Women in the 20th Century
Josephine Baker
1
By Alexa Brews
1 Interpress, Joséphine Baker débarque à Paris dans les années folles, in , , 1925,
Table of Contents
Josephine Baker 3
Paris 7
Return to America 15
The War 19
A New Josephine 22
The Rainbow Tribe 29
Final Years 34
Legacy 40
2 Josephine Baker What it means to be a “woman” has a very different understanding to what it has in the past, and undoubtedly what it will in the future. The ideas of masculinity and femininity have categorized, shaped and influenced the process of history from as far back as the very first era that historians have studied. During the 20th Century, this role of femininity began to be challenged. Refusing to let her background, gender or “race” define her, this change in society can be shown by perfect example through the life of Josephine Baker, a girl who came from less than nothing, and became the most famous woman in the world.
2 Because her family did not have much money, the amount of Images available of Josephine as a child are very limited. This rare portrait of her as a baby is one of the only images of her as a baby that were ever made available to the public.
Freda Josephine McDonald was born in St. Louis in 19063. Unlike the joys of early upbringing that are usually associated with childhood, Baker’s life as a child was far from easy. The system of ‘Jim Crow Laws’ dominated the lives of African-American people, resulting in Baker being brought up in a deeply segregated society where violence and white supremacy were enshrined4. Having been abandoned by her
2 Unknown, Josephine Baker as a baby, in , , 1906,
4 JosephineBakerTube, Joséphine Baker: The 1st Black Superstar, in , , 2011,
3 father, and her mother, Carrie, earning very little income, she was forced to leave school very early on into her education5. At just eight years old, Baker began working for white families as a live-in maid, where she was often subject to abuse and torment for discretions as little as using too much soap in the laundry6. After having run away from home at age thirteen, she found work as a waitress at the ‘Old Chauffeur's Club’, where she met her first husband Willie Wells, whom she divorced just weeks later7. Growing up in a society that taught her that the mere colour of her skin prohibited her from ever amounting to anything, Baker found salvation in the passion that would one day save her life: dance.
Street-corner dancing became her new means for survival. Working with a performance group known as the ‘Jones Family Band’, Baker used her high energy and high spirit to set her apart from the other dancers, and was able to conquer the grueling black Vaudeville Circuit8. But, despite her new-found success, Baker’s unhealthy relationship with her mother continued to hold her back. Constant reprimanding from her mother over her choice to be a dancer, as well as criticism to adopt a more “wifely” role from her second husband Willie Baker, still confronted her9 . However, the flame of her opportunistic and determined nature refused to be extinguished. In 1923, with her new performance group, the “Dixie Steppers”, Baker was able to dance her way out of St. Louis and into New York10. A creative revolution was breaking out across the city, and in the eruption of newfound black talent and ambition that would later be defined as the Harlem Renaissance, she was determined to make her mark.
5 "Josephine Baker", in Biography, , 2020,
4 11 Baker as a teenager in New York in 1923, before she had adopted her signature, smoothed down hairstyle.
However, leaving behind her old life in St. Louis did not mean leaving behind the hardships imposed on her. Despite New York’s comparatively modern views on racial impositions and discrimation, the lives of black performers were still ruled by the laws of a white-dominated society. At the time, if black performers wanted to play in mixed theatres, they were made to “black up”, a term used to describe the forced use of black-face so that the audience assumed that they were simply white actors taking on a black role. Paradoxically, these black performers were also told on occasion that they needed to “lighten up”12. These conditions made the fact that Baker, at such a young age, with little experience or training, being able to surpass this even more remarkable. Baker was not seen to be particularly attractive. She was smaller and darker than the rest of the other chorus girls, making it almost impossible for her to fit into the role of looking “white”13. Multiple circumstances, from her disadvantaged background, even to her seemingly non-ideal body type, should typically have resulted in a very average career. However, Baker broke these odds. She did not gain her success by relying on the crutch of beauty or sexuality- she earned it.
11 Unknown, Teenage Josephine, in , , 1923,
5 Baker committed entirely to every role given to her, despite their at times, demoralising or ridiculing connotations. Having been labeled as the dedicated “comedy chorus girl” of the group, she was given the job of amusing the white audience before her14. She was purposefully out of step with the rest of the dancers, made silly faces, and outrageously hyperbolic gestures15. In a sense, one could view her acceptance of this rather degrading role as a kind of compliance. It is, however, critical to remember that as a black, female performer, this level of compliance was a way of survival. Although it may have been comparatively progressive, 1920s New York still operated under a white, male-dominated society, and - for the time being- she was still a very small piece of a much larger struggle.
After years with the show, Baker began to have her own individual billing16. In reviews, critics pointed her out commenting that “whoever she is, this is the woman whose legs have no bones.”17 She transformed her career from being “that one chorus girl”, to being the highest paid chorus girl in the world18. Yet, regardless of the attention that she was starting to receive, Baker was still living in a country which discriminated against her, and knew that despite her success that she had progressed as far as a black woman could in America. Because of this, when Baker was offered the opportunity to join an all-black revue show, La Revue Nègre, opening in Paris, she jumped at the chance. Thus, at just 19 years old, her journey to Europe began19.
