Limbourg Brothers</a> was produced under the commission of Jean, duc du Berry, whom Friedländer describes as "a passionate bibliophile." The book came into the possession of John of Bavaria, aka "John III the Pitiless, Count of Holland and Hainaut," in the early 1420s around the same time Jan van Eyck came into his service, leading scholars to believe that a selection of illuminations created by an anonymous artist, known simply as "Hand G," were created by the hand of Jan van Eyck. In addition, "Hand H" is theorized to demonstrate the work of <a href="/tags/Hubert_van_Eyck/" rel="tag">Hubert van Eyck</a>. The book later came into the possession of Philip the Good, leading to further speculation of the artist's involvement. Lacking specific documentation, and with the added misfortune of a fire in 1904 that destroyed much of the prayer book in question, leaves these attributions far from certain. The early 1420s did, however, prove a pivotal time for both Hubert and Jan van Eyck, as the former received the commission for what would become the Ghent Altarpiece in 1420 and the latter, earned the rank of <a href="/tags/Court_painter/" rel="tag">court painter</a> to John of Bavaria. Two of the four surviving documents naming Hubert relate to the altarpiece itself. Jan's court position is first documented with payments dating to 1424, though the position presumably began earlier. With a formal painting studio and hired assistants to assist and copy his paintings, as was the custom of the time period, van Eyck's reputation began to spread throughout Europe. His innovative technique of layering thin glazes of oil paint brought an astonishing realism to viewers of the time. Nearly a century later, the 16th century painter, architect, writer and historian Giorgio Vasari went so far as to credit the artist with the invention of the medium, writing: "It was a very beautiful invention and a great convenience to the art of painting, the discovery of oil coloring." This legendary history ascribed to the artist was widely believed until the early 19th century. In his own time, Jan van Eyck was internationally recognized for the exquisite details in both his religious paintings and secular portraiture; he was entrusted with painting the portraits of some of Europe's most influential people during his career. Mature Period. After John of Bavaria's death in January of 1425, Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, incorporated Holland under his rule, as well as many of the former duke's possessions and court appointees. Friedländer notes, "As soon as possible after the death of his Dutch-Bavarian cousin, the duke appointed the painter to his own court, taking pride in the fact that the master, whom he honored and esteemed so highly, was at least formally, a member of his entourage." Court records document that Jan van Eyck was appointed both court painter and <a href="/tags/Valet/" rel="tag">valet</a> de chambre on May 19, 1425, and was compensated for the expenses of a journey from <a href="/tags/Bruges/" rel="tag">Bruges</a> to Lille in August of that year. In addition to his duties as court painter, the position of valet was a title of distinction that gave him official standing in the court, an unusually high status to an artist in the early 15th century. His emergence as a collectable painter generally followed this appointment, and from this point on his activity in the court is comparatively well documented. With his exceptionally well-paid court employment and social standing, van Eyck maintained independence from the painters' guild of Bruges while also maintaining his own commissions beyond his court duties. In 1427, the artist traveled to Tournai to attend a banquet on the feast of St. Lucas, with other leading artists Robert Campin and Rogier van der Weyden in attendance. Some write that he was named a senior member of the guild at this time. Van Eyck visits again the following year, though the reason is not known. Philip the Good also sent Jan on missions of extreme trust, described in records as "certain distant and secret journeys," possibly including a pilgrimage for Philip into the Holy Land, and extensive travels to Italy, where he met Florentine artists, Masaccio in particular, to England, and perhaps to Prague between 1427 and 1436. His strong visual memory allowed him to recall many people and historic scenes that were forever useful in his paintings. Better-known is the well-documented diplomatic voyage to Lisbon in 1428, where he painted two portraits of Princess Isabella of Portugal who was to be Philip's third wife. The paintings were sent back to the duke separately, one by land and the other by sea. Unfortunately, although both betrothal portraits were received by Philip, they are now lost and only copies remain. The trust placed in van Eyck on these travels representing the duke suggests the closeness and even admiration Philip held for the artist. Although not formally educated, van Eyck could read and write, demonstrating his knowledge of Latin, Greek and Hebrew through inscriptions on his paintings and their distinctive frames. A well-known incident transcribed in Wolfgang Stechow's Northern <a href="/tags/Renaissance/" rel="tag">Renaissance</a> Art: Sources and Documents highlights the respect Philip held for the artist. When the exchequer withheld payment from the artist, the duke rebuked this decision, writing: "We have heard that you do not readily verify certain of our letters granting life pension to our well-beloved equerry painter, Jan van Eyck, whereby he cannot be paid said pension; and for this reason, he will find it necessary to leave our service, which would cause us great displeasure, for we would retain him for certain great works with which we intend henceforth to occupy him and we would not find his like more to our taste, one so excellent in his art and science." Subsequently, van Eyck received his annual payments without fail. An unusual, and perhaps less documented, achievement of van Eyck is pointed out by author and lecturer of science and humanities, Scott L. Montgomery who credits van Eyck with creating the earliest known naturalistic representations of the moon in Western art, predating the drawings of the same subject by Leonardo da Vinci by 85 years. He credits this achievement to "the Flemish artist Jan van Eyck, possibly in partial collaboration with his brother, Hubert" as occurring between 1420 and 1437. "These images, which portray the Moon in daytime, appear in the following paintings: the Crucifixion (1420-25), St. Barbara (1437) and the <a href="/tags/Knight/" rel="tag">Knights</a> of Christ panel of the renowned Ghent Altarpiece (1426- 1432)." He contrasts this with the allegorical rendering usually given to celestial objects, or "personification of a religious of mythic figure," by concluding, "Such realism is undeniably the result of careful, direct study of individual objects in the natural environment." Art historian Jelte Dijkstra who wrote on the technical aspects of the early Netherlandish artists singled out the artist from his peers, writing: "Jan van Eyck seems to be exceptional: if any of the early Netherlandish painters could be said to have produced 'authentic' works, it is this artist. Eight signed and dated paintings survive, not including the Ghent Altarpiece with its contended inscription." The technical analysis continues a multi- century probe into the exquisite surfaces of Netherlandish painting, most notably van Eyck and Rogier van der Weyden. The search has sought both to understand the type of oil and other pigment binders used by the artist and a secure level of connoisseurship to accurately determine authorship. Describing the initial results of these tests, Dijkstra continues, "The technical data on the panels published so far create a very consistent impression of the style of under drawing, the working method, and the application of the paint. This consistency and the small size of the majority