Quaternary International 80–81 (2001) 131–167

Pleistocene climate change, natural environments and palaeolithic occupation of the Altai area, west-central Siberia Jiri Chlachula Laboratory for Palaeocology, University Zlin, 762 72 Zlin, Czech Republic

Abstract

Diversity of the relief and the environments of the mountain areas of SW Siberia played a major role in the history of the palaeolithic peopling of this territory. The geographical and contextual distribution of the cultural records reflects a climatic instability in the Altai area. Palaeoenvironmental proxy data indicate that the natural conditions during the earlier stages were generally more favourable for early human occupation than during the later stages. The cyclic nature of the glacial and interglacial periods led to periodic landscape transformations and generation of specific ecosystems adjusted to particular topographic settings and responding to climatic variations. The initial occupation of the broader Altai region associated with ‘‘pebble-tool’’ industries from alluvial formations likely occurred during some of the Middle Pleistocene interglacials accompanying the northern expansion of the temperate zone and biota. Mixed coniferous and broadleaf forests established in the tectonically active mountain zone with elevations of 1500–2000 m and parklands in the adjacent plains and continental basins provided a wide range of occupation habitats. There is limited evidence for persistence of Early Palaeolithic inhabitation during glacial stages due to inhospitable periglacial conditions. The last interglacial warming, indicated by re-colonization of southern Siberia by coniferous taiga forests, is linked with the appearance of the Mousterian tradition. Changes in the relief configuration influenced the local climate regime and opened new habitats for the Middle Palaeolithic population concentrated in the transitional zones of 500–1000 m elevation in the karstic area of the NW Altai foothills. Occupation of the central and southern Altai during the early last glacial was impeded by harsh, ice-marginal environments and expansion of glaciers in the valleys filled by large proglacial lakes. Progressive warming during the early mid-last glacial interstadial stage (59–35 ka BP) caused wasting of the ice fields accompanied by cataclysmic releases of ice-dammed lakes and large-scale erosional processes. Periodic outbursts of the glacial basins had a dramatic impact on the regional ecosystems, also obliterating the earlier cultural records. Appearance of the transitional early Late Palaeolithic stone industries reflects adaptation to mosaic interstadial habitats, including sub-alpine forest, dark coniferous forest, mixed parklands and open steppe. The identical geographical distribution of the Middle and Late Palaeolithic sites and the time-transgressive lithic technologies suggest a regional cultural (and biological?) continuity in the broader Altai area during the Late Pleistocene. Re-establishment of cold tundra–steppe and tundra–forest habitats correlates with the Late Palaeolithic horizon with developed stone industries dominated by blade-flaking techniques. These techniques possibly survived in more protected locations characterized by warm microclimates in the northern Altai throughout the last glacial maximum (20–18 ka BP). Emergence of the microlithic assemblages with wedge-shape cores is linked with a new cultural adjustment in the final stage of the Palaeolithic development responding to transformations of the former periglacial ecosystems towards the end of the Pleistocene. r 2001 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.

1. Introduction remainder of Siberia from the southern regions of Central Asia. Study of the Pleistocene occupation of the Geoarchaeological investigations of human occupa- Altai was initiated by discovery of the Ulalinka Site in tion dating to the Pleistocene have a long tradition in the Gorno Altaisk in 1961 by A.P. Okladnikov following Altai region. A particular significance of the local the find of isolated palaeolithic artefacts in the vicinity Palaeolithic research lies in the geographical location of the city of Biysk (Okladnikov, 1964; Okladnikov of the Altai area on the margin of SW Siberia, believed and Adamenko, 1966). Despite the controversial age of to be the main gateway for the initial peopling of the the former site, this discovery started systematic