“A frightened girl, who had left St. Louis, to come to Europe to find freedom.” - Josephine Baker20
14 "Josephine Baker", in Biography, , 2020,
6 Paris
La Revue Nègre turned 1925 Paris on its head. Baker arrived in a completely different society to what she had come from. Here, in Paris, as opposed to being persecuted for the color of her skin, she was celebrated for it. She, along with the other African-American performers whom she had traveled with, were able to stay in a normal hotel, go to any restaurant that they wanted and exist in society as could anyone else21. There were no ‘Jim Crow Laws’ to dictate their existence and rather than being prejudiced, they were seen as exotic and beautiful. Because of this, Baker made an immediate impression on French audiences.
22 One of the posters used to advertise Baker’s debut show, La Revue Nègre. Following the show, Baker’s success in the Parisian scene immediately took off.
France’s obsession with American jazz and all things exotic had come from the influences of their own colonial bias. In 1925, months before Baker had even arrived in Paris, “The Great Art Deco Exhibition” had sparked the attention of the french public to the idea of all things 'primitive’, and French artists began showing a growing
21 JosephineBakerTube, Joséphine Baker: The 1st Black Superstar, in , , 2011,
7 interest in African Art23. Therefore, Baker's success in Paris cannot be fully examined or understood without understanding the environment into which she entered. As it was, the conditions of Paris and the interests of Parisian society had created the perfect setting for her to succeed in. Josephine Baker was as if a sculpture from their paintings had come to life24. Almost as quickly as she had entered Paris, she had come to embody a kind of “African ideal” that it was looking for25. However, the spotlight that was being shone on her led to a notable point of contention in her own identity.
Having caught the attention of producers, Baker was partnered with a male dancer for an erotic performance in Danse Sauvage, during which she would appear before the audience wearing only a small feathered skirt26. Now, instead of adopting a very comedic, child-like role, the image of Josephine Baker as a performer was shifted to a place of sensuality. She now represented something that the public had not seen before, a sexualised, eroticized black figure that was seen as acceptable to be enjoyed by the white male gaze27. In doing so, she became a star almost overnight.
23 M Zeck, "Josephine Baker, the most sensational woman anybody ever saw | OUPblog", in OUPblog, , 2020,
8 28 Josephine Baker and her dance partner Joe Alex in the opening scene of their performance in Danse Sauvage, where Josephine was carried in on his back with her legs spread open to the audience.
The idea of a black woman exposing herself almost totally nude on stage in such a way caused great controversy29. Some people saw her as the very end to European civilisation as they knew it30. It was as if the ideas of modernism, the Jazz age and the Harlem Renaissance had all met in a single, dancing body31. As did her career, her influence spread far beyond the literal theatre which she danced in, inspiring an entire generation of French artists and poets. Ernest Hemmingway called her “the most sensational woman anyone ever saw,” and Pablo Picasso painted her over-and-over in praise of her “legs of paradise.”32 From the eyes of the aristocracy to the every-day individual, the entire city became both infatuated and outraged by her at the same time.
28 Unknown, Josephine and Joe Alex performing “La Danse Sauvage”, in , , 1925,
9 33 34 Baker’s legacy as a source of inspiration is still prevalent in the modern art world. On the 28th of September 2019, an exhibition titled “Goin Bananas” was held in ode to Josephine Baker, featuring over 100 original pieces by fine artist Michael Kilgore
Baker enjoyed the attention that she was being given and responded opportunistically35. As a product of her spreading fame, her lifestyle grew increasingly, unapologetically exotic. She acquired a passion for all-things extravagant and expensive and was unafraid of expressing it, and in so, became a symbol of sexual liberation36. She also became an important icon for another important movement, LGBT rights, as her free expression of love with both male and female partners made her an advocate for an otherwise non-represented community 37. While headlining at the famous Folies Bergère music hall, she performed what was to become associated with her for the rest of her life: The ‘Banana Dance’38.
33 "Mysterious Josephine - Mystérieuse Joséphine", in ArtfixDaily, , 2019,
10 Now, spanning her career across dance, singing and film, the name “Josephine Baker” had become instantly recognisable across the world.
39 In the late 1930’s, famous feminist artist Frida Kahlo also found inspiration from Baker, during which their professional relationship also became romantic. The two woman shared a lot in common, both being bisexual women of color who were artists and activists. They were also similar in their convictions: they were radical, and never depended on men. For example, Baker always remained unafraid to leave unhappy relationships with any of her male partners.
39 "JOSEPHINE & FRIDA: LUSTFUL LOVE", in ArtfixDaily, , 2020,
11 40 41 When Baker was given a cheetah to use as part of one of her performances, she was delighted. In fact, she liked the animal so much that she took him on as a pet, named him “Chiquita” and dressed him in a diamond collar. Chiquita traveled the world with her, always riding in her car and sleeping in her bed. Baker’s collection of unusual pets also included a goat named Toutoute and a pig named Albert.
40 PIAZ, Josephine Baker with Her Cheetah, in , , 1931,
12 42 43 The above images show Baker in the outfit that she wore during her famous performance of the “Banana Dance”. This image of her has become the most instantly recognisable icon of her entire career.