of these panels suggest the Jan van Eyck did all of the painting himself, though that is by no means certain." Late Period. By the end of his career, van Eyck and his contemporaries established portraiture as a major art form. The artist held an international roster of wealthy patrons who commissioned him to have their likenesses recorded or create devotional paintings. In his more complicated compositions, Jan was able to construct a convincingly unified and logical pictorial world with absolute physical stillness and filled with spiritual energy. His international fame is best documented in Italy, as Susie Nash, professor of Renaissance Art, notes in her book titled, Northern Renaissance Art , in which she documents humanist writers, "such as Cyriacus d'Ancona (1449), Bartolommeo Fazio (1456), Francesco Florio (1477) and Giovanni Santi (1482). [who provide] a testimony to the fame of Netherlandish painters." D'Ancona, for example, wrote that van Eyck's paintings seemed "not by the artifice of human hands but by all-bearing nature herself." Bartolommeo Fazio, who described van Eyck as "the leading painter" of his day in his De viris illustribus , also noted: "He is not unlettered, particularly in geometry and such arts as contribute to the enrichment of painting, and he is thought for this reason to have discovered many things about the properties of colors recorded by the ancients and learned by him from reading Pliny and other authors." In 1431, after his many extended journeys for the Duke, Jan purchased a house with a stone-gabled front in Bruges. He married a much younger woman named Margareta, from a lower but still noble class, who bore him ten children. In 1434, Duke Philip was the godfather at the christening of their first child, named Philip or Philippina, increased Jan's salary and gave him six silver goblets made by a goldsmith in Bruges especially for the baptism of the child. Two years later is the last documented "secret journey" van Eyck would make on behalf of the duke. Philip continued to support the van Eyck family, even after the esteemed artist's death in 1441. He helped one of the artist's daughters purchase entrance to a convent and extended the artist's payments to his widow. Upon Jan's death, his younger brother, Lambert, is said to have settled the estate, taken over the artist workshop with its many unfinished commissions, and then oversaw its closing. Lambert was also responsible for exhuming the body of his brother for reburial inside St. Donatian's Cathedral in Bruges. The Legacy of Jan van Eyck. Jan van Eyck was a leading force in 15th-century Flemish painting, due to his innovations in the use of optical perspective and handling of oil paint. Gradual transitions between color areas were now possible due to the slower drying time of the oil paint which, as compared to egg tempera, allowed the colors to be used more specifically to depict perspective, deep space and realistic modeling. Although the specter of his brother, Hubert, raised by Jan's own dedication found on the Ghent Altarpiece , has stirred doubts to the true authorship of this and other early works, what remains clear is the sheer amount of documentation and praise accorded to Jan during, and after, his life eclipses the dearth of materials in regards to Hubert's career. Alistair Smith, former curator of Flemish and German painting at the National Gallery in London described, "In terms both of the development of the oil medium, and of naturalism, Jan van Eyck is one of the founders of modern painting." Indeed, van Eyck's reach has far outlived his own time, when he was a major influence to other northern painters, such as contemporaries Rogier van der Weyden and even the later works of Robert Campin, and his successors, including Petrus Christus and later, Hans Memling. Notably, on a trip to Ghent in April of 1521, the famous German Renaissance painter and engraver Albrecht Dürer was taken to view the Ghent Altarpiece where he described, ". I had just been taken for something great. Then I saw Jan van Eyck's picture; it is a most precious painting, full of thought. The Eve, Mary, and God the Father are especially good." Dürer absorbed many facet's of van Eyck's style, in addition to the precise nature of his naturalism, also evoking his three-quarter portraiture, creating a stylized signature, and noted by art historians Jeroen Stumpel and Jolein van Kregten, his "Eyckian contrast between the very near and the very far." The influence of the later-named Flemish Primitives seemed to weaken as the Classical revival of Italian painting gradually moved into the northern regions of Europe. However, as collections of important Netherlandish works moved into new hands, notably in 1516 to Margaret of Austria, Habsburg Regent of the Netherlands, whose artwork was later inherited, via Mary of Hungary by the King Philip II of Spain where it was first noted in a 1558 inventory. Here, a minor painting of Philip's daughters may have been influenced by the postures in van Eyck's famous Arnolfini Portrait . What is more widely recognized is the influence of this painting on the famous Las Meninas by Philip IV's prized court painter and leading figure of the Spanish Baroque, Diego Velázquez. In the latter work, the Spanish painter's similar use of a mirror to complete the visual and conceptual narrative of the painting has proved as confounding to scholars as van Eyck's earlier work. Velazquez's Las Meninas would, in turn, influence the Romantic painter Francisco Jose de Goya y Lucientes, as is evident in etchings made of the Velazquez's masterpiece along with Goya's own depiction of the royal family, albeit with a sense of irony. During the Romantic period, interest in the Northern Renaissance was revived, along with a rising interest in the accomplishments of the artists and architects working in the Gothic era. The seemingly small and unassuming Arnolfini Portrait would turn heads once again after coming into the possession of the National Gallery of London in 1842, over 400 years after it was first commissioned by the wealthy merchant. It was at this time, a group of rebellious young artists at the British Royal Academy sought to overturn the influence of founding president Sir Joshua Reynolds, on whom they bestowed the condescension Sir "Sloshua" Reynolds, and centuries of what they described as mimicry of the Renaissance masters, <a href="/tags/Raphael/" rel="tag">Raphael</a> above all others. For the Pre- Raphaelites, as they were collectively called, the striking veracity of this small painting echoed the fine details seen in early photographs, a process recently invented. This painting was almost prescient in its modernity. A recent exhibition at the National Gallery in London, titled Reflections: van Eyck and the Pre-Raphaelites (2017-2018) continued the exploration of this relationship focusing closely on the use of the mirror by the latter group of artists. The style of van Eyck and the Flemish Primitives is also credited as a key element of Grant Wood's move away from his early Impressionistic canvases, both of which he viewed during his early travels through Europe. More recently, artists associated with the contemporary Pop Surrealist movement, including leading figures such as husband and wife Mark Ryden and Marion Peck, count the Flemish masters and Jan van Eyck as a key early influence. Early Netherlandish and German Paintings by Alistair Smith. Nature with its true voice/ Cries out undissembled,‘Be as I am’/ Revealed in its wildest/ Most generous incarnation. When Martin Luther nailed his Ninety-Five Theses on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences to the front door of the All Saints’ Church in Wittenberg in 1517, the Protestant Reformation had officially begun. Although Luther’s criticisms were directed mainly toward the Church’s policy on the sale of indulgences, his actions sparked a widespread feeling of discontent among Europeans in regard to the Catholic Church, the