Archaeological Assessment

ARCHAEOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT

PROPOSED SUBSTATION

BALLYMACSHERRON,

BELMULLET,

CO. MAYO

Moore Marine

Job Number: M11M003

Excavation Number: 09E175

Author: Eoghan Kieran

Date: July 2011

Moore Marine Services Ltd. Corporate House Ballybrit Business Park Galway

+353 (0) 91 765640

[email protected]

www.mooremarine.ie.

Circulation Name No. of copies Client Project Managers DEHLG

NMI

Planning

Other

Comments:

Issued by Date

Please note that all recommendations in this report are subject to approval by the Planning and Heritage Section of the Department of the Environm ent, Heritage and Local Government and the National Museum of Ireland .

Please note that this report and accompanying recommendations are based on maps provided at the time of writing. Should changes be made, further assessment may be necessary.

Please note that no part of this report may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical or otherwise without prior permission from Mo ore Marine.

TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 SCOPE OF WORKS ...... 1 1.1 Introduction ...... 1 1.2 Purpose of the Project ...... 1 1.3 Archaeological Assessment and Testing ...... 1 1.4 Legal Background...... 2 1.5 Methodology ...... 2 1.5.1 Desk Study ...... 2 2 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PROJECT ...... 4 2.1 Description of the Site ...... 4 2.2 Site Layout/Locational details ...... 4 2.3 Description of the development ...... 5 3 ARCHAEOLOGICAL & HISTORICAL BACKGROUND ...... 6 3.1 Prehistoric Period ...... 6 3.2 Neolithic Period ...... 6 3.3 The Bronze Age ...... 7 3.4 The Iron Age ...... 7 3.5 Early Christian / Early Medieval Period ...... 8 3.6 Later Historic Period ...... 9 4 BASELINE DATA ...... 12 4.1 Record of Monuments and Places ...... 12 4.2 The National Museum of Ireland Topographical Files ...... 13 4.3 Previous Archaeological Fieldwork in the area...... 16 4.4 Aerial Photographs ...... 17 4.5 Cartographic Evidence ...... 17 4.5.1 A map of the Maritime County of Mayo (1809-1817) by William Bald ...... 18 4.5.2 The First Edition Ordnance Survey Map for County Mayo, Sheets MA 09 & 016, Surveyed 1838 18 4.5.3 Second Edition Ordnance Survey Map of County Mayo,Sheets MA 09 & 016, Surveyed 1900. 19 4.6 Inventory of Architectural heritage post 1700 AD ...... 20 4.7 Placename Evidence ...... 20 5 PROGRAMME OF TESTING ...... 20 5.1 Test Trench 1 (figure 7, plate2) ...... 21 5.2 Test Trench 2 (figure 7, plates 3 & 4) ...... 22 5.3 Test Trench 3 (figure 7, plates 5 & 6) ...... 23 5.4 Test Trench 4 (figure 7, plate 7)...... 24 6 CONCLUSION ...... 25 7 DISCUSSION & RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 25 7.1 Discussion ...... 25 7.1.1 The Development Area ...... 25 7.1.2 Assessment of Potential Impacts ...... 25 7.2 Recommendations ...... 26 8 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 27 8.1 Other sources referenced ...... 27

TABLE OF PLATES Plate 1. Aerial image of subject site ...... 17 Plate 2. Excavation of Test Trench One ...... 22 Plate 3. View of Trench Two from the south ...... 23 Plate 4. Stratigraphic sequence of Test Trench Two ...... 23 Plate 5. View of Test Trench Three from the East ...... 24 Plate 6. Stratigraphic sequence of Test Trench Three ...... 24 Plate 7. Test Trench Four from the North ...... 25

TABLE OF FIGURES Figure 1. Project Location ...... 2 Figure 2. Proposed development plan ...... 5 Figure 3. Extract from Co. Mayo RMP Sheets 09 & 016 showing site location in red ...... 13 Figure 4. Extract from Bald’s Map of County Mayo 1817 ...... 18 Figure 5. Extract from First Edition Ordnance Survey Map of County Mayo, 1838...... 19 Figure 6. Extract from 2 nd Edition Ordnance Survey of Co. Mayo, surveyed 1900 ...... 20 Figure 7. Test Trench Locations ...... 21

TABLE OF TABLES Table 1: Locational details ...... 4 Table 2. Proximity of RMP sites to the proposed development ...... 13

NON TECHNICAL SUMMARY

This report describes the results of a pastureland. The programme of testing programme of pre-development archaeological excavated four archaeological test trenches testing and assessment of a proposed along the footprint of the proposed electricity substation and associated development. They all recorded homogenous components at Ballymacsherron, Belmullet, Co. sterile horizons with no apparent Mayo. The testing was carried out in advance archaeological remains. Notwithstanding this, of the construction of the sub-station, which the location of the site in close proximity to a itself is a component of the larger Atlantic number of Recorded Monuments and find Marine Energy Test Site (AMETS) wave energy spots means that there is a high potential for project. groundworks to impact previously unrecorded archaeological remains. The work was commissioned in order to determine the archaeological potential of the Based on the results of this programme of area, determine how the archaeological assessment and testing, it is recommended that resource would be affected by the proposed all groundworks associated with this project be development and recommend further action. monitored by a suitably qualified archaeologist with provision made for full recording and Historic records suggest that the area around excavation of any archaeological features or the subject site has been the site of human deposits which may be exposed. occupation since prehistoric times. Cartographic records indicate however that the subject site itself has been used mainly as

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1 SCOPE OF WORKS

1.1 Introduction

Moore Marine was commissioned to carry out a programme of archaeological assessment and testing on behalf of ESB International on behalf of Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland, at Ballymacsherron, Belmullet, Co. Mayo (Figure 1). The following report documents the proposed project, the existing environment at the site, the testing methodology, the results of the testing and the predicted impacts and suggested mitigation measures. The work was carried out under excavation licence number 11E0206 in June 2011.

1.2 Purpose of the Project

This programme of pre-development archaeological testing and assessment was carried out in advance of the construction of an electricity sub-station at Ballymacsherron, Co. Mayo. The development of the sub-station is a component of the larger Atlantic Marine Energy Test Site Project.

1.3 Archaeological Assessment and Testing

This report assesses the archaeological and historical importance of the land under consideration for the proposed development. It achieves this through a three phased process involving the completion of a desktop assessment, the programme of testing and finally assessment of the compiled data into an assessment report.

The main purpose of this desk study is to assess the impact on the receiving archaeological environment and to propose ameliorative measures to safeguard any monuments, features or finds of antiquity. The study was carried out on behalf of client.