There is, however, one important question that can be raised: Was she perpetuating a stereotype, or was she subverting it? In her performances, Baker was never the victim of the stereotype which she played on. Yes, she did build her career on the basis of female sexualisation, but in doing so, she made fun of it44. The uninhibited expression of her sexuality almost acted as a sort of therapy for her45. Drawing on her sexuality as a part of her appeal did not take away from her credibility as a feminist, but rather added to her performative public appeal. As a performer, the use of one’s physicality and celebrity to grow their audience does and should not take away from their own character46. In fact, the free, open expression of femininity that Josephine Baker exuded helped to break down the very principle of women having to hide themselves in the first place. Through her dance, Baker showed the public that being a woman and being powerful did not have to be separate entities. She may have portrayed an eroticised image, but in doing so, she herself was in
42 J Tavin, Josephine Baker banana skirt, La Folie du Jour, Folies Bergère, 1926, in , , 1926,
13 complete control of her own body, decisions and self. She had become a role model for all French women47.
47 Cheng, A, Second skin. in , 1st ed., Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2011.
14 Return to America From her impoverished upbringing in St. Louis, to her full immersion into the elite Parisian Cafe Society, Baker had become the epitome of success. In the 10 years that she had been in Paris, she had blossomed into a sophisticated, respected, all-rounded entertainer48. Europe had given her the ideas of freedom and equality which were never possible to her as a child, and now, having taken on the rest of the world, she was ready to go home to America and show them who she had become49.
Baker returned to America in 1936 to perform in the Ziegfeld Follies, where she was to be the first- and last- black woman ever to star in the production50. People in America were already impressed by her work. In the Siren of the Tropics, she had become the first black actor to star in an international film, and her success as a recorded singer had gained her international recognition51. However, when she arrived in America Baker found that the state of society was even worse than when she had left. She was met with hostile, racist reactions which even her celebrity status would not protect her from. Baker was told that although she was allowed to book her stay at an upscale hotel, she would only be welcomed there on condition that she entered the building through the back, servants entrance52. In an interview conducted in later life, Baker accounts that she was even spat on by a white woman in passing her in the hotel lobby, but says that she refrained from causing a scene as she knew that it “was not her fault, she had been taught like that.”53
48 "The enigmatic Josephine Baker - interview: archive, 26 August 1974", in the Guardian, , 2020,
15 54 55 On the left-hand side is an original playbill for the production of Ziegfeld Follies where you can see Josephine’s name being displayed alongside a list of other famous performers such as Fannie Brice and Bob Hope. Next to the playbill is the actual view of the marquee for the 1936 edition of the production, which was held at the Winter Garden Theatre in New York City.
In the Ziegfeld Follies itself, she was further discriminated against. Unlike the other performers, Baker was not given an adequate microphone or sound-system, resulting in her comparatively delicate voice being lost amongst the crowd, some of which walked out of the theatre in the middle of her set56. It was the greatest professional disappointment of her career. At the same time, Baker’s personal life was also falling apart with the death of her third husband and manager Giuseppe Pepito Abatino57. Just as France had been receptive, and embraced the idea of a sexualised, modern black woman, America rejected it58. American society was extremely critical of black people who had been able to find success abroad. They saw it as a rejection of their own US racial policies59. Many of her films, including Princess Tam-Tam, which showed a romantic relationship between her and a white
54 Unknown, Josephine Baker "ZIEGFELD FOLLIES", in , , 1936,
16 man were banned, and critics wrote about her in the most venamous ways, reffering to her as a “buck-toothed, negro wench”60.
61 Baker in 1936 wearing her statement banana bikini during her performance of her famous Danse Sauvage for the Ziegfeld Follies.
Feeling disheartened by her failed attempt at American stardom, Baker returned to France62. She now knew that there was nothing left for her in America, and that there, society was not yet ready to allow her to achieve her dreams63. In an interview on her life, Baker described her return to Paris as an incident which “made her forget the colour of her skin”64. In 1937, Baker officially renounced her American citizenship and became a french national65. In the same year, she also married her fourth husband, affluent, jewish businessman Jeon Lion, who despite having contrasting backgrounds, had found solidarity in the shared experience of prejudice66. The couple’s marriage proved to be short-lived, as tension rose between Lion’s wishes
60 JosephineBakerTube, Joséphine Baker: The 1st Black Superstar, in , , 2011,
17 for Baker to give up her career and her own refusal to give up the stage67. Yet, the failure of her marriage proved later on that year to be the least of Baker’s worries.
68 Josephine Baker on arrival back in Paris after her time in America, where she was given bouquets of flowers and praise by a huge crowd of fans.
69 Josephine Baker Dancing with her fourth husband Jean Lion, a french, jewish businessman.
67 "Josephine Baker", in En.wikipedia.org, , 2020,
18 The War In the September of 1939, World War II erupted across Europe, and Baker, having become a French citizen, volunteered to spy for her adopted country70. When France declared war on Germany in response to the invasion of Poland, Baker was recruited by the French military intelligence as an “honorable correspondent.”71 Baker’s celebrity status gave her the perfect profile to move through Europe without raising suspicion72.