Pope, and even the idea of an intermediary between God and man. Individuals began to seek a closer, more personal connection with the Divine by engaging with the natural world beyond the confinement of church interiors and several artists took note. Dieric Bouts (c.1410-1475) and Lucas Cranach (1472-1553) became famous for their pioneering efforts in the drawing and painting of landscapes, and Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528), the preeminent artist of his day, wished to transcribe the natural world for he believed that true art was imbedded therein. [1] However, it was a German artist named Albrecht Altdorfer who pushed landscape into the foreground of painting. He emphasized the natural world like never before with his utilization of elaborate brushstrokes, flamboyant displays of colour, and grandiosity of scale. [2] By accentuating specific qualities in his depiction of landscapes with an unusual, almost dream-like style, Altdorfer was able to reflect the social, cultural, and religious changes that were taking place during the first half of the sixteenth century. These significant events included the rise of humanism, the Protestant Reformation, and the creation of a German national identity. Altdorfer was born near Regensburg, Germany, in 1480 and lived there until his death in 1538. The city’s proximity to the Danube and Regen rivers as well as the Bavarian forest to the east may have influenced the artist’s preoccupation with nature. Altdorfer’s creativity was broad and wide-ranging; he mastered both painting and printmaking, and even pursued several architectural commissions for the city. The presence of a number of academicians living in Regensburg at the time contributed to the artist’s tutelage in culture and philosophy. This group was comprised of Johannes Grünpeck, a renowned philologist and scholar, Johannes Stabius, a cartographer and member of the Sodalitas Danubiana (an intellectual circle associated with Emperor Maximilian I), and Bavarian historian Johannes Aventinus. A citizen of Regensburg for most of his life, Aventinus supported the establishment of German as a written language and helped spur the decline of Latin-based education. [3] Unfortunately, very little was written about the artist during his lifetime; his work was largely explored posthumously. Joachim von Sandrart (1602-1688) was one of the first art critics to examine Altdorfer’s work and he left a portrayal of the artist in his biographical compilation. Although the critic praised Altdorfer for his “highly personal, original vision” and for his sharp intellect, Sandrart was quick to dismiss the artist’s diligent craftsmanship and style. [4] Alas, Sandrart’s predominantly positive review of Altdorfer’s work did not boost the artist’s popularity. In fact, his paintings have been both in and out of vogue throughout the years. By the eighteenth century, the artist was all but forgotten as tastes shifted and art began to serve the needs of the imperial aristocracy. A renewed interest in Altdorfer’s work occurred during the nineteenth century when German Romantic poet and philosopher Friedrich Schlegel opined about the Victory of Alexander the Great over the Persian King Darius at the Battle of Issus of 1529 ( Figure 1 ). Schlegel considered the work a masterpiece and was especially impressed by how it transcended academic classification in its combination of landscape and historical painting. [5] The nineteenth century Romantics equated the <a href="/tags/Middle_Ages/" rel="tag">Middle Ages</a> with the spirit of chivalry; consequently they believed that this painting fulfilled a desire for an older, more romanticized time when both combatants were equally honoured. During the twentieth century, the nostalgia would subside as Germans decried Altdorfer’s self-indulgent tendencies. His sensual, fantastical visions were considered to be the antithesis of Dürer’s “heroic self-control.” [6] A good way to begin a discussion of Altdorfer’s style and how it represents the natural world is to contrast it against the style of his more famous contemporary, Albrecht Dürer. Dürer’s View of the Arco (1495) , with its attentiveness to colour and sensitivity to the organic structure of the land, conveys a sense of spontaneity that differs from Altdorfer’s meticulously detailed Landscape with a Footbridge of c.1516-1518 ( Figure 2 ) . [7] The use of watercolour permitted Dürer to capture an immediate impression of the landscape while Altdorfer favoured oil paint because it allowed him to carefully shape the painting to his liking. The chronicler Raselius had complimented Altdorfer “in the visual sense, especially in connection with the description of [a] particularly lush, green, pleasant landscape or countryside.” [8] Altdorfer’s Landscape with a Footbridge features a footbridge that towers over the viewer, stressing his or her insignificance in relation to the grandeur of the forest. The artist’s brushstrokes depicted the central tree as a cascade of greenery while the sky has been painted a deep turquoise and the foliage a dark, menacing green. [9] Unlike Dürer, Altdorfer wished to capture not only the look and feel of nature, but also its inherent mysteriousness. Altdorfer’s landscape scenes—their pastoral beauty magnified by the deft handling of colour, texture, and proportion—embody the notion of “topothesia”, a term that roughly translates into “poetic license.” [10] A painting by Altdorfer titled Danube Landscape (c.1522-1525) explores this term as it applies to the German landscape ( Figure 3 ). The image is framed by two large trees in the foreground and features a trail that winds towards a countryside village behind which he painted opaque mountains and the Danube River. The various shades of blue and green give the landscape a cool, wistful tone while the forest bears a dense, forlorn quality. The trees enhance the verticality of the painting and the horizon is set low, which allows the viewer to feel as if he or she is physically positioned within the landscape itself. Conversely, Netherlandish landscape paintings like Joachim Patinir’s Life of the Virgin (c.1480) , feature high horizons that imply a certain detachment from the scene. By omitting human figures (which would have implied a narrative), the focus remains on the natural world and the viewer’s relationship to it. Altdorfer’s paintings, with their vertical formats and low, narrow horizons grant the viewer a more empirically plausible and familiar point of view. [11] Altdorfer’s particular stylistic choices express his discontent regarding the Church’s position as a suffocating middleman between heaven and earth. He aligned himself with his fellow Germans who had long believed that their forests were imbued with a divine presence and that the “contemplation of nature [was] the highest good, because it leads to [a] fuller appreciation and knowledge of that divinity.” [12] Consequently, the tall trees that reach beyond the upper frame combined with the low horizon line suggest that a towering, omniscient presence exists within the viewer’s own physical space. The verticality of his paintings suggests a connection between heaven and earth; the dripping firs flow down from the sky above while the trees imitate soaring church spires. The artist’s depiction of these gigantic, isolated trees would have been interpreted as an idolatrous act by the Catholic Church, who often suppressed Protestant gatherings due to their outdoor settings. [13] In conclusion, there is no apparent dichotomy between man and nature in his paintings; the trees, mountains, and human dwellings all fit comfortably within the same space. With trees shooting upward into skies awash in blue and white, dark green foliage, and translucent mountains in the far distance, Altdorfer’s Landscape with a Footbridge and Danube Landscape display a natural beauty that helped contribute to a new religious fervor. Altdorfer’s primary focus on the landscape did not shift when