The principle aim of assessment is to anticipate and avoid impacts on the archaeological resource. Archaeological assessment may be required as part of the planning process “in response to developments which may be located in the vicinity of archaeological monuments” (The Heritage Council. 2000).

Assessment has been described as “the overall process of assessing the impact of a development” (DAHGI,1999). It can comprise of mitigatory measures including documentary research, examination of aerial photographs etc. and more intrusive measures including testing and/or full excavation.

Archaeological testing has been described as "that form of archaeological excavation where the purpose is to establish the nature and extent of archaeological deposits and features present in a location which it is proposed to develop. … and allow an assessment to be made of the archaeological impact of the proposed development”, (DAHGI, 1999).

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1.4 Legal Background

The National Monuments Acts 1930-2004, The Heritage Act 1995, The Architectural Heritage and Historic Properties Act 1999 and the Local Government (Planning and Development) Act 2000, are the main legal mechanisms by which the archaeological, architectural and cultural heritage resource is protected today in Ireland.

Figure 1. Project Location (Ordnance Survey Ireland License No EN 0020008 © Ordnance Survey Ireland & Government of Ireland)

1.5 Methodology

The assessment of the archaeological, architectural and cultural heritage significance of the subject site was based on a desktop study of published and unpublished documentary and cartographic sources. This was further supplemented by a programme of archaeological testing. The results of both the desktop assessment and the programme of testing, then informed the assessment process.

1.5.1 Desk Study

This desktop study comprised a paper study of all available archaeological, historical and cartographic sources. These sources are described below:

National Monuments

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Under the National Monuments Acts (1930 to 2004) sites in ‘The Ownership Or Guardianship Of The Minister Or A Local Authority Or National Monuments Which Are Subject To A Preservation Order’ are offered the highest level of protection. For any construction or excavation works to take place either on or in the vicinity of these sites permission must first be obtained from the Minister for the Environment, Heritage & Local Government (DEHLG) in the form of a Ministerial Consent. An incomplete list of National Monuments is available on the Heritage Data website ( www.heritagedata.ie ), the DEHLG hold a list of sites under preservation orders which is available upon request and the National Library has details concerning sites that appear on the Church Temporalities List. Currently Local Authorities must be approached individually regarding any sites in their ownership.

Record of Monuments and Places

The RMP of the Department of Arts, Heritage, the Gaeltacht and the Islands, was established under the 1994 Amendment to the National Monuments Acts (1930-04; see Appendix 2). It is based on the pre-existing Sites and Monuments Record (SMR) and information from completed county archaeological inventories. As such, it records known upstanding archaeological monuments, their original location (in cases of destroyed monuments) and the position of possible sites identified as cropmarks on vertical aerial photographs. The RMP information is compiled from the files of the Archaeological Survey, which combines cartographic sources, published and publicly available documentary sources, including periodicals, the records of the NMI, Geological Survey of Ireland 1:30,000 vertical aerial photographs and inspections of sites in the field. The information is read in conjunction with constraint maps, published at reduced six-inch scale, on which recorded sites are clearly marked. The RMP is constantly updated and is the first stage in the preparation of a national census of archaeological sites, with inventories also published at an interim stage. The RMP sheets relevant to the project is sheet MH038

Topographical Files of the National Museum of Ireland

The discovery of artefacts can be an important indicator of past levels of activity in an area and therefore a useful guide to the archaeological potential of a site. The Topographical Files of the National Museum of Ireland (NMI) archive identify recorded stray finds that have been donated to the state in accordance with National Monuments legislation between 1928 and 1995. In the majority of cases, files include details on the location of and nature of the find, or where applicable, reports of excavations undertaken by NMI archaeologists in the early twentieth century.

Aerial Photographs

Aerial photographs are an invaluable resource in archaeology for the recognition of new sites and contributing to the understanding of known sites. Features can be recognised from the air as earthworks in relief or as vegetation marks where a buried feature such as a wall or ditch affects the growth of the surrounding flora. The Geological Survey of Ireland Aerial Photograph Collection, based in Dublin, holds a comprehensive archive of high-level vertical photographs available for consultation by the public and researchers but may not be copied.

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Irish Excavations Database

'Excavations' is an annual bulletin, now funded by the Department of the Environment, Heritage and Local Government, which contains summary accounts of all excavations carried out in Ireland – North and South. The bulletins can now be accessed on the Internet at www.excavations.ie. Compiled from the published excavation bulletins, the database contains summary accounts of all excavations carried out from 1970 to 2003. Both the bulletins and database were consulted to establish whether excavations have been previously carried out in the vicinity of the proposed development.

The National Inventory of Architectural Heritage

The NIAH is a section within the Department of the Environment, Heritage and Local Government. The work of the NIAH involves identifying and recording the architectural heritage of Ireland, from 1700 to the present day, in a systematic and consistent manner.

Cartographic Sources

Cartographic sources consulted include the first edition map of the Ordnance Survey (O.S) six-inch series published in 1836 and the 1909 O.S six-inch revision were also consulted. All maps were sourced in the Map Library of Trinity College Dublin.

2 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PROJECT

2.1 Description of the Site

The proposed substation will be constructed in a greenfield site, in the townland of Ballymacsherron south of the L5233 which runs alongside Belderra Strand. At the time of testing, the field was used as pastureland and had short cut grassland pasture. Two large rock outcrops were noted in the field, on in the southwest and one in the southeast. The proposed substation is to be constructed in a low lying are to the north of the southeastern outcrop. An existing access track running parallel to a minor road will be used during construction and reinstated to its pre-existing condition.

2.2 Site Layout/Locational details

County Mayo Townland Ballymacsherron

OS Sheet number MA016

RMP Number N/A Co-Ordinates 465587, 830752

Height 10m

Table 1: Locational details

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2.3 Description of the development

The proposed development involves the construction of an electricity sub station along with ancillary services.

A hardcore access road will be constructed off the existing track to the substation site. The control building will be a single storey blockwork building with a brick finish on reinforced concrete foundations. The floor will be constructed of concrete and the roof will be a pitched roof. The dimensions are approximately 26.8 metres in length, 6.1metres in width, and 5.4 metres in height. The footprint of the control building is approximately 164 m2. The substation control building, together with an external hard-standing for vehicular access, transformer compound and overhead line interface compound, will be enclosed in a secure compound with palisade fencing to 2.6m in height. This will be screened by a landscaped earthen berm. The total footprint enclosed by the landscaped berm is approximately 3,000m2 and the total site area is 2 acres. The substation compound layout is shown in the attached figure 2.