When Germany invaded France in June 1940, Baker left Paris and retreated to her home Château des Milandes, where she was recruited to work in the French resistance movement73. Baker gave the resistance everything that she had. She allowed the movement to use her house as their base, she gave them her car, her personal plane, her money, and most importantly: her fame74. By posing as members of her band, the resistance was able to travel undercover with her, further smuggling information and befriending German officers75. She collected important information about the location of the German troops from officials that she had met at parties, and her charm, charisma and fame enabled her to rub shoulders with high-ranking officials and bureaucrats76. As an entertainer, Baker had an excuse for moving around Europe, during which she smuggled information through writing notes in invisible ink between her sheet music, and helped those who were in danger from the Nazis get visas and passports to leave France77. Josephine Baker, an American-born performer, became one of the most important players in the French resistance.
When all of France was invaded in 1941, Baker relocated to the French colonies. From the base location of Morocco, Josephine made trips to-and-from Spain, where
70 R Hopmans, "Baker, Josephine - WW2 Gravestone", in WW2 Gravestone, , 2020,
19 her social status would again prove herself useful, as she was able to secret notes inside her underwear without being strip-searched by any officials78. However, Baker’s involvement was cut short when she became severely ill from an infection that she had developed after suffering a misscarriage79. Baker and those around her thought that she was going to die. In 1942, whether it had been for her own protection or simple misinformation, Baker’s “death” was announced in Paris80. Yet, despite living under such severe conditions, her time in North Africa gave her the opportunity to do what she had always wanted: to perform for a non-segregated audience. In doing shows for both American and British forces, she took a stand against the armys’ racial policies, insisting on black soldiers being allowed to watch from the front row and charging them no admission fees81.
After the war, Baker was awarded the Croix de guerre and the Rosette de la Résistance for her underground assistance82. She was also given the honorary rank of sub-lieutenant to the French army. When Baker returned to France she married French composer Jo Bouillon, who was to become the next important anchor in her life83. Yet, although her life had indeed resumed, she had not come home to Paris as the same woman as before. During the war Baker had become a hero, she had devoted her life to her greatest ever love: her country. Yes, one could argue that her position of wealth gave her a level of comfort that other members of the resistance could not afford, but one cannot take away from the fact that she was a soldier. As a performer, the art which you create becomes an extension of your own self, your own experiences, and now, she had been exposed to an entirely different reality. Josephine Baker was no longer just a dancer or a “Black Venus'', she was a French heroine84.
78 Josephine Baker | French entertainer", in Encyclopedia Britannica, , 2020,
20 85 Baker in her French army uniform that she received as a soldier. Years after the war, Baker would put her military uniform back on multiple more times in recognition of her work. It was something that she wore with pride, and would honor at many of the most important events of her life.
85 Josephine Baker in WW2, in ,
21 A New Josephine In 1949 Baker made her return to the Folies Bergere music hall, but as she had been personally changed by the war, so had her image86. Because of her wartime heroics, she had gained an entirely new level of public respect. Finding herself on the opposite end of the spectrum to her banana skirt persona, Baker gave herself the image of Mary Queen of Scots87. When she had arrived in Paris in 1925, she had become famous from her effortless appeal and looseness, but now, she was not the same young, eroticised figure as she had been then. Josephine Baker was now the grande dame of France and had earned herself an amount of authority and confidence to talk about matters in the US that she had not had before88.
89 A photograph taken by Paul Derval of Baker’s 1955 performance at the Folies Bergere. In the performance, she appeared to the audience as Mary Queen of Scots, ending with her own execution, right after which she reappeared behind a stained glass window and sang Schubert’s “Ave Maria”.
86 "The enigmatic Josephine Baker - interview: archive, 26 August 1974", in the Guardian, , 2020,
22 When Baker had gone to America in 1936 to perform in the Ziegfeld Follies, she had not had the same mentality as she did now, and this time, she was fully equipt to take a stand against the mistreatment that surrounded her. On their arrival in New York in 1951, Baker and her husband were denied reservations at 36 different hotels because of racial discrimination90. Yet, she still refused to let the ignorance of a backwards society control her. Despite being offered 10 000 dollars a week to perform at a Miami nightclub, baker rejected the offer unless she could perform to a non-segregated audience, as she had during the war91. The club's management eventually agreed, and the hugely successful show led to a nationwide tour, where Baker played to non-racialized, non-segregated audiences across America92. She had finally made it in her home country, and she had done it on her own terms. Later that year in Harlem, the National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People (NAACP) named her their “Woman of the Year” at a parade of 100 000 people, and declared the 20th of May “Josephine Baker Day”93. However, in many ways Baker’s determined involvement in activism within the US was difficult for the public to understand.
94 An original schedule card for the NAACP's Josephine Baker Day, New York City, 20th May 1951, which remains a commemorative day in Josephine’s honor to this day.