he introduced human subjects in his paintings. Instead, he invented a personal language of vegetation that would serve him in both narrative and landscape paintings. [14] Saint George and the Dragon (1510) features a wild, luxurious display of deciduous foliage and explores the mystical nature of the forest. This oil painting depicts both the dragon and the saint almost entirely concealed within a massive grouping of trees. The forest, richly detailed with dense, thick layers of colour and leafy surfaces, imposes its magnificence on both of Altdorfer’s subjects. Saint George is shown looming over the dragon (who appears puny and unthreatening) thereby making the forest a reflection of the <a href="/tags/Knight/" rel="tag">knight</a>’s power and strength. While the dragon is bound to the earth, Saint George “seems to dissolve into the details of the forest and merge visually with the natural setting.” [15] The forest is not merely a background setting in this image; instead, it directly correlates with the dramatic scene unfolding in the foreground. The impressive display of foliage, which emulates Italian Renaissance architectural ornament in its detailed richness and complexity, gives the painting a quality that is worthy of religious worship. Altdorfer depicts a natural world in which “the seen is the garment of the unseen.” [16] Altdorfer’s ominous settings and lavish colouring bring out the emotional urgency in his paintings. This becomes evident upon examining the artist’s altarpiece for the Collegiate Church of Saint Florian, which presents eight scenes from the Passion of Christ. The first panel in the series, Resurrection (c.1518) panel, a large tree frames the scene like a Roman arch while Christ’s halo shines as bright as the sun. Both panels reveal how Altdorfer could employ a similar colour for different symbolic purposes. While the artist’s tumultuous red sky in Agony in the Garden can be interpreted as a chilling premonition of Christ’s violent crucifixion, the glorious red sunrise in his Resurrection painting reflects the hope and optimism associated with Christ’s rebirth. Altdorfer evinces the new Christian age in all of its splendour and glory in one of his finest paintings titled Battle of Alexander . It is similar to the Saint Florian altarpiece in that he combines story and setting in a highly expressive fashion. Due to the renewed interest in classical art and philosophy at this time, Duke Wilhelm IV of Bavaria commissioned a series of paintings depicting events of classical antiquity. Altdorfer’s particular contribution features Alexander the Great’s victory over Darius and his Persian army in the year 334 CE. The fact that this painting was created the same year that the Ottoman Turks were laying siege to Vienna makes it reasonable to purport that Altdorfer used this image to ignite Christian faith and national resolve against these invaders. [17] The viewer witnesses the significant historical event from an abnormally high vantage point; a perspective that Altdorfer does not typically employ within his paintings. Altdorfer utilizes the expansive sky to reflect the gruesome battle on the ground; the swirling mass of threatening clouds in the upper half of the painting echo the churning hoards of soldiers below. As the Greeks expel the defeated Persians, a bright sunrise (a symbol of Christianity) chases away the crescent moon (a symbol of Islam). [18] All of the essential elements come together within this painting to create a cohesive scene of epic proportion. Considering that landscape painting has played an important role throughout the history of art, Albrecht Altdorfer’s contributions to the genre are worthy of investigation. His expressive colour palette, pronounced vertical scale, and mastery of oil paint allowed him to treat nature with unprecedented intricacy. His legacy as a Northern Renaissance artist endures due to the beauty of his landscape paintings and the feeling of rapture they bring to his viewers. His forests seem to radiate a mysterious power that even an atheist cannot help to acknowledge. Every one of Altdorfer’s paintings is, to paraphrase film critic Roger Ebert, not what it is about, but how it is about it. Benesch, Otto. German Painting: From Dürer to Holbein . Translated by H.S.B. Harrison. Geneva: Editions d’Art Albert Skira, 1966. Brion, Marcel. German Painting . Translated by W.J. Strachan. New York: Universe Books, 1959. Janzen, Reinhild. Albrecht Altdorfer: Four Centuries of Criticism . Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1980. Silver, Larry. “Forest Primeval: Albrecht Altdorfer and the German Wilderness Landscape.” Simiolus: Netherlands Quarterly for the History of Art 13 (1983): 4-43. Smith, Alistair. Early Netherlandish and German Paintings . London: William Collins and Sons, 1985. Wood, Christopher S. Albrecht Altdorfer and the Origins of Landscape . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993. Jan van Eyck - Biography and Legacy. Jan van Eyck was born in the small town of Maaseyck, then known as Eyck, near a bend of the river Maas about 14 miles from Maastricht, the provincial capital of modern-day Limburg. The history of the region can be traced back to the Roman Empire era, and later grew into a religious center during the early medieval period. Notably, the nearby district of Aldeneik traces its history back to the early eighth century, with the founding of the Aldeneik Abbey by two sisters from a noble landowning family who had been educated at a Benedictine Abbey in Valenciennes. Few details are known of van Eyck's childhood, including the artist's exact year of birth, which most scholars date between the years 1385 and 1395. He is commonly believed to be the younger brother of Hubert (also: Huybrecht), with additional siblings Lambert (or Lambrecht) and Margaret, all of whom are identified as painters. Hubert is theorized to have taken charge of Jan's artistic education and made him his younger "disciple" at his home in Ghent. Because little was written of Hubert during his life, he died in 1426 before the completion of the Ghent Altarpiece , his role as an artist and relationship with Jan remains a point of contention among historians. The younger brother, Lambert, is mentioned in later court documents and believed by some to have taken charge of Jan van Eyck's workshop after the death of his brother. Early Period. Although van Eyck is considered among the greatest masters of European art history, continued debate around the biography of the artist and even the authorship of some of his works abounds. The few works attributed as van Eyck's earliest paintings are among those works in contention. The best-known examples are the miniatures in the Turin-Milan Book of Hours , an illuminated manuscript with an astonishing history of its own. The book was commissioned c. 1380, soon thereafter the most famous section of the book, Tres Belles Heures de Nortre Dame painted by Jean d'Orléans, Maelwael brothers, and Limbourg Brothers was produced under the commission of Jean, duc du Berry, whom Friedländer describes as "a passionate bibliophile." The book came into the possession of John of Bavaria, aka "John III the Pitiless, Count of Holland and Hainaut," in the early 1420s around the same time Jan van Eyck came into his service, leading scholars to believe that a selection of illuminations created by an anonymous artist, known simply as "Hand G," were created by the hand of Jan van Eyck. In addition, "Hand H" is theorized to demonstrate the work of Hubert van Eyck. The book later came into the possession of Philip the Good, leading to further speculation of the artist's involvement. Lacking specific documentation, and with the added misfortune of a fire in 1904 that destroyed much of the prayer book in question, leaves these attributions far from certain. The early 1420s did, however, prove a pivotal time for both Hubert and Jan van Eyck, as the former received the commission for what would become the