The site will be landscaped. Arisings from within the substation site and from other site works will be reused within the site for site restoration and landscaping berms where possible. The site entrance will be provided in accordance with NRA standards for road design / vehicular entrances.

Figure 2. Proposed development plan

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3 ARCHAEOLOGICAL & HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The following is based on a document and cartographic search of the study area.

3.1 Prehistoric Period

The Mesolithic (middle stone age) people were the first inhabitants of Ireland, arriving about 9000 years ago. They were a mobile society relying on wild resources for food, which was hunted and gathered using stone tools as well as boats, nets and traps. Settlement was in temporary and semi permanent groups of huts constructed of wood slung with hide, which may have operated as seasonal or hunting camps.

There is little evidence for the Mesolithic activity in west Mayo although the single discovery of a Bann Flake from Burrishoole suggests there may have been some occupation of the area at this time (Corlett 2001).

3.2 Neolithic Period

Farming was first adopted in the Middle East but spread gradually across Europe in succeeding centuries, arriving in Ireland about 4000 BC. Tending of crops and animals required a more sedentary lifestyle and larger permanent settlements were built. The megalithic (from the Greek ‘mega’ – large and ‘lithos’ – stone) monuments of the Neolithic people built as communal tombs or for ceremonial purposes, are relatively common in the landscape. New methods were adopted for shaping stone tools and the first long distance trade networks were established.

Neolithic activity is far more apparent in the archaeological record due to the presence of numerous megalithic monuments. These are abundant in Mayo, scattered across the landscape but often concentrated in particular areas, frequently hilltops or false crests commanding extensive views of the landscape. In west Mayo there are five Court tombs (Corlett, 1999). These monuments, amongst the earliest built in Ireland, generally consist of a broad trapeze shaped cairn with a roofless oval shaped courtyard set in front of a covered gallery, the burial vault (Ó Nualláin, 1991). Cremation seems to have been the predominant burial rite, the burials often accompanied by pottery vessels and stone implements. Monument construction on this scale is testament to a well-organised and sophisticated society in the area.

Although the burial monuments of the first Irish farmers are apparent in the landscape the settlement sites around them are elusive. In north Mayo there is an unusually well preserved system of fields dating from this period, the Céide fields. Here an entire landscape was sealed by a growth of blanket bog, preserving a network of stone walls which is suggestive of a well organised agricultural system. A well preserved house was excavated at Ballyglass, also in north Mayo and another was excavated to the north of Belmullet. These houses were generally rectangular and built of timber. They are generally

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identified only from the outline of surviving post holes and hearths. Similar field systems have been recorded travelling into the underwater zone at nearby Broadhaven Bay. Submarine bog deposits of possible archaeological significance have also been recorded in nearby Blacksod and Broadhaven Bays.

3.3 The Bronze Age

As stone tools were replaced by the use of copper, later combined with tin to make bronze, the structure of society also changed over centuries. While some communal megalithic monuments, particularly wedge tombs continued to be used, the Bronze Age is characterised by a movement towards single burial and the production of prestige items and weapons, suggesting that society was increasingly stratified and warlike.

From around 2,500 BC, the stone toolkit was augmented by the use of copper, later combined with tin to make bronze, changing the structure of society. In late Bronze Age Ireland, the use of metal reached a high point, with the production of high quality decorated weapons, ornaments and instruments, of gold as well as bronze. The Bronze Age movement towards single burial can be seen in the area surrounding the subject site where examples of small stone-lined chambers called cists have been found at Binghamstown, Carn, Cross and Tonamace.

Wedge tombs, the latest of the megalithic tombs, are found in west Mayo at Glengad, Largan Beg, Belderg More, Lettera and Castlehill, although burial in hilltop cairns are also common. An unspecified possible megalithic structure is also recorded at Gladree. Some standing stones were erected in the Neolithic period but most are thought to have been Bronze Age features, perhaps put up as markers for some kind of ritual associated with their location or astronomical alignment. Other stone monuments found are standing stones. These are generally thought to be territorial markers but they have also been known to mark burial plots. There is a standing stone located at Binghamstown, Macecrump/Tonnamace stone.

Fulachta fiadh also date from the Bronze Age and several have been found in the vicinity of Belmullet in western Mayo. These enigmatic features are amongst the most common archaeological sites in Ireland. They are often recognised as horseshoe or oval-shaped mounds which, on excavation are found to consist of burnt material, ash and shattered stone. A wooden trough will sometimes survive in the centre, possibly lined with clay or leather, and one or more hearths may be present.

3.4 The Iron Age

“Until recently, the Iron Age was known as a ‘dark age’ in Irish prehistory. Knowledge of Iron Age Ireland was largely restricted to an artefact record which was biased towards the north of the country; a limited burial record; and’ a small but significant, group of specialised monuments: the so-called Royal sites [e.g. Rathcroghan in Co Roscommon]. However, very little is known of the vernacular culture of the Irish Iron

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Age, particularly, where and how people lived, the types of houses they built and their industrial activities” (Becker et al., 2008).

The Irish Iron Age culture appeared to have favoured circular post-built houses in small, often unenclosed settlements, such as at Lislackagh in east Mayo. The most definitive sites however tend to be promontory forts. The RMP records that there are two of these located at Annagh, immediately to the north of the proposed cable landfall site L-A. In addition to the two possible promontory forts at the above mentioned site, there are five more of these monuments in the general vicinity and two of these; Annagh Head and Termoncarragh, are large monuments incorporating possible hut sites and a possible gatehouse. The fifth site; Ballymacsherron, has two associated hut sites. The presence of such a concentration of contemporary monuments in the area would appear to indicate that there was an extensive Iron Age population in the area.

3.5 Early Christian / Early Medieval Period

The chronological term ‘Early Christian’ is commonly used to refer to the period from about AD 450 to the Anglo-Norman invasion in 1169, though it is being increasingly referred to as the Early Medieval period. Monuments from this period are often the most numerous in the landscape, with tens of thousands in the whole of Ireland. These include ringforts such as raths and cashels, further crannogs and unenclosed settlement sites, ecclesiastical sites and souterrains.

The most plentiful of these are raths; farmsteads enclosed by banks and ditches. Many of the destroyed sites listed as enclosures in the Record of Monuments and Places are probably levelled raths removed by agricultural improvement schemes. Raths are generally circular or oval but vary in size and in the number of enclosing banks and ditches. Excavations of the interiors suggest that the houses were small circular huts, built of stakes with a double skin of wattle and a thatched roof. Cashels are enclosures in rocky upland areas, of similar date and function as raths but with stone-built walls instead of banks and ditches.

From the middle of the sixth century onwards hundreds of small monastic settlements were established around the country. Some examples of well-known early monastic sites in Mayo include Aughagower, Inishmaine, Ballintubber, Errew, Kilmore Erris, Balla, Cong, Killala, Turlough, Moyne near Cross, and island settlements off the Mullet peninsula such as Inishkea North, Inishkea South and Duvillaun More. There are two large religious settlements within 5 km of the subject site. These are Termoncarragh and Macecrump/Tonnamace. Each of the two monuments is recorded as an archaeological complex. Termoncarragh has a church, a graveyard, a front and a cross, whilst Macecrump/Tonnamace appears to be an earlier site reoccupied. The RMP records that it has a church, a graveyard, middens, hut sites, a standing stone, a bullaun stone, cist burials and an inscribed pillar stone. Cross abbey, graveyards, church and burials are all located within a radius of 1 km to the west of Landing Option C.

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The presence of such a diverse and varied chronology of monuments on the site appears to indicate either continued use of the area or later reuse of previous sites. Either way, it indicates extensive human exploitation of this area.

3.6 Later Historic Period

Ancient Erris was a region divided by tribal groups known as tuatha. In Erris the two tribes were known as the Damnonii, and the tribe of Belgae, referred to in the ancient histories as Gamanradaii. Written records of this period are few and far between, though it is believed that some Scottish clans were thought to be involved in the tribal rivalry. Early annals state that Fiachrian O’Caithnaidh was the chief of the Belgae in the late 1100’s and Lord of Erris well into the next century.

The clan of O’Caithnaidh lost power to the O’Dowd clan in the next century, and by the 1380’s the Barrett family had seized power over much of the Erris region. Throughout the next two hundred years, the number of native Gaelic leaders fell as the influence of colonisation was felt, especially in the Mullet Peninsula, a desirable farming area.

Mayo came under Anglo Norman control in 1235. The Norman conquest meant the eclipse of many Gaelic lords and chieftains, chiefly the O'Connors of Connacht, but the invaders soon adopted Gaelic customs and began to marry with the native Irish. This process of Gaelicisation is best exemplified in the adoption by various Norman families and branches of families of new surnames based on Gaelic-style patronyms. Examples of Mayo surnames with Norman origins include Barrett, Burke and Bourke, Costello, Culkin, Cusack, Davitt, Fitzmaurice, Gibbons, Jennings, Joyce, McEvilly, Nally, Padden, Staunton and Walsh. The Normans founded numerous towns, developed some existing settlements into towns, as well as organising fairs and markets. They developed roads, bridges and sea ports and also promoted the growth of trade, both domestic and foreign, as well as improving agricultural methods.

Little is known of the inter-tribal struggles until the late 1500’s, when the Barony of Invermore, by then in the possession of the Barretts and the Bourkes, is mentioned in records. Sir Edmund Barrett was a renowned landlord, especially after he had been knighted by Queen Elizabeth I for services to the crown. The Barrett's power increased further when they received more lands in Erris from King James I, in appreciation for their loyalty to the monarch.

In the later sixteenth century, a large number of these estates were eventually bought by a lawyer called Dermot Cormack. In 1641 a descendant of Cormack’s is recorded to possess a large tract of north eastern Erris. Throughout the mid 1600’s much of this land changed hands, often due to the intervention of the new monarch Charles II. However, these changes pale in comparison to the transformation to be brought about by the coming of Oliver Cromwell.

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As Cromwell and his forces drove people from the land, especially from the north, their destination often proved to be Connacht, and frequently Erris. The wild and infertile land of Erris was unsuitable for supporting an increasing population, and the people consequently suffered as a result.

Cromwell planned to allot a limited amount of land to selected Catholics, often in proportion to their involvement in the wars of preceding years. Local landowners met in 1635 to survey the estates of land in each barony. These landowners produced detailed information regarding family settlements, mortgages, sales, and purchases. This survey therefore inadvertently produced a comprehensive record, including a series of maps, which was unheard of before this time. They had intended to assign certain lands and baronies to ‘transplanters’ from outside Connacht, or even from outside the country. The final records in Cromwell’s’ time of influence indicate the primary owner of Erris to be the royalist, the Earl of Ormond, although the land had officially been appropriated from him at an earlier time.

The restoration of the monarchy with Charles II ensured the future uncertainty of all previous land arrangements. He restored to Catholics much of the land which had been seized by the Cromwellians. The parish of Kilmore–Erris was given to Sir Robert Viner, a goldsmith from London to whom Charles owed money. Viner quickly sold the land on to Sir James Shaen, Surveyor General of Ireland, and whose family had links with Erris dating back to Queen Elizabeth I. Sir James paid little attention to his new property and when he died in 1695 he left it to his son, Sir Arthur Shaen. Sir Arthur was to show greater interest in his new acquisition and seemed determined to turn Erris into an English colony. He brought over a vicar for the parish, and then gave most of the good land to more Englishmen at a nominal rent. With very few exceptions, he appeared to lease the majority of the properties to non-locals, and in fact, many native inhabitants were evicted to make way for the incomers. Many of the local inhabitants were provoked into rebellion, although this died out after several years.

In 1715 Sir Arthur Shaen began building a small town on a wet and marshy area near ‘The Mullet’ peninsula in the extreme north west of the barony of Erris. To drain this marshy area and create a passage from Blacksod bay into Broadhaven Bay Shaen had a canal excavated which would allow small boats to pass from one bay to the other. A sluice was erected at the BlacksodBay side to allow traffic to and from the Mullet peninsula to pass along the shore. At a later date a bridge was erected to span the canal. Development of the town proved to be a slow process andby the mid 1700's the canal was in a state of disrepair.

Sir Arthur eventually became High Sheriff of Mayo and was to live in Shanaghy on the Mullet Peninsula until his death in 1725. He had no son as an heir and left his estate to his two daughters, Frances and Susannach. In 1738 Frances married John Bingham from Newport while Susannach wed Henry Boyle Carter from County Kildare in 1750. The Bingham family moved to the Mullet in the late 1790’s, and were to build a castle at Binghamstown in the early part of the nineteenth century.

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The names of Bingam and Carter were to dominate land ownership in the Erris region, and indeed much of Mayo, over the following two hundred years. The land was to slowly return to the native population and in 1955 the people of Belmullet finally bought the town back from a Mr. Carter, a resident of London.

By the early 1800’s Belmullet consisted of just a few thatched buildings and it was not until the 1820’s that any degree of development took place. In 1820 the first post office in the Erris region was opened, while in 1822 the Coastguard was established in the town. This was also the time when the real architect of Belmullet’s growth, William Henry Carter became involved, inheriting much of Shaen’s land in Erris.

Of major importance was the new road between Belmullet and Castlebar, which was completed in 1824. This enabled horse drawn carriages to visit the area for the first time, although there were no hotels or inns for visitors. Tradesmen from all over Mayo were brought in to begin work on developing the infrastructure of Belmullet. Progress over the next few years was more rapid, utilising granite and sandstone from Blacksod to build a number of buildings including the impressive ‘Erris Hotel’ in the town centre.

In 1826 a quay large enough to accommodate vessels of 100 tons was also built at Belmullet. This helped to accelerate the importation of goods, especially from Britain, which now included tea, sugar, beer, wine, coal and grain.

Belmullet’s development was further strengthened by the introduction of a dispensary and a doctor in 1830. By this time the population of the town had grown to over 500. A Catholic Church was built by subscription in 1832 to serve the growing congregation. Another important development in 1832 was the introduction of a regular postal service to Ballina. Post would be collected daily from the post office and this service also ensured the availability of daily newspapers in Belmullet for the first time. A byproduct of this growth was the need for a courthouse, which was built in 1833 to hold the weekly court sessions.

By the late 1830’s two important new roads were being constructed, one to Newport, the other to Ballycastle. Also at this time the export of meal to England began and a Protestant church was built in 1843.

In October 1845 the Government sanctioned a grant of £5,000 to match the total of £4,000 raised locally to facilitate the building of a canal which would unite the Broadhaven and Blacksod Bays. Work on the canal began in 1845 but was it not completed until 1851due to the intervention of the famine. The famine had a particularly devastating effect on the Erris region. A report produced in 1851states that the canal was being used extensively, and also mentions the use of a swivel bridge.

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Another development in the 1840’s was the introduction of a fishing station in a bid to exploit the coast’s natural resources. This was opened in 1847 to wash and cure fish and boat building was also carried out here. The station was forced to close due to the fishermen being imprisoned for the theft of flour from a passing ship. This was another by-product of the famine, which was wreaking havoc on the town. Many people starved to death while soldiers guarded tons of meal, some of which was to be sold to the people, some of which was to be exported.

The news of Belmullet’s plight spread far, and as a consequence visitors to the town dried up. A workhouse and fever hospital was urgently needed, and one was quickly erected on the site of the present hospital. The head of the Treasury, Charles Trevelyan, notoriously decreed that relief was to only be given to workhouse people. This had the effect of severely overcrowding the workhouses, with up to 3,000 people being recorded at one time in Belmullet. Throughout the late 1840’s the numbers in the workhouse dropped considerably and by the early 1850’s, when the potato crop became re- established, the population of the workhouse had decreased to several hundred.

4 BASELINE DATA

4.1 Record of Monuments and Places

The RMP is a database recording all archaeological sites in Ireland known to the National Monuments Service established under Section 12 of the 1994 National Monuments (Amendment) Act. It is based on Ordnance Survey 6” sheets, which indicate the location of each monument or place of archaeological interest. For each, a file contains further documentary and photographic data or information relating to an archaeological event such as a site visit, survey or excavation. These are housed in the National Monuments Services in Dublin. The record is constantly updated and focuses on monuments that pre- date 1700. The following sites are in the vicinity of the subject site:

There are a number of RMP sites in the locality of the substation. None of these will be impacted by the development works

The following table has been taken from the overall project assessment and it details RMP numbers and their proximity to project components.

Closest distance Closest distance to Closest distance Closest distance RMP No to Landfall any component to 50m test area to 100m test area MA:09:05 4.473 Km 2.625 Km 3.697 Km 11.766 Km MA:09:10 4.298 Km 1.726 Km 2.397 Km 10.843 Km MA:09:12 3.815 Km 1.939 Km 3.402 Km 11.845 Km MA:09:13 2.163 Km 1.136 Km 4.188 Km 13.068 Km MA:09:14 2.328 Km 1.171 Km 4.588 Km 13.392 Km MA:09:15 2.637 Km 2.173 Km 5.597 Km 14.369 Km MA:09:16 2.419 Km 2.057 Km 5.803 Km 14.672 Km MA:09:17 1.67 Km 1.452 Km 5.628 Km 14.608 Km

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MA:09:18 1.69 Km 1.632 Km 5.895 Km 14.931 Km MA:09:20 1.053 Km 1.085 Km 5.776 Km 14.984 Km MA:16:02 4.054 Km 1.650 Km 1.482 Km 10.653 Km MA:16:03 3.641 Km 1.835 Km 1.986 Km 11.209 Km MA:16:04 1.300 Km 1.073 Km 3.837 Km 13.272 Km MA:16:05 0.471 Km 0.353 Km 4.659 Km 14.043 Km MA:16:06 0.260 Km 0.343 Km 4.876 Km 14.243 Km MA:16:07 0.260 Km 0.339 Km 5.143 Km 14.488 Km MA:16:08 1.056 Km 1.221 Km 5.976 Km 15.257 Km MA:16:09 1.102 Km 1.312 Km 6.119 Km 15.492 Km Table 2. Proximity of RMP sites to the proposed development

Figure 3. Extract from Co. Mayo RMP Sheets 09 & 016 showing site location in red

4.2 The National Museum of Ireland Topographical Files

An examination of the topographical files found that no artefacts were recovered from the subject site. A number of artefacts have been found in the vicinity of the study area. These all relate to the terrestrial component of the development and none refer to the offshore test area locations or offshore cable route:

Reg No: P:1952:23 Monument: Shell Mound Find: Perforated Object (line Sinker)

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Townland: Inishglora Parish: Kilmore Barony: Erris Co. Mayo Purchased from Mr. Patrick Lavelle Annagh, Belmullet Co. Mayo

Townland: Emlybeg South Parish: Kilmore Barony: Erris Co. Mayo 12:5:43 No Record

Reg. No: 1933:744 Monument: Cairn Finds: Skeletal remains, Human Townland: Cross Parish: Kilmore Barony: Erris Co. Mayo Gift from Mr. L.S. Gogan

Reg. No: 1943:143-51 Monument: Midden Finds: 1 Bronze Buckle (143) 2 Bronze rings (144-45) 3 wire bronze pins (146-47) 3 fragments of iron (148-50) 1 fragment of metal (151) Townland: Cross Parish: Kilmore Barony: Erris Co. Mayo Presented by Miss Stacpoole, 50 Fitzwilliam Square, Dublin

Reg. No: 1943:78-83

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Monument: Finds: 1 wire pin, bronze (1943:178 5 fragments of iron (1943:179-83) Townland: Near Binghamstown (sandhill site) Parish: Kilmore Barony: Erris Co. Mayo Presented by Miss Stacpoole, 50 Fitzwilliam Square, Dublin

Reg. No: 1943:136-42 Monument: Midden Finds: 3 wire pins, bronze (136-8) 2 fragments of Bronze (139-40) 1 fragment of iron (141) 1 fragment of bone (142) Townland: Termoncarragh Parish: Kilmore Barony: Erris Co. Mayo Presented by Miss Stacpoole, 50 Fitzwilliam Square, Dublin Found in Midden south of church in Termoncarragh

Reg. No: 1943:166-77 Monument: Midden Finds: 1 bronze tool (166) 8 wire pins, bronze (167-74) 3 bronze fragments (175-77) Townland: Annagh Parish: Kilmore Barony: Erris Co. Mayo Presented by Miss G. Stacpoole, 50 Fitzwilliam Square, Dublin, Mrs. Rooke and Miss M. Brodigan

Reg. No: 1970:21

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Monument: Finds: Saddle Quern Townland: Annagh Parish: Kilmore Barony: Erris Co. Mayo Gift of John Gilboy, Annagh, Belmulet, Co. Mayo. Large specimen l 42cm, max width 18cm, used for grinding corn, found within 5m of stones which possibly could be a megalithic tomb- Raferty in his correspondence.

Location: Annagh Year: 1943 Description: 1 bone Tool 8 wire pins-bronze These artefacts were found at Annagh Beach

Location: Annagh Description: Wooden Shaft possible shaft spear Details: Found by Seamus Forde 1980

Location: Annagh Description: Wooden Beetle Details: Found in turf bank by John Kearney1935:429

Location: Annagh Year: 1935:877 Description: Wooden Vessel Details: Found by Jon McGuire 1ft 8ins width 3ftand a half ins in depth perfectly preserved

4.3 Previous Archaeological Fieldwork in the area

The Irish Excavations Database has no record of any previous archaeological fieldwork having taken place in the townlands of Annagh, Ardowen, Ballymacsherron, Binghamstown, Cross, Emlybeg North, Emlybeg South, Macecrump, Termoncarragh or Tonamace. Historic records do however detail that G. Crompton carried out an antiquarian excavation at Tonnmace/Macetrump for Rev. Caesar Otway. These excavations conducted by Crompton in the

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beginning of the 19th century, examined tombs situated in that area of the sand dunes and seem to have led to the discovery of standing or sitting skeletons.

4.4 Aerial Photographs

Plate 1. Aerial image of subject site A number of aerial photographic sources were consulted in an attempt to identify any previously unrecorded cultural heritage deposits. These sources included Ordnance Survey Aerial Photographs as well as photos from the Coastline Survey of Ireland (plate 1). The images provided comprehensive views of the proposed sub station location. They did not identify any previously unrecorded cultural heritage deposits or features.

4.5 Cartographic Evidence

The following section considers historic maps of the area with particular reference to the location of potential archaeological features. There were a number of maps produced of the area prior to the first map considered in this section. Most are large scale maps and they have no reference to the subject site. As a result they are not included in the discussion.

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4.5.1 A map of the Maritime County of Mayo (1809-1817) by William Bald

This extract of Bald’s map of County Mayo depicts the subject site as comprising an area of undivided grassland. A cluster of buildings is noted to the east of the site as too is a small clochan noted in Belduragh Townland, to the south of the sub station site. Whilst this map is of use in recording the evolution of townlands and certain topographical features it is of little benefit with regard to the identification of cultural heritage.

Figure 4. Extract from Bald’s Map of County Mayo 1817

4.5.2 The First Edition Ordnance Survey Map for County Mayo, Sheets MA 09 & 016, Surveyed 1838

This version of the Ordnance survey map is not very descriptive of the sub-station site. Immediately, it can be discerned that the map does not depict many of the known RMP sites in this area. This absence may be due to the fact that the sites had not yet been discovered, however their absence and the paucity of topographical detail means this map is of limited benefit in identifying possible cultural heritage. A number of structures, which include a rectangular house type structure and smaller out houses are depicted on this map close to the substation location. These are absent from all subsequent maps and no trace could be seen on the site.

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Figure 5. Extract from First Edition Ordnance Survey Map of County Mayo, 1838 4.5.3 Second Edition Ordnance Survey Map of County Mayo,Sheets MA 09 & 016, Surveyed 1900.

The Second Edition Ordnance Survey maps of this area depicts a number of small changes as having taken place in the vicinity of the subject site. The small land plot and buildings, situated in the townland of Ballymacsherron, immediately to the southeast of Belderra Strand, have all been removed. The 1900 edition of the map has no reference to any building cluster in this area. Whilst the second edition map has depicted change in the landform and landscape, it does not record the location of any previously un-recorded cultural heritage.

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Figure 6. Extract from 2 nd Edition Ordnance Survey of Co. Mayo, surveyed 1900

4.6 Inventory of Architectural heritage post 1700 AD

The Mayo County Development Plan 2008-2014 and the National Inventory of Architectural Heritage were consulted with regard to the location of Recorded Protected Structures in this area. None were noted.

4.7 Placename Evidence

Belderra comes from the Irish ‘Beal an Doire’meaning the mouth of the wood or oak wood. Ballymacsherron comes from the Irish ‘Baile Mhic Seathruin’ meaning townland of the son of Geoffrey.

5 PROGRAMME OF TESTING

The programme of testing excavated four linear archaeological test trenches at the site; two along the footprint of the proposed sub station, one along the footprint of the proposed approach driveway and the fourth at the site of ancillary features.

Testing took place on one day 24 July 2011. All test trenches will be excavated using a mechanical excavator fitted with a toothless grading bucket. All trenches will be excavated to the top of archaeological material or boulder clay. Should archaeological material be uncovered, all excavation

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operations would cease until the feature had been summarily investigated to determine the form, age, nature and extent of the feature.

All excavated material was spread to the side of the trench and then metal detected.

Figure 7. Test Trench Locations

5.1 Test Trench 1 (figure 7, plate2)

Test Trench 1 was excavated in a north-south direction. It measured 40m in length, 1.6m in width and averaged 1m in depth. The trench revealed three clearly distinguishable stratigraphic horizons. The stratigraphy consisted of a thin topsoil (C1), composed of a 0.1m depth of topsoil and sod. Underlying this was (C2) a 0.6-0.8m depth of mid to dark brown peaty clay. The basal horizon of the trench was (C3) a grey brown sandy clay. This grey brown sandy clay directly overlay a coarse undulating bedrock (C4), which was visible in places. There were no archaeological finds, deposits or features noted in this trench.