90 "The enigmatic Josephine Baker - interview: archive, 26 August 1974", in the Guardian, , 2020,
23 Her career, success and acceptance into white Parisian society had long removed her from the struggles of her upbringing in St. Louis and yet, Baker never abandoned the fight for equality faced within her home community95. She continued this fight even after having successfully broken away from it within her own personal life. It is however possible that she never actually did break away from her previous life in the United States, despite how far her career seemed to take her96. Throughout her life Baker seemed to always carry with her the sense that she was still representing her people, and that despite the glamour which she had now become accustomed to, she would always remember being just a small girl in a struggling America97. As the woman she had become, Baker was like an escape route for the coloured peoples growing up in the 1950’s repressive era. She was black, a woman, lived in Paris, rich, wore beautiful clothing and jewelry, was educated, spoke fluent French, she was proof of a possible ideal98. Professionally and personally, she finally had everything that she had wanted, and yet, within days everything which she had worked so hard to achieve would be destroyed.
On the 16th of October 1951, a Tuesday night, Baker dined-or attempted to dine- at one of New York’s most exclusive clubs, the ‘Stork Club’99. In the seemingly simple event, she had come to the nightclub accompanied by three friends, where they ordered dinner and a bottle of wine100. After their drinks had arrived, the waiter proceeded to serve Baker’s white companions, while Baker and the group’s other black member were not delivered their meals101. Baker took the incident as a racial insult, and the two women walked out of the club in protest, during which Baker stopped to talk to a man named Walter Winchell, an American newspaper columnist
95M Zeck, "Josephine Baker, the most sensational woman anybody ever saw | OUPblog", in OUPblog, , 2020,
24 who had written kindly about her in previous papers102. This interaction would result in the destruction of Baker’s American career.
103 American actress Grace Kelly, who was dining at the restaurant the same night, was witness to the entire incident. Josephine Baker was a very famous figure, making her immediately recognisable to Kelly, so, when it became clear that Baker was not going to be served, she raised from her own seat and walked arm-in-arm with Baker out of the restaurant with her entire table to follow. She vowed never to eat there again, and Baker and Kelly became lifelong friends.
Following the incident, Baker lodged an official complaint against the club, in which she included Winchell’s name, criticizing him for not coming to her aid104. It is important to remember that despite the change that was beginning to take place, it was 1951 in America and communist panic dominated society. In the days which followed, word of the incident had spread throughout every local paper and gossip column, and Baker’s insult to Winchell was everywhere105. In response, Winchell
102 JosephineBakerTube, Joséphine Baker: The 1st Black Superstar, in , , 2011,
25 turned his column completely against her, accusing her of being a communist and unleashing a torrent of hate against her106. Because of one, seemingly insignificant interaction, Baker lost all of her contracts for her upcoming appearances, her visa was revoked, and she was banned from the US for the next nine years107. Yet, Baker was still determined to show the world that people of different races could co-exist as she entered the most demanding phase of her life: motherhood.
108 This photograph shows protesters on the 27th of October 1951 gathered outside of the entrance to the Stork Club following the incident of discrimination against Baker. Many notable figures took part in these demonstrations, such as Walter White and Bessie Buchanan, who are both present in the above photograph.
106 Rosen, D, "The Night Josephine Baker Never Got Her Steak | Black Star News.". in Blackstarnews.com, , 2011,
26 109 110 The NAACP Protesting The Stork Club on on the charges of Racial Discrimination against Baker. These images were published in Jet Magazine on the 8th of November, 1951
111
109 Jet Magazine, NAACP Protesting The Stork Club on Charges of Racial Discrimination, in , , 1951,
111 Jet Magazine, Josephine Baker Files Suit Against Walter Winchell - Jet Magazine January 3, 1952, in , , 1952,
27 After the attacks released by Winchell on Baker, she filed a lawsuit against him on the grounds of a subsequent “damage to her personal reputation and professional career,” as well as for the false accusations that his column had made against her. This is a report from Jet Magazine on the 3rd of January 1952 on the legalities of the case.
28 The Rainbow Tribe Like much of her life, Baker’s family was entirely unconventional and unique. As she was unable to have her own children, Baker adopted 12 orphans from around the world, calling her new family the “Rainbow Tribe”112. In her family of many races, Baker was determined to show the world that people of all backgrounds and ethnicities could exist in harmony- it was her own, personalised statement about human equality113. Maybe, in a way, she wanted to bring these children together to give them the life and the love that she never had as a child. Yet, despite how pure her motivations might have been, the adoption of these 12 children proved to be a financial challenge which she would struggle with for the rest of her life114.
115 Josephine Baker and her new husband Jo Bouillon in 1954 with their "rainbow tribe" in their home Les Milandes. They wanted to prove to the public that children, regardless of their race, ethnicity, nationality or gender could coexist, and so, in true Josephine Baker nature, they had 12.
112 "Josephine Baker", in Biography, , 2020,
29
116 Josephine Baker playing with her children in the luxurious gardens of her Les Milandes castle. These were the happiest years of Baker’s extraordinary life.