Ghent Altarpiece in 1420 and the latter, earned the rank of court painter to John of Bavaria. Two of the four surviving documents naming Hubert relate to the altarpiece itself. Jan's court position is first documented with payments dating to 1424, though the position presumably began earlier. With a formal painting studio and hired assistants to assist and copy his paintings, as was the custom of the time period, van Eyck's reputation began to spread throughout Europe. His innovative technique of layering thin glazes of oil paint brought an astonishing realism to viewers of the time. Nearly a century later, the 16th century painter, architect, writer and historian Giorgio Vasari went so far as to credit the artist with the invention of the medium, writing: "It was a very beautiful invention and a great convenience to the art of painting, the discovery of oil coloring." This legendary history ascribed to the artist was widely believed until the early 19th century. In his own time, Jan van Eyck was internationally recognized for the exquisite details in both his religious paintings and secular portraiture; he was entrusted with painting the portraits of some of Europe's most influential people during his career. Mature Period. After John of Bavaria's death in January of 1425, Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, incorporated Holland under his rule, as well as many of the former duke's possessions and court appointees. Friedländer notes, "As soon as possible after the death of his Dutch-Bavarian cousin, the duke appointed the painter to his own court, taking pride in the fact that the master, whom he honored and esteemed so highly, was at least formally, a member of his entourage." Court records document that Jan van Eyck was appointed both court painter and valet de chambre on May 19, 1425, and was compensated for the expenses of a journey from Bruges to Lille in August of that year. In addition to his duties as court painter, the position of valet was a title of distinction that gave him official standing in the court, an unusually high status to an artist in the early 15th century. His emergence as a collectable painter generally followed this appointment, and from this point on his activity in the court is comparatively well documented. With his exceptionally well-paid court employment and social standing, van Eyck maintained independence from the painters' guild of Bruges while also maintaining his own commissions beyond his court duties. In 1427, the artist traveled to Tournai to attend a banquet on the feast of St. Lucas, with other leading artists Robert Campin and Rogier van der Weyden in attendance. Some write that he was named a senior member of the guild at this time. Van Eyck visits again the following year, though the reason is not known. Philip the Good also sent Jan on missions of extreme trust, described in records as "certain distant and secret journeys," possibly including a pilgrimage for Philip into the Holy Land, and extensive travels to Italy, where he met Florentine artists, Masaccio in particular, to England, and perhaps to Prague between 1427 and 1436. His strong visual memory allowed him to recall many people and historic scenes that were forever useful in his paintings. Better-known is the well-documented diplomatic voyage to Lisbon in 1428, where he painted two portraits of Princess Isabella of Portugal who was to be Philip's third wife. The paintings were sent back to the duke separately, one by land and the other by sea. Unfortunately, although both betrothal portraits were received by Philip, they are now lost and only copies remain. The trust placed in van Eyck on these travels representing the duke suggests the closeness and even admiration Philip held for the artist. Although not formally educated, van Eyck could read and write, demonstrating his knowledge of Latin, Greek and Hebrew through inscriptions on his paintings and their distinctive frames. A well-known incident transcribed in Wolfgang Stechow's Northern Renaissance Art: Sources and Documents highlights the respect Philip held for the artist. When the exchequer withheld payment from the artist, the duke rebuked this decision, writing: "We have heard that you do not readily verify certain of our letters granting life pension to our well-beloved equerry painter, Jan van Eyck, whereby he cannot be paid said pension; and for this reason, he will find it necessary to leave our service, which would cause us great displeasure, for we would retain him for certain great works with which we intend henceforth to occupy him and we would not find his like more to our taste, one so excellent in his art and science." Subsequently, van Eyck received his annual payments without fail. An unusual, and perhaps less documented, achievement of van Eyck is pointed out by author and lecturer of science and humanities, Scott L. Montgomery who credits van Eyck with creating the earliest known naturalistic representations of the moon in Western art, predating the drawings of the same subject by Leonardo da Vinci by 85 years. He credits this achievement to "the Flemish artist Jan van Eyck, possibly in partial collaboration with his brother, Hubert" as occurring between 1420 and 1437. "These images, which portray the Moon in daytime, appear in the following paintings: the Crucifixion (1420-25), St. Barbara (1437) and the Knights of Christ panel of the renowned Ghent Altarpiece (1426- 1432)." He contrasts this with the allegorical rendering usually given to celestial objects, or "personification of a religious of mythic figure," by concluding, "Such realism is undeniably the result of careful, direct study of individual objects in the natural environment." Art historian Jelte Dijkstra who wrote on the technical aspects of the early Netherlandish artists singled out the artist from his peers, writing: "Jan van Eyck seems to be exceptional: if any of the early Netherlandish painters could be said to have produced 'authentic' works, it is this artist. Eight signed and dated paintings survive, not including the Ghent Altarpiece with its contended inscription." The technical analysis continues a multi- century probe into the exquisite surfaces of Netherlandish painting, most notably van Eyck and Rogier van der Weyden. The search has sought both to understand the type of oil and other pigment binders used by the artist and a secure level of connoisseurship to accurately determine authorship. Describing the initial results of these tests, Dijkstra continues, "The technical data on the panels published so far create a very consistent impression of the style of under drawing, the working method, and the application of the paint. This consistency and the small size of the majority of these panels suggest the Jan van Eyck did all of the painting himself, though that is by no means certain." Late Period. By the end of his career, van Eyck and his contemporaries established portraiture as a major art form. The artist held an international roster of wealthy patrons who commissioned him to have their likenesses recorded or create devotional paintings. In his more complicated compositions, Jan was able to construct a convincingly unified and logical pictorial world with absolute physical stillness and filled with spiritual energy. His international fame is best documented in Italy, as Susie Nash, professor of Renaissance Art, notes in her book titled, Northern Renaissance Art , in which she documents humanist writers, "such as Cyriacus d'Ancona (1449), Bartolommeo Fazio (1456), Francesco Florio (1477) and Giovanni Santi (1482). [who provide] a testimony to the fame of Netherlandish painters." D'Ancona, for example, wrote that van Eyck's paintings seemed "not by the artifice of human hands but by all-bearing nature herself." Bartolommeo Fazio, who described van Eyck as "the leading painter" of his day in his De viris illustribus , also noted: "He is not unlettered, particularly in geometry and such arts as contribute to the