The metal detector did not record the presence of any ferrous or non ferrous metals in the excavated material.

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Plate 2. Excavation of Test Trench One 5.2 Test Trench 2 (figure 7, plates 3 & 4)

Test Trench 2, was excavated in an East - West direction. It measured 25m in length, 1.6m in width and was 0.8-1.1m deep. The trench revealed five clearly distinguishable stratigraphic horizons. The stratigraphy consisted of a thin topsoil (C6), composed of a 0.15m depth of topsoil and sod. Underlying this was (C7) a 0.25m depth of sandy peat. Directly underlying this was (C8) a 0.35m deep dark peat layer. Immediately underlying this horizon was (C9), a 0.36m depth of grey brown sand. It directly overlay (C10), the undulating bedrock of this area. The trench depth varied from 1.1m in the east to 0.8m in the west, where it rose in height with the surrounding landscape. There were no archaeological finds, deposits or features noted in this trench.

The metal detector did not record the presence of any ferrous or non ferrous metals in the excavated material.

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Plate 3. View of Trench Two from the south

Plate 4. Stratigraphic sequence of Test Trench Two

5.3 Test Trench 3 (figure 7, plates 5 & 6)

Similar to Test Trench 2, this trench was excavated in an East - West direction. It measured 25m in length, 1.6m in width and was 0.9m deep. The trench revealed five clearly distinguishable stratigraphic horizons. The stratigraphy consisted of a thin topsoil (C11), composed of a 0.15m depth of topsoil and sod. Underlying this was (C12) a 0.25m depth of sandy peat. Directly underlying this was (C13) a 0.35m deep dark peat layer. Immediately underlying this horizon was (C14), a 0.36m depth of grey brown sand. It directly overlay (C15), the undulating bedrock of this area. There were no archaeological finds, deposits or features noted in this trench.

The metal detector did not record the presence of any ferrous or non ferrous metals in the excavated material.

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Plate 5. View of Test Trench Three from the East

Plate 6. Stratigraphic sequence of Test Trench Three

5.4 Test Trench 4 (figure 7, plate 7)

Test Trench 4 was excavated in the south eastern end of the site. It measured 29m in length, 0.4m in depth and was excavated in a North – South direction. The trench had three clearly distinguishable stratigraphic horizons. These consisted of (C20) a 0.1m depth of topsoil and sod. Directly underlying this was (C21) a 0.25m depth of mid brown/grey silt. This horizon directly overlay (C22), the local boulder clay, which had occasional boulder inclusions. There were no archaeological finds, deposits or features noted in this trench.

The metal detector did not record the presence of any ferrous or non ferrous metals in the excavated material.

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Plate 7. Test Trench Four from the North 6 CONCLUSION

Historic records suggest that the area around the subject site has been the site of human occupation since prehistoric times. Cartographic records indicate however that the subject site itself has been used mainly as pastureland. The programme of testing excavated four archaeological test trenches along the footprint of the proposed development. They all recorded homogenous sterile horizons with no apparent archaeological remains. Notwithstanding this, the location of the site in close proximity to a number of Recorded Monuments and find spots means that there is a high potential for groundworks to impact previously unrecorded archaeological remains.

7 DISCUSSION & RECOMMENDATIONS

7.1 Discussion

7.1.1 The Development Area

7.1.2 Assessment of Potential Impacts

Direct Impacts

The construction of an electricity sub station and associated works on the subject site has the potential to directly and negatively impact any archaeological remains which may be present on the site.

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‘Do nothing’ impact

If the proposed development were not to proceed there would be no negative impact on the archaeological or cultural heritage resource.

‘Worst case’ impact

Under a worst-case scenario, the development of study area would disturb previously unrecorded deposits and artefacts without proper excavation and recording being undertaken.

7.2 Recommendations

Based on the results of this programme of assessment and testing it is recommended that all groundworks associated with this project be monitored by a suitably qualified archaeologist with provision made for full recording and excavation of any archaeological features or deposits which may be exposed.

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8 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bennet, I. (Ed.), 2000. Excavations 1998 . Dublin.

Bennet, I. (Ed.), 2000. Excavation 1999 . Dublin.

Joyce, P.W., 1913. Irish Names of Places. Vol. III . Dublin.

Killannin, Lord & Duignan, M., 1962 . The Shell Guide to Ireland Edbury Press, London.

Nolan, W. & Simms, A., (Eds.), 1998 . Irish Towns, A Guide to Sources. Dublin.

8.1 Other sources referenced

Dept. of Arts, Heritage, Gaeltacht & the Islands, 1999. Frameworks and Principles for the Protection of the Archaeological Heritage, Government publications, Dublin.

Dept. of Arts, Heritage, Gaeltacht & the Islands, 1999. Policy and Guidelines on Archaeological Excavation. Govn. Publications, Dublin.

The Heritage Council, 2000. Archaeology & Development: Guidelines for Good Practice for Developers. The Heritage Council of Ireland Series, Kilkenny.

The Planning and Heritage Section of the Department of the Environment, Heritage and Local Government. Sites and Monuments Record, County Meath .

EPA, 1995. Advise notes on current practice in the preparation of Environmental Impact Statements. Dublin.

National Monuments Acts 1930-2004.

National Museum of Ireland. Topographical files, County Meath .

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APPENDIX 1 – LEGISLATIVE BACKGROUND

The 1992 European Convention on the Protection of Archaeological Heritage was ratified by Ireland in 1997. The convention provides the basic framework for policy on the protection of the archaeological heritage. In summary, the obligations on the state under the convention relate to providing statutory protection measures authorisation and supervision of archaeological activities measures for the physical protection of the archaeological heritage providing consultation between archaeologists and planners providing financial support for research or rescue archaeology facilitating the study of archaeological discoveries by making or bringing up to date maps, surveys and inventories of archaeological sites facilitating national and international exchanges of elements of the archaeological heritage for scientific purposes educating the public in relation to the value of and threat to the archaeological heritage preventing the illicit circulation of elements of the archaeological heritage providing for the exchange of information and experts on the archaeological heritage between states party to the convention.