Baker was not a business woman by heart, and despite how helpful her giving nature was to those around her, the financial strain of having to raise 12 children left Baker in need of drastic assistance117. Baker was no longer the performer who she had once been, she was older, times had evolved and there was no longer the same desire for her particular brand118. Now, as an activist, Baker’s income came predominantly from her Les Milandes home119. The home was a good tourist attraction, but Baker always seemed to spend more than she earned, and no matter how desperately she tried to keep the estate and her family afloat, their financial strain took its toll120.
116 R Viollet, Josephine Baker and her children in the park of their Milandes castle, in , , 1954,
30 121 Baker’s Les Milandes “castle” where she raised her children
Their financial stresses resulted in the failure of Baker’s marriage to Bouillon, and she was left to care for the children as a single mother122. Eventually, Baker’s health deteriorated and she suffered from several heart attacks and strokes123. She also lost her beloved Chateau, where after a dramatic final day on the steps of the house, she collapsed and was taken to hospital124. Eventually, after the difficulties of the last few years, Josephine was forced to accept help from her friend Princess Grace, and she and her children settled into a more stable existence in Monaco125.
121 Franck, Les Milandes, in , , 1947,
31 126 Josephine Baker and her former husband, Jo Bouillon. The couple was together for 14 years, making her marriage to Bouillon her most significant relationship.
126 Interpress, Joséphine Baker et son mari, le chef d’orchestre, Jo Bouillon © Crédit photo, in , , 1949,
32 127 Josephine Baker and her children sitting by the swimming pool in later years. Within her “Rainbow Tribe”, Baker adopted 10 boys and 2 girls, Aiko, Luis, Janot, Jari, Jean-Claude, Moise, Brahim, Marianne and Koffi.
127 INSPIRELLE, Josephine and her children by the pool in their teenage years, in , , 1965,
33 Final Years Like all families, the “Rainbow Tribe” eventually grew up and away from Baker, making new, independent lives for themselves128. The past few years had been the most challenging period of Baker’s life, and now with her children out of the house, she had time to fully focus on her life-long passion: the fight against discrimination. Baker’s nine year ban from America was over, and in 1963, Baker returned to the States for the largest civil rights demonstration in American history: the March on Washington129.
Baker spoke alongside Martin Luther King Jr. as the event's only official female speaker, and addressed the crowd in her army uniform130. Not everyone wanted Baker involved with the March, and argued that her time in France had disconnected her from their American issues, but nevertheless, Baker’s powerful address left every person in the crowd speechless131. Following King’s assassination, his widow Coretta Scott King even asked Baker to take his position as the leader of the entire movement, however Baker declined, saying that she could not her her children loose their mother132.
128 JosephineBakerTube, Joséphine Baker: The 1st Black Superstar, in , , 2011,
34 133 In 1963, at the age of 57, Baker flew in from France, to appear before the largest audience in her career of 250 000 people gathered at the March on Washington. Wearing her uniform of the French Resistance, Baker spoke just before Martin Luther King gave his famous “I Have a Dream” speach.
134 After addressing the crowd, Baker spoke with fellow allies of the civil rights movement who congratulated her on her achievements.
133 BLACKPAST, Josephine Baker, March on Washington, in , , 1963,
35 “I have walked into the palaces of kings and queens and into the houses of presidents. And much more. But I could not walk into a hotel in America and get a cup of coffee, and that made me mad. And when I get mad, you know that I open my big mouth. And then look out, 'cause when Josephine opens her mouth, they hear it all over the world …”135 - Josephine Baker, 1963 March on Washington
An extract from Josephine Baker’s address to the crowd at the March on Washington. In the extract, Baker speaks about how regardless of her social position in France, something that many people thought removed her from the struggle, her treatment in America never stopped important to her.
Although her health continued to deteriorate, Baker still continued to perform throughout the last decade of her life. With a new, increasing extravagant flair, her appearance became increasingly camp and over-the-top136. She had saved her greatest theatrical triumph for her final years in a farewell to both countries which she had loved. In America in 1973, she played four sellout shows at New York’s Carnegie Hall, and on the 8th of April 1975, Baker returned to the Parisian stage for the first time in five years137. It had been fifty year since she had first arrived in Paris as a simple, 19 year old chorus girl, and this show, her final performance, was in celebration of the life she had lived138. Financed by Prince Rainier, Princess Grace, and Jacqueline Kennedy, Joséphine à Bobino,after being booked out for weeks in advance, opened to rave reviews139. The songs that she sang were the songs of her life, and at 68 years old, she felt 17 again140.
135"(1963) Josephine Baker, “Speech at the March on Washington”", in Blackpast.org, , 1963,
36 141 An authentic promotion poster from Joséphine à Bobino, 1975, the show which celebrated Baker’s 50 years in show business. This poster was the last of her career to be printed in her lifetime.
142 143 Baker’s final performance was the greatest of her life. The show was in such high demand that hat fold-out chairs had to be added to accommodate the audience, which included stars such as Diana Ross, Liza Minnelli and Mick Jagger. Through her musical performance, Josephine Baker replayed her life.