enrichment of painting, and he is thought for this reason to have discovered many things about the properties of colors recorded by the ancients and learned by him from reading Pliny and other authors." In 1431, after his many extended journeys for the Duke, Jan purchased a house with a stone-gabled front in Bruges. He married a much younger woman named Margareta, from a lower but still noble class, who bore him ten children. In 1434, Duke Philip was the godfather at the christening of their first child, named Philip or Philippina, increased Jan's salary and gave him six silver goblets made by a goldsmith in Bruges especially for the baptism of the child. Two years later is the last documented "secret journey" van Eyck would make on behalf of the duke. Philip continued to support the van Eyck family, even after the esteemed artist's death in 1441. He helped one of the artist's daughters purchase entrance to a convent and extended the artist's payments to his widow. Upon Jan's death, his younger brother, Lambert, is said to have settled the estate, taken over the artist workshop with its many unfinished commissions, and then oversaw its closing. Lambert was also responsible for exhuming the body of his brother for reburial inside St. Donatian's Cathedral in Bruges. The Legacy of Jan van Eyck. Jan van Eyck was a leading force in 15th-century Flemish painting, due to his innovations in the use of optical perspective and handling of oil paint. Gradual transitions between color areas were now possible due to the slower drying time of the oil paint which, as compared to egg tempera, allowed the colors to be used more specifically to depict perspective, deep space and realistic modeling. Although the specter of his brother, Hubert, raised by Jan's own dedication found on the Ghent Altarpiece , has stirred doubts to the true authorship of this and other early works, what remains clear is the sheer amount of documentation and praise accorded to Jan during, and after, his life eclipses the dearth of materials in regards to Hubert's career. Alistair Smith, former curator of Flemish and German painting at the National Gallery in London described, "In terms both of the development of the oil medium, and of naturalism, Jan van Eyck is one of the founders of modern painting." Indeed, van Eyck's reach has far outlived his own time, when he was a major influence to other northern painters, such as contemporaries Rogier van der Weyden and even the later works of Robert Campin, and his successors, including Petrus Christus and later, Hans Memling. Notably, on a trip to Ghent in April of 1521, the famous German Renaissance painter and engraver Albrecht Dürer was taken to view the Ghent Altarpiece where he described, ". I had just been taken for something great. Then I saw Jan van Eyck's picture; it is a most precious painting, full of thought. The Eve, Mary, and God the Father are especially good." Dürer absorbed many facet's of van Eyck's style, in addition to the precise nature of his naturalism, also evoking his three-quarter portraiture, creating a stylized signature, and noted by art historians Jeroen Stumpel and Jolein van Kregten, his "Eyckian contrast between the very near and the very far." The influence of the later-named Flemish Primitives seemed to weaken as the Classical revival of Italian painting gradually moved into the northern regions of Europe. However, as collections of important Netherlandish works moved into new hands, notably in 1516 to Margaret of Austria, Habsburg Regent of the Netherlands, whose artwork was later inherited, via Mary of Hungary by the King Philip II of Spain where it was first noted in a 1558 inventory. Here, a minor painting of Philip's daughters may have been influenced by the postures in van Eyck's famous Arnolfini Portrait . What is more widely recognized is the influence of this painting on the famous Las Meninas by Philip IV's prized court painter and leading figure of the Spanish Baroque, Diego Velázquez. In the latter work, the Spanish painter's similar use of a mirror to complete the visual and conceptual narrative of the painting has proved as confounding to scholars as van Eyck's earlier work. Velazquez's Las Meninas would, in turn, influence the Romantic painter Francisco Jose de Goya y Lucientes, as is evident in etchings made of the Velazquez's masterpiece along with Goya's own depiction of the royal family, albeit with a sense of irony. During the Romantic period, interest in the Northern Renaissance was revived, along with a rising interest in the accomplishments of the artists and architects working in the Gothic era. The seemingly small and unassuming Arnolfini Portrait would turn heads once again after coming into the possession of the National Gallery of London in 1842, over 400 years after it was first commissioned by the wealthy merchant. It was at this time, a group of rebellious young artists at the British Royal Academy sought to overturn the influence of founding president Sir Joshua Reynolds, on whom they bestowed the condescension Sir "Sloshua" Reynolds, and centuries of what they described as mimicry of the Renaissance masters, Raphael above all others. For the Pre- Raphaelites, as they were collectively called, the striking veracity of this small painting echoed the fine details seen in early photographs, a process recently invented. This painting was almost prescient in its modernity. A recent exhibition at the National Gallery in London, titled Reflections: van Eyck and the Pre-Raphaelites (2017-2018) continued the exploration of this relationship focusing closely on the use of the mirror by the latter group of artists. The style of van Eyck and the Flemish Primitives is also credited as a key element of Grant Wood's move away from his early Impressionistic canvases, both of which he viewed during his early travels through Europe. More recently, artists associated with the contemporary Pop Surrealist movement, including leading figures such as husband and wife Mark Ryden and Marion Peck, count the Flemish masters and Jan van Eyck as a key early influence. Early Netherlandish and German Paintings by Alistair Smith. The works on this tour were produced by artists from France, Germany, and the Low Countries between about 1400 and 1550, years when the culture of early modern Europe emerged from the social, political, and religious orientation of the Middle Ages. This period witnessed the development of capitalism, the rise of nation states, and the Protestant Reformation. By 1400 Europe's population, devastated by plague and warfare in the preceding century, began to rebound. Much of the growth came in cities and towns, where a money economy produced an entirely new middle class of bankers, merchants, and skilled artisans who were increasingly well educated and receptive to new ideas. In the universities, philosophical nominalism, which held that the particulars of sensory experience are more "real" than abstract ideals, focused attention on man and the natural world. Soon the boundaries of that world were expanded by exploration. The pace of change was accelerated by the invention of movable type in the mid-1400s. More books were printed in the forty years before 1500 than had been produced during the entire Middle Ages. Oil Painting in the Netherlands. Other developments revolutionized painting. A new market was created by the middle class for small versions of the painted panels found in church altarpieces for use in private devotions at home. Except for portraits, painting on panel had not previously commanded the same prestige among royal patrons as the more sumptuous arts of <a href="/tags/Tapestry/" rel="tag">tapestry</a> weaving and manuscript illumination. At this time, however, artists reproduced the domestic settings and cherished possessions of a new clientele. They did so with a meticulous eye narrowly focused on detail. And they used a new technique, oil painting. The introduction of oil paints in northern Europe, not