Irish Legislation

Irish legislation for the protection of archaeological heritage is based on the National Monuments Acts 1930-2004. This is in accordance with the Valletta Convention (as above). The Minister for the Environment Heritage & Local Government has a specific role in relation to the protection of the archaeological heritage through powers provided by these acts and the National Cultural Institutions Act 1997. The overall state archaeological service is provided by the Department of the Environment Heritage & Local Government (DEHLG) and delivered through the Planning and Heritage Section of the Department of the Environment, Heritage and Local Government and the National Museum of Ireland (Irish Antiquities Division) on behalf of the Minister.

The National Monuments Acts secure the archaeological heritage in several key areas The Protection of Archaeological Monuments and Areas

Section 2 of the 1930 Act (as amended) provides that ‘monument’ includes any artificial building or structure, cave, stone or any natural object that has been altered or moved into purposefully put in position, any prehistoric tomb, grave or burial or any ritual, industrial or habitation site or any traces of the above. the Planning and Heritage Section of the Department of the Environment, Heritage and Local Government advises the Minister on the protection of archaeological monuments and places. There are a number of mechanisms which can be applied to secure the protection of archaeological monuments and areas.

The Record of Monuments and Places – a list and maps of monuments and relevant places in each county maintained and updated by The Planning and Heritage Section of the Department of the Environment, Heritage and Local Government. Monuments entered into it are referred to as Recorded Monuments. Owners or occupiers of Recorded Monuments are required to give two months notice to the Minister and obtain consent before carrying out any works in relation to the monument.

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The Register of Historic Monuments – a list of all historic monuments known to the Minister. Owners or occupiers must not, other than with consent, alter, deface, demolish or in any manner interfere with a historic monument entered in the register. Preservation Orders and Temporary Preservation Orders. – Where it appears to the minister that a monument, considered to be a national monument, is in danger or is actually being destroyed or falling into decay the minister may by preservation order or temporary preservation order, undertake the preservation of the monument. A temporary preservation order will remain in force for six months and then expire.

The Protection of Archaeological objects

Section 2 of the 1930 Act (amended) defines an archaeological object as (in summary) any chattel in a manufactured or partly manufactured state or an unmanufactured state but with an archaeological or historical association. This includes ancient human, animal or plant remains. The National Museum of Ireland advises the Minister on the protection of archaeological objects. The National Monuments Acts state the following regarding the archaeological objects. Archaeological objects must not be altered by any person unless issued with a licence to do so by the Minister. This includes cleaning, restoring, sampling, cutting or drilling. No archaeological object found after 1930 may be purchased or otherwise acquired or sold unless designated by the director of the Museum. It is unlawful to export or attempt to export archaeological objects other than with an export licence.

The Control of Archaeological Excavation

It is unlawful for any person to dig or excavate in or under any land for the purpose of searching for archaeological objects or particular structure or thing of archaeological interest known or believed to be under such land unless issued with, or in accordance with a licence issued by the Minister. The Planning and Heritage Section of the Department of the Environment, Heritage and Local Government, in consultation with the National Museum, advises the Minister on the issuing of licences. In practice, for a person to be issued with a licence to excavate, he or she will have to be considered eligible to hold one. This is generally determined by interview.

The Control of Detection Devices

Section 2 of the 1987 Act defines a detecting device as a device designed or adapted for detecting or locating any metal or mineral on the ground and under water. This does not include a camera. It is unlawful to use or be in possession of such a device At the site of a monument subject to a preservation order A monument in the ownership or guardianship of the Minister A monument entered in the Record of Monuments and Places A monument entered in the Register of Historic Monuments

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APPENDIX 2: Impact Assessment & the Archaeological Resource

Procedures relating to the carrying out of Cultural Heritage section of EISs.

Archaeological assessment has been described as “the overall process of assessing the impact of a development” (DAHGI, 1999). The principle aim of assessment is to anticipate and avoid impacts on the archaeological resource. Archaeological assessment may be required as part of the planning process in response to developments which may be located in the vicinity of archaeological monuments, which are extensive in terms of area or length, which are likely to have a substantial impact on present or former wetlands, unenclosed land, rivers, lakes, the inter-tidal zone or the sea-bed (The Heritage Council. 2000).

Impact Assessment and Archaeology.

Archaeological monuments can comprise identifiable above ground features or subterranean traces of previous activity. These monuments can be affected in the course of development in a number of ways. Potential impacts can be identified through the assessment procedure by carrying out a paper study/historical research. The documentary research can then be combined with existing baseline data, field assessment and non-intrusive methods to provide a pre-development risk appraisal study for developers. Further investigation or mitigation measures may subsequently be recommended prior to and during the course of construction work. Sources used by archaeologists show considerable variation (The Heritage Council, 2000). A number of primary baseline data sources and procedures must be considered.

Examination of the sources and the undertaking of the above procedures can result in a detailed statement of the possible impacts on the archaeological resource of a proposed development and set out recommendations as how the impact can be avoided, minimized or negated. By ensuring the earliest identification of the archaeological impacts of a development these impacts can be minimized or avoided, thus reducing costs and/or delays.

Direct and indirect impacts resulting from the proposed development on the archaeological resource should be described and considered. This section of the cultural impact assessment should address the results of disturbance by excavation or deposition, topsoil stripping or passage of machinery and subsequent physical loss to a monument or its setting, desiccation of archaeological objects or remains due to groundwater level changes, visual impacts and visual amenity impact.

Mitigation strategies and Archaeology

Although it is not always possible to detect archaeological sites prior to construction works, it is important to investigate the potential impacts at the earliest phase of development, if possible during site selection. The ideal mitigation for archaeological sites is avoidance/preservation in situ . This is, however, not always possible. If the risk of disturbing archaeological remains is considered minimal, no further archaeological work (other than monitoring of construction work) may be recommended. Recommendations in the impact statement can be offered as mitigation measures should preservation in situ prove impractical or impossible. These are as follows:

Archaeological Test Trenching. Test excavation has been defined as that form of archaeological excavation where the purpose is to establish the nature and extent of archaeological deposits and features present in a location which it is proposed to develop (though not normally to fully investigate those deposits or features) and allow an assessment to be made of the archaeological impact of the proposed development (DAHGI, 1999).

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• Full Archaeological Excavation. Archaeological excavation has been described as being carried out in order to “mitigate the impact of development on archaeological deposits, features and objects through scientific recording … resulting in preservation by record …” (DAHGI, 1999). • Archaeological Monitoring. Archaeological monitoring has been described as "involving an archaeologist being present in the course of the carrying out of development works (which may include conservation works), so as to identify and protect archaeological deposits, features or objects which may be uncovered or otherwise affected by the works" (DAHGI , 1999).

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