141 G Ventouillac, Bobino Authentic Vintage Poster, in , , 1975,
37
On the 12th of April, just four days after the performance, Baker suffered a stroke and never regained consciousness144. She was found lying peacefully in her bed, surrounded by newspapers with glowing reviews of her performance145. At 68 years old, her extraordinary life of passion, love, sorrow and determination had come to an end in the most poetic way possible. In commemoration of her life as a dedicated war hero, Baker was accorded a full-scale, 21 gun salute state funeral, making her the only woman of American birth to ever receive this honor146. More than 20 000 people lined the streets of Paris in her memory147.
148
144 M Zeck, "Josephine Baker, the most sensational woman anybody ever saw | OUPblog", in OUPblog, , 2020,
38 This picture was taken at Josephine Baker’s funeral. In photograph, Grace Kelly and her family can be seen mourning the loss of their friend. After a family service at Saint Charles Church in Monte Carlo, Baker was buried at the Cemetery of Monaco.
149 150
On the day of Baker’s funeral, a crowd of more than 20 000 people gathered to pay their respects to the beloved performer. Throughout her career, the people of France loved her unconditionally, regardless of politics, race or gender, she was an icon to them. In the eyes of France, Josephine Baker will be forever alive. She has left a legacy that will never die.
149 unknown, Crowd mourning the loss of Josephine Baker, in , , 1975,
39 Legacy More than a century after her birth, the legacy of Josephine Baker continues to echo. As a poor, underprivileged girl growing up in an oppressive society, every odd imaginable was stacked against her. Yet, despite being discriminated against, despite being rejected time and time again, Josephine Baker never stopped fighting. From being told that because she was too thin, or too different or too black, Baker became the most photographed, most famous woman in the world. She refused to accept the role which society tried to impose on her. From nothing, she became an icon.
Josephine Baker dedicated her life to the struggles of her people. Instead of using her fame and her wealth as an escape route from her past, she used what she had built for herself to help those around her. No matter how far she had come, or how easy it would have been to ignore her past, Baker never abandoned the fight for equality. Through offering her talent and beauty to the stage, she transformed the image of what it meant to be “black”, thereby transforming the society around her. She is a perfect example of strength, determination and will, that goes far beyond simply having a pretty face, and her influence as a performer, a Civil Rights activist, a war hero, and an LGBT icon cannot be matched. Baker was a legend in art, in activism and in being self-made. She was an independent woman even before it seemed possible. Leading with love and passion, and the refusal to let the colour of her skin be her defining characteristic, the legacy of Josephine Baker is a universal inspiration.
40 151 Through her dance and her determination, Josephine Baker empowered all women. She completely liberated and revolutionised society, in so showing that women, black or white, could be independant, successful and free. She was, and still is, an icon.
151 Josephine Baker banana skirt, in , , 1926,
41
18 April 2020 Alexa Brews Grade 12D Women in the 20th Century: Reflection
Before starting this project, I was not entirely sure why it was necessary for us to be researching exclusively female subjects. In my mind, I do not think I had ever really made a distinction between male or female historical figures, or given much thought as to why the gender of a figure would need to be given any particular consideration. In many ways, at the start of this project I probably even considered its overt focus on “women” in the 20th centry to be somewhat counter-productive. However, after completing my research on Josephine Baker I have a very different outlook.
Making the distinction between a “male” or a “female” historical figure is not sexist. Previously, I thought that this distinction took away from the achievements of the idea of a female activist or hero, I had the kind of mindset that posed the question of “why is it necessary to have to distinguish between specifically male or specifically female figures? why can they not just be viewed as the same?” But, I realise now that this distinction is not something to shy away from, or something to see as being derogatory or backwards. By acknowledging the difference between the two sexes (in this context) you add an entire other level of respect for these women. To say that someone was an activist in the 20th century, let alone a female activist, is incredible. In a backwards society, being a woman was yet another factor that was stacked against you, and therefore another battle that you had to win. I am in no way trying to take away from the importance of any male historical figure, I am simply saying that the fact that these women who we have all written our projects on had the strength to stand up to a society where their mere gender made them vulnerable is truly, utterly amazing. Calling someone a “female activist” or a “female icon” is letting it be known that they deserve the utmost respect. It is something to be proud of.
My research for this project has definitely impacted the way in which I view the role of women in history. Now that I realise just how much these women had to fight against, them being able to take a stand is even more admirable. I have a whole new level of respect for not only Josephine Baker, but for every woman that has ever taken a stand against any oppressive system. I also think that through my research, I have become a lot more comfortable with the idea of femininity in general, particularly through my interview with Professor Bennetta Jules-Rosette. In her response to a question I had asked regarding Baker’s use of her sexuality, Professor
42 Jules-Rosette touched on how one’s sexuality or sexual expressiveness does not define them, in fact, it empowers them. As a teenage girl, I found that very powerful. In terms of what this process has made me learn about myself as a researcher, I have realised that I can very much overwrite at times. I think that this is something which I definitely need to be more conscious about and learn how to articulate what I want to say without using too much meticulous details.
Through this project, I genuinely feel as if I have learnt and taken away something very important. If these women, such as Josephine Baker, were able to achieve what they did under such difficult circumstances, then who is to say that any of us cannot do the same. I have learned that through determination and embracing every opportunity that is presented to you, you yourself are responsible for what you make of your life, no one else. This is something that I believe applies to all of us, and should inspire us constantly, regardless of any situation or influence.