invented but perhaps perfected by Robert Campin and Jan van Eyck, allowed artists to build up layer after careful layer of translucent glazes, blending color and reflecting light to mimic appearances in a way not possible with the flat, opaque colors of quick-drying tempera paints. The realistic manner of these early Netherlandish artists soon replaced the artificial delicacy of the so-called International Style, which had dominated late Gothic art all across Europe. The realism of these new paintings increased the viewers' sense that the scenes they witnessed were continuous with their own experience. In religious painting, whether on church altarpieces or private devotional panels, it prompted an empathetic, often emotional response that allowed viewers to share in the suffering of Christ and drew them into the same sphere as the Virgin and saints. These intimate images appealed to the direct and personal religious experience stressed in late medieval piety. In the Low Countries particularly, where this so-called devotio moderna (modern devotion) was centered, laymen and women joined religious confraternities to emulate Jesus in their everyday lives, influenced by such devotional literature as Thomas à Kempis' Imitation of Christ . Hans Memling , Netherlandish, active c. 1465 - 1494, Madonna and Child with Angels , after 1479, oil on panel, Andrew W. Mellon Collection, 1937.1.41. Portraits were often included in devotional works, in which donors were depicted as witnessing a sacred scene. Independent portraits, however, are extremely rare before about 1425. This painting is the only one of a woman known to exist today. Her identity remains a mystery, but her dress and hauteur suggest she may have been at the French court; evidently she was a person of considerable rank. Portraits were commonly made of prospective partners in arranged marriages between powerful royal families. Van Eyck, for example, painted such portraits while on diplomatic assignment. The age and commanding presence of this woman, however, may indicate that she was already in a strong dynastic position. Her profile pose produces a clear and authoritative image and avoids direct contact with the viewer's gaze. The austere line of the subject's features is emphasized by the high forehead of her fashionable plucked hair line. High contrast against the flat background exaggerates the refinement of her likeness. The artist has painted individual details, such as the crimped curl at the brow and the heavy cage beads pinned at the shoulders, with careful attention; yet they are subordinated in a composition that has geometric, almost abstract severity. These ornamental qualities are typical of the International Style, which predominated all over Europe until it was supplanted by the more naturalistic work of the painters Robert Campin and Jan van Eyck and their followers. Franco-Flemish 15th Century , Profile Portrait of a Lady , c. 1410, oil on panel, Andrew W. Mellon Collection, 1937.1.23. This imposing panel, once part of a large altarpiece, is probably the work of a follower of Robert Campin, who along with Jan van Eyck transformed painting in the fifteenth-century Netherlands. Campin's influence can be traced through succeeding generations. Among his many pupils was Rogier van der Weyden. The scene places Mary and Child with saints -- from left to right, Catherine, John the Baptist, Barbara, and Anthony Abbot -- in a walled garden. This enclosure represents both Mary's virginity and the verdant shelter of paradise, which is accessible to worshipers through Christ and the intercession of the saints on their behalf. An unnaturally high horizon makes the ground appear to open up from the viewer, as if to convey him or her into the sacred company. The child is carefully placed at the point where the various triangles -- formed by the Virgin's robe, the gazes of John and Barbara, the lines of Catherine's sword and Anthony's staff -- converge. Each surface is treated with an almost photographic precision. Plants are depicted with botanical accuracy, and the textures of rich cloth, an important source of wealth in the northern cities, are equally detailed. However, these elements do not combine to create a realistic space. The perspective is more intuitive than scientific and the figures are too large for their surroundings, their size matched not to nature but to their symbolic importance. Follower of Robert Campin , Madonna and Child with Saints in the Enclosed Garden , c. 1440/1460, oil on panel, Samuel H. Kress Collection, 1959.9.3. Van Eyck is considered one of the greatest painters of any period. Advances in oil techniques helped him paint the physical world in minute detail and with a degree of realism never before possible. It was said he knew fabrics like a weaver, buildings like an architect, and plants like a botanist. Here it is hard to believe that the angel's gleaming brocade is yellow pigment, not true gold, "woven" with brushstrokes, not threads. In this painting Gabriel announces to Mary that she will bear the son of God. She modestly draws back and responds, "Behold the handmaiden of the Lord." Her words are printed upside down for the Lord above to see. The Holy Spirit descends to her on seven rays of light. This is the moment God's plan for salvation is set in motion. Through Christ's human incarnation the old era of the Law is transformed into a new era of Grace. Almost every element in the painting contributes to this theme. The architecture moves from older, round Romanesque forms to pointed Gothic arches. In the floor tiles, scenes from the Old Testament prefigure New Testament events; David's slaying of Goliath, for example, fore tends Christ's triumph over the devil. The single top window, where Jehovah stands, contrasts the triple windows below, which suggest the Christian trinity. Even Mary's overlarge figure inside the chapel operates symbolically to underscore her identification with the Church. The lilies beside her refer to her purity. Jan van Eyck , Netherlandish, c. 1390 - 1441, The Annunciation , c. 1434/1436, oil on canvas transferred from panel, Andrew W. Mellon Collection, 1937.1.39. Rogier was among the greatest painters of northern Europe. His inventiveness and emotional intensity had great and lasting influence. Late in life he was particularly interested in portraiture and accepted many commissions from the Burgundian court, including perhaps this unidentified woman. In the fifty years or so since the Franco-Flemish portrait in this gallery was painted, poses of sitters were rotated from strict profiles to three-quarter views that revealed personalities in a more intimate and directly personal manner. The intense concentration in this woman's downcast gaze is reinforced by her fingers, which seem to press nervously together. The position of her hands, held not in prayer but as if resting on an unseen ledge, suggests that this was an independent portrait and was not meant to accompany a sacred scene, even though it was Rogier who first combined such half-length portraits with devotional images. A severe balance of pattern and form -- notice the interlocking triangles in her veil and neckline -- creates a brittle, abstract elegance that is typical of Rogier's portraits. Details are reduced to geometric clarity, and the face is painted in a restrained, linear manner. Compare its smooth shallow planes to the irregular facial terrain of <a href="/tags/Diego_de_Guevara/" rel="tag">Diego de Guevara</a>. In that later work, light and shadow combine to reveal every bulge and furrow. Rogier van der Weyden , Netherlandish, 1399/1400 - 1464, Portrait of a Lady , c. 1460, oil on panel, Andrew W. Mellon Collection, 1937.1.44. Of all fifteenth-century artists, Hieronymus Bosch is the most mysterious. His puzzling, sometimes bizarre imagery has prompted a number of false assertions that he was, for example, the member of a heretical sect, a sexual libertine, or a forerunner of the surrealists. What can