1040-6182/01/$ - see front matter r 2001 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. PII: S 1040-6182(01)00023-4 132 J. Chlachula / Quaternary International 80–81 (2001) 131–167 investigations that eventually resulted in locating other The current study objectives of geoarchaeological palaeolithic sites in the broader Altai region, the adjacent research relate to particular site-specific problems, as Gorna Shoria Mountains and in the Kuznetsk Basin. By well as to general aspects of the Pleistocene peopling of the late 1980s, geoarchaeological surveys gradually north Asia. These include implementation of new expanded from the northern foothills into the central approaches aimed at site location in diverse topographic and southern Altai, mapping a number of open-air sites settings and geological contexts, the chronological (Tyumechin I and II, Tytkesken’, Ust’-Sema, Ust’- classification of the cultural records, the complex Karakol, Ust’-Kuyum, Anui I-III) as well as cave sites palaeoenvironmental reconstruction, the technological (Okladnikova, Denisova, Strashnaya, Kaminnaya, analysis of stone industries and comparative studies Razboinichia, Iskra, Maloyalomanskaya, Dmitrievka, leading to a broader territorial correlation. Apart from Tytkesken’ Caves) (Shunkov, 1982; Lapshin, 1982; the principal cultural evidence, some multistratified Kungurov, 1984, 1993; Derevianko and Markin, 1990, open-air sites (e.g., Kara-bom, Ust’-Karakol), and 1992; Derevianko and Zenin, 1990; Derevianko and particularly cave sites (the Denisova, Okladnikova, Petrin, 1990; Derevianko and Shunkov, 1992; Shunkov Kaminnaya Caves) have provided important biostrati- et al., 1994; Derevianko et al., 1995, 1999). The principal graphic and climatological records of the Quaternary long-term investigations have focused on three areas: the history and the Pleistocene climate change in south- Anui River Basin in the NW Altai foothills, the middle western Siberia. River basin in Central Altai and the Chuya River Reconstruction of the Pleistocene climate dynamics basin in the southern part of the that shaped the configuration of the topographic relief (Fig. 1). The recorded occupation/workshop sites, de- and ultimately governed the past ecosystems is essential scribed as Middle or Late Palaeolithic, can be classified for understanding the process and timing of the initial in respect to a particular geological context as buried peopling of the territory of north-central Asia. This sites (both open-air and cave sites) and sites exposed on study presents an up-to-date overview of the geological, the present surface; and in terms of preservation as intact biotic and archaeological evidence concerning past sites and sites re-deposited in secondary positions. climatic variations of the broader area of the Altai and

Fig. 1. Geography of the Altai area with location of the principal Quaternary geology sections and the palaeolithic sites discussed in the text. Geology sections: 1FBachat, 2FBelovo, 3FBiysk, 4FChernyy Anui, 5FIniya, 6FChuya, 7FTeleckoye Ozero. Archaeological sites: 1FMokhovo, 2FUlalinka, 3FOkladnikova Cave, 4FDenisova Cave, 5FKaminnaya Cave, 6FUst’-Kanskaya Cave, 7FUst’-Karakol, 8FKara-Bom, 9FKara Tenesh, 10FTyumechin I, II; 11FMaloyalomanskaya Cave, 12FBarburghazy, 13FBigdon, 14FYustyd I, II; 15FUst’-Sema, 16FMaima, 17FIskra. J. Chlachula / Quaternary International 80–81 (2001) 131–167 133 the natural conditions during the palaeolithic occupa- higher elevations. Semi-desert communities with admix- tion of this part of Siberia. ture of taxa characteristic of the Mongolian steppes are found in the upland depressions of the southern Altai. The present soil cover corresponds to the zonal 2. Geographical location and natural setting vegetation distribution. In the northern lowland basins and plains, steppe chernozems prevail with luvisolic soils South-western Siberia, including the Altai and the formed in more humid locations in the river valleys. Kuzbass regions, is characterized by a rather diverse Kastanozems and podzolic forest soils prevail in the physiography with high mountain massifs in the south lower mountain zone; thin brunisols and tundra regosols and east, and open lowlands in the north and west are found in the (sub)-alpine zone; and kastanozems, (Fig. 1). The Altai Mountains (maximum elevation brown calcareous soils or solonets appear in the high- 4506 m asl) and the Kuznetskiy Alatau (2171 m asl) mountain basin (Chuya and Kuray Depression) and on form a natural barrier to the south and east, respec- the upland plateaus (Ukok) (Rudoy et al., 2000). tively, connected by the Gornaya Shoria Mountains (1560 m). The Salair Range (590 m) separates the adjacent continental depression in the north: the upper 3. Pre-Quaternary history of the Altai area Basin and the Kuznetsk Basin (150–300 m), repre- senting the marginal parts of the Western Siberian Geological history of the broader Altai region is Lowland. Hydrologically, the area belongs to the Ob closely linked with the formation of the major central River drainage system, with the Katun, Biya, Irtysh and Asian mountain system. The Caledonian orogenesis Tom’ River being the main tributaries. initiated activation of two principal uplifting zones: the The topography of the Altai alpine mountain zone Altai-Salair zone in the eastern and the south-eastern (with elevations >3000 m asl) is built by major ridges of part, and the Ob-Zaisanskaya zone in the western and the central, eastern and southern Altai (the Katun, south-western part. northern and southern Chuya, Sailyugen and Chikha- The regional bedrock is characterized by the Upper cheva Range) and high-mountain plateaus (Ukok and metamorphic sandstones, phyllites, schists, ) located in the 2000–2500 m altitude. The limestones, conglomerates and breccias, overlain by the lower relief zone (>1200 m) includes more then 50% of , and particularly up to 4000 m thick the mountain area and represents relics of old denuda- sandstones and quartzites. During the Cre- tion surfaces covered by more recent Pleistocene taceous, continental conditions with rolling landscapes deposits derived during past glaciations. were established with accumulation of lacustrine silts The present climate is strongly continental with major and sands, overlain by the Mesozoic (Paleogene and seasonal temperature deviations between the northern Neocene) sedimentary rocks deposited in a shallow mid- lowlands and the southern mountains. In winter, except continental basin (Endrikhinsky, 1982). for the highest elevations, climatic conditions in the Intensive erosion of the uplifted geological formations mountains are generally less severe than in the open led to several periods of complete denudation. During northern steppes, and a microclimate prevails through- the early Mesozoic and late Paleozoic, most of southern out the year in some protected locations in the Altai Siberia was represented by one major platform. Reacti- Mountains (i.e., in the upper Biya, Katun, Chulyshman vated orogenic movements during the late and the lower Chuya River basins). Annual tempera- initiated complex denudation–accumulation processes tures as well as the precipitation rate vary greatly leading to the present relief configuration. Following the according to the particular topographic setting. Most of period of landscape stability during the Paleogene, a the precipitation falls on the western and north-western renewed tectonic uplift during the Oligocene and again slopes in the northern and central Altai, whereas the during the Neocene caused a major dislocation of the southern areas are more arid. In the Chuya Depression Siberian Platform leading to active denudation pro- (1800–2000 m asl), which is one of the coldest and cesses and erosion of earlier deposits as a result of a most continental places in the Altai, the mean July progressing topographic differentiation. Four palaeor- temperature is +251C. The mean January temperature elief complexes were documented in the Altai, with the is À331C, but temperatures can occasionally drop to earliest, uplifted above 3000 m elevation, representing À601C. Most of the area is underlain by perennial relics of the Mesozoic/Paleogene formations, and the permafrost with the active thaw layer only 30–70 m latest by weathering surfaces. Formation of the thick. Vegetation is characterized by open steppe– southern Siberian mountain system was a continuous parkland dominated birch and pine. Mixed southern process progressing from east to west that started with taiga (with larch, spruce, pine, Siberian pine, fir and the Miocene uplift of the Zabaikalye region, proceeded birch) covers most of the lower mountains replaced by during the early Pliocene in the adjacent Pribaikal the alpine vegetation with pine, larch and dwarf birch in region, and reached the Sayan-Altai area during the late 134 J. Chlachula / Quaternary International 80–81 (2001) 131–167

Pliocene. The progressing uplift of the Altai Mountains major cooling related to the following (OIS 10) glacial is linked with the deformation of the Dzhunghar stage. Platform as a result of the formation of the Himalayas The Middle Pleistocene is primarily represented by initiated about 40 million years ago. This major glacial deposits linked to large-scale glaciations. These orogenetic period that accelerated during the Late are indicated by two glacial moraines correlated with the Pliocene and continued until the early Middle Pleisto- Kuyuss Glaciation and buried in the middle Katun cene constructed a system of mountain ranges separated River basin (the Yaloman Section) and separated by a by deepdepressions subsequently filled by large lakes non-glacial alluvium. The pollen data from the lower till (Dodin, 1961). indicate a cold steppe environment (Markin, 1996). The latest (Middle Pleistocene) southern Siberian Warm interglacial conditions during the Middle Pleis- neotectonic stage caused a further deepening of the tocene are illustrated from the Anui River valley (the mountain river valleys by upto 100 m in the marginal Chernyy Anui section), NW Altai, with mixed pollen of areas (Anui, Charysh) and more than 200 m in the pine, birch, as well as oak, lime, maple and other warm central (Katun) area. The former Pleistocene palaeoval- broadleaf taxa (Unit 4–5). The overlying layer of reddish leys are preserved only as relics elevated >100 m above clays and slope deposits (Unit 3, TL dated to the present floodplains. The progressive downcutting by 5427110 ka BP) includes pollen of spruce (Picea sp.), rivers exposed formations, locally trans- Siberian pine (Pinus sibirica) and fir (Abies sp.) typical of formed into caves that were subsequently occupied by the present vegetation in the higher (>1000 m) eleva- early people. Formation of the lower terraces (30–40 m tions (Derevianko and Laukhin, 1992; Derevianko in the Anui River valley and 60 m in the Katun River et al., 1992c). An analogous climatic development in valley) is linked with the last interglacial erosion, the northern lowlands is documented in the Sergeevs- estimated ca. 120–100 ka BP (Baryshnikov and kaya Formation in the Kuzbass Basin with a series of Maloletko, 1997). red soils in the lower part indicative of warm and relatively humid forest–steppe followed by brown soils of cold tundra steppe (Alexeeva, 1980; Zudin et al., 4. Quaternary palaeogeography 1982). Tectonic movements during the late Middle Pleisto- 4.1. Northern and central Altai cene initiated uplift of the mountain ranges to about 1500–2000 m asl, causing intensive denudation of the The broader territory of west-central Siberia shows a former deposits. The renewed orogenic activity encom- complex Quaternary history governed by globally passing also the marginal areas and uplifting the dependent climatic changes in association with the Kuznetskiy Alatau and the Salair Ranges caused regional geomorphic processes induced by neotectonic restructuring of the regional drainage system with a activity. Dynamics of these processes are evident in the dominant N–S oriented river-flow direction. The cli- present relief, but they can be primarily recognized in matic variations are manifested by thick alluvial– the preserved geological record. proluvial sandy gravels of the Tobol (OIS 9) Interglacial (the Akainskaya Formation) separated by till deposits 4.1.1. Early and Middle Pleistocene (the Kubadrinskaya Glacial Formation, TL dated to Following the prolonged period of warm climatic 320/304741 ka) from the overlying lacustrine silts (the conditions and landscape stability during the Pliocene, Chaganskaya Formation, TL 266730 ka BP) correlated the Pleistocene period brought major modification of with the following Shirta (OIS 7) Interglacial (Markin, the former relief as a result of dramatic climatic changes. 1996). The warm periods are characterized by expansion The Plio/Pleistocene boundary is not well defined in the of mixed taiga forests (the Kubadru and Belaya geological formations of the Altai area. It is stratigra- sections), also indicated in the palaeopedological re- phically mapped in the middle part of the cords of brown forest and forest–steppe soils in the Formation and at the base of the Serveevskaya Kuznetsk Basin (the Kedrovskaya Formation) (Zudin Formation in the Kuznetsk Basin (Zudin et al., 1982). et al., 1982; Nikolaev, 1985), as well as the pollen spectra In the Altai region, the earliest Quaternary (Early from the IV alluvial terrace (50–60 m) of the Tom’ Pleistocene) records are documented by sandy-gravelly River dominated by Picea sp. (52–60%) and Pinus sp. alluvia and lacustrine sands in the Teleckoye Lake (39–52%) with some Pinus sibirica, Salix, Betula, Alnus Formation (the Belaya section) assigned to a warm (Arkhipov, 1971). (Oxygen Isotope Stage 11?) interglacial (Markin, 1996). The final Middle Pleistocene glaciation (Eshtykhols- The incorporated pollen indicates a mixed forest koye Glaciation, TL 231736 ka BP at the Kyzylchin with thermophylous broadleaf arboreal associations. section) is believed to be the most extensive Pleistocene Prominent frost-wedge casts and periglacial deforma- glaciation in the Altai Mountain area (Deviatkin, 1981; tions on top of the uppermost units attest to a Arkhipov et al., 1982), as corroborated by evidence J. Chlachula / Quaternary International 80–81 (2001) 131–167 135 from the eastern Sayan Mountains (Rezanov and 1982; Shmidt, 1984; Markin, 1996). Geological records Nemchinov, 1991). Glaciers expanded into the valleys from this time interval show a wide range of environ- to form coalescent ice fields supporting large glacial lake ments and climates. Pollen from the 30 m Katun River basins. In the foothill area and the adjacent continental terrace indicates expansion of forests. Conditions depressions, this climatic cooling is linked with appear- warmer than today during the climatic optimum are ance of forest–tundra soils formed on loess deposits suggested by pollen records from the Anui River valley (Zykina, 1999). Cold and dry climatic conditions in the (Anui II, Okladnikova Cave, Unit 3) with appearance of extra-glacial areas are indicated by accumulation of warm broadleaf flora (Quercus, Tilia, Ulmus, Juglans) loess, incorporating a typical loessic mollusc fauna whose present distribution range is well beyond the Altai (Succinea oblonga Drap., Pupilla muscorum, Vallonia limits. A gradual transformation to forest steppe and tenuilabris, Columella columella, Vertigo alpestris, Pisi- tundra steppe characterized the later