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Women in the 20th Century Project: Interview
Bennetta Jules-Rosette is a distinguished Professor of Sociology at the University of California San Diego and the Director of the African and African-American Studies Research Centre. Her professional work addresses contemporary African art and literature, studies of “Black Paris” and religious discourse. In my research, Professor Jules-Rosette’s 2007 book, “Josephine Baker in Art and Life: The Icon and the Image”, was a constant source of reliable information. She has published an impressive 8 works of literature in total.152
Alexa: Despite how far her career, success and acceptance into white Parisian society removed her from the struggles of her upbringing in St. Louis, Josephine never abandoned the fight for equality faced within her home community. Why do you think she continued this fight even after having successfully broken away from it within her own personal life?
Professor Jules-Rosette: In answer to this question, I would say that Josephine Baker never actually broke away from her previous life in the United States and her roots in St. Louis. From the 1950s onward, she supported civil rights causes and social equity worldwide, and she brought her mother and siblings to France to help her build her dream of the multiethnic Rainbow Tribe. As she matured, Baker kept the causes of social justice in the forefront of her lifelong vision for social Equality.
Alexa: Josephine was brave enough to relocate and chase her career alone, in an unknown, foreign place despite not having support from her mother in following her passions. Where do you think that this bravery came from?
Professor Jules- Rosette: Well, I think that to understand her ability to do this you need to take into account her family situation. Life for Josephine in St. Louis was far from a dream. Her family
152 "Bennetta Jules-Rosette", in Sociology.ucsd.edu, , 2020,
44 had little-to-nothing, she had a troubled relationship with her mother. All she really had was dance. I'm sure that Josephine was overjoyed at the prospect of leaving home, she didn't really have anything to lose.
Alexa: Josephine was largely assisted by her romantic, male partners with regard to many of her achievements. Considering the amount of influence that they had over her success, can Josephine still be considered a feminist icon?
Professor Jules-Rosette: Every person who strives to accomplish something great in life has mentors and supporters of their dreams and visions. Josephine Baker had, in particular, Pepito Abatino and Jo Bouillon, both partners who helped to build her dreams in different ways. She also had a number of other friends, colleagues, and collaborators, but her own strongly focused visions and hard work prevailed above all. She had her own "agency" in everything that she accomplished. chapters 3, 5, 6 and 9 of my book offer some more insight into this if you’d like.
Alexa: Do you think that Josephine's use of her sexuality as part of her appeal in any way takes away from her credibility as a performer?
Professor Jules-Rosette: Of course not! Every performer has a "hook," or something to brand their names, images, and performances. In Chapter 8 of my book, I discuss Madonna, Grace Jones, Michael Jackson, La Toya Jackson, and David Bowie as icons who draw on their sexuality for their performative public appeal. You could also add Beyoncé to this list as a Baker imitator. Sex appeal sells audience tickets, but it does not necessarily reduce the "credibility" of a performer.
Alexa: Josephine had many marriages throughout her life. Do you think that she married for love, or used marriage as a vessel for opportunity?
Professor Jules-Rosette: Oh, well. This question is very sophisticated for a high school student. My answer would be that, in general, people marry for a variety of reasons, not just family approval, idealistic sentiments, or romantic love. But if the
45 partners cannot build a viable life together, their union can never succeed. Josephine Baker was able to build many successful career trajectories through her marriages and collaborations with diverse partners.
Alexa: Do you think that in the eyes of the public, Josephine's scandalous image as a celebrity took away from the recognition of her achievements during the war?
Professor Jules-Rosette: Scandal? That is another loaded category. I think that you need to separate Josephine Baker's earlier primal performances with the "danse sauvage" from her mature activism as a war hero and a humanitarian. See page 279 of my book where Josephine Baker's commemoration in Paris is listed on the sign in front of Place Joséphine Baker with this inscription: "Music Hall Artist; Sublieutenant in the Free France Liberation Forces; and Philanthropist." That sign sums up all of it.
Alexa: Josephine’s sexualized image was very controversial. Some people saw her as a kind of liberation, while people on the other end of the spectrum saw her as an end to Parisian civilisation as they had known it. In your professional opinion, do you think that she had a good or a bad influence on society?
Professor Jules-Rosette: Alright, well let's think about it this way. In every social group at every point in history there is always a mix of people with different ideas, some more conservative, some more liberal, some in between. If you had asked an old, traditionally controversial, radical man if Josephine Baker had been a good influence on society, he would have said absolutely not. Maybe that would even prove how much of a good influence she in fact was. But, coming from me, an African-American woman, Josephine Baker was revolutionary, she stood for a possible ideal and showed that in being a woman and in being black you could still achieve everything you wanted. So yes, I do believe Josephine was a good influence on society. More than that even, a fantastic influence.
46
Women in the 20th Century Project: Bibliography
1. "Josephine Baker". in , , 2020,
47 18. Jet Magazine, NAACP Protesting The Stork Club on Charges of Racial Discrimination. in , , 1951,
48 35. Josephine Baker banana skirt. in , , 1926,
49