be said is that he was a moralist, profoundly pessimistic about man's inevitable descent into sin and damnation. In this slender panel, probably a wing from a larger altarpiece, a dying man seems torn between salvation and his own avarice. At the foot of the bed a younger man, possibly the miser at an earlier age, hypocritically throws coins into a chest with one hand as he fingers a rosary with the other. In his last hour, with death literally at the door, the miser still hesitates; will he reach for the demon's bag of gold or will he follow the angel's gesture and direct his final thoughts to the crucifix in the window? Avarice was one of the seven deadly sins and among the final temptations described in the Ars moriendi (Art of Dying), a religious treatise probably written about 1400 and later popularized in printed books. Bosch's painting is similar to illustrations in these books, but his introduction of ambiguity and suspense is unique. This panel is thinly painted. In several areas it is possible to see in the underdrawing where Bosch changed his mind about the composition. His thin paint and unblended brushstrokes differ markedly from the enamellike polish of other works in this gallery. Hieronymus Bosch , Netherlandish, c. 1450 - 1516, Death and the Miser , c. 1485/1490, oil on panel, Samuel H. Kress Collection, 1952.5.33. Petrus Christus was the leading artist in Bruges after the death of Jan van Eyck. He purchased citizenship there, presumably so he could enter the painters' guild, and became known primarily for devotional images. This portrait and its mate were most likely part of a hinged three-part panel painting called a triptych. These were almost certainly the wings, which when opened showed the man and woman praying to an image of the Virgin and Child in the center. Since they are depicted in a domestic setting, the panels were probably made for private devotion in the couple's home. The woman's costume is that of a wealthy matron from the Low Countries, but the coat of arms depicted is that of the Vivaldi, a prominent Genoese family with extensive banking and commercial interests in the north. Stuck to the wall with dabs of red sealing wax is a woodcut. It depicts Saint Elizabeth of Thuringia, so in all likelihood the woman's name was also Elizabeth or some variant of it. Undoubtedly, she and her husband, known to be a member of the Lomellini family by the coat of arms on his portrait, were part of the large Italian business community in Bruges. These families, because they carried small panels like this one home with them, played an important role in spreading the oil technique and the precise style of northern paintings to Italy. As Michelangelo noted, "In Flanders they paint, before all things, to render exactly and deceptively the outward appearance of things." Petrus Christus , Netherlandish, active 1444 - 1475/1476, Portrait of a Female Donor , c. 1455, oil on panel, Samuel H. Kress Collection, 1961.9.11. Dirck Bouts was a member of the second generation of artists who followed and pursued the style of Jan van Eyck and Rogier van der Weyden, but little is known about his life or career. He worked primarily in Louvain, in modern-day Belgium, and was married to a woman wealthy enough to be called "Metten Geld" (with money). This painting is one of only a very few to survive by the artist. It illustrates the noble solemnity of expression and the meticulous technique for which Bouts was known. Small enough to fit in the palm of the hand, this tiny work was evidently an item of personal devotion. The light that falls on the Virgin and Child, their expressions, and their postures are subtly manipulated to make the infant appear bright and alert while the Madonna seems pensive and somber, her face darkened by sadness. Fifteenth-century viewers would have immediately interpreted this difference as evidence that Mary was foreseeing the future of Christ on the cross. They believed that the Virgin had suffered along with her son, actually experiencing the same pain. This kind of empathetic identification was an important element of religious life in the north during the fifteenth century. By meditating on such dramatic closeups of great immediacy, the worshiper also could experience Jesus' life and suffering in a direct and personal way. Dirck Bouts , Netherlandish, c. 1415/1420 - 1475, Madonna and Child , c. 1465, oil on panel, Patrons' Permanent Fund, 1986.67.1. This two-sided panel was once the right wing of a diptych. On the front we see Veronica, among the most venerated saints of the Middle Ages and Renaissance. Several legends about her were conflated and she was identified with different people, including the compassionate woman who gave Jesus a cloth as he struggled on the way to Calvary; when he wiped his brow with the cloth, it was miraculously imprinted with his face. By the 12th century, a cloth believed to be Veronica's veil had entered the Vatican. Indulgences (reducing time in purgatory and even remitting sin) were granted for reciting prayers either before the relic or before images of it. Veronica was also invoked against the danger of sudden death before confession. On the reverse of the panel, a snake slithers from a chalice, referring to an event in the life of John the Evangelist when he blessed a poison cup and drank from it without harm. The serpent represents the departing poison and points to the promise of salvation in the eucharistic wine. The left panel of the diptych (now in Munich) depicts John the Baptist, with a skull on the reverse. Memling worked primarily for the middle class and the resident Italian community in Bruges. He apparently studied with Rogier van der Weyden, but he did not adopt Rogier's intensely emotional style. His subjects are devout, but placid, his landscapes infused with late summer stillness. By the time of his death, Memling supported a large workshop and was among Bruges' wealthiest citizens. His work was also popular in Italy, where it was admired for its clear colors and delicate vistas. Details of the landscape in this panel, which once belonged to the Venetian humanists Bernardo and Pietro Bembo, may have influenced the young Raphael. Hans Memling , Netherlandish, active c. 1465 - 1494, Saint Veronica [obverse], c. 1470/1475, oil on panel, Samuel H. Kress Collection, 1952.5.46.a. This small panel, along with Sittow's Assumption of the Virgin , was made for an elaborate altarpiece in the private chapel of Queen Isabella of Spain. Most of the jewellike panels -- there were more than forty in all -- were painted by this artist, who must have been Netherlandish but moved to Spain to work for the court. Probably they were among his earliest commissions. Later the panels were admired by the great German artist Albrecht Dürer for their unequaled "precision and excellence." Here the three temptations of Christ, described in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke, are illustrated with great narrative delight. In the foreground, the devil, horned and with demon's feet though clad in a monk's robe, tempts the hungry Christ to turn stones into bread. In the distance at left he offers the kingdoms of the world from a mountain top; and on the right, from the pinnacle of the temple in Jerusalem, the devil challenges Christ to hurl himself down without injury. The dramatic encounter is set in a landscape typical, not of the biblical wilderness described in the Gospels, but of a northern town. The soft air fades to blue in the distance, helping the eye to see the recession of space. The composition may have been based on models from manuscript illumination. While in Spain, Juan de Flandes's style became broader and less delicate; though he later painted larger works, he continued to delight in narrative detail. Juan de Flandes , Hispano-Flemish, active 1496 - 1519, The Temptation of Christ , c. 1500/1504, oil on panel, Ailsa Mellon Bruce Fund, 1967.7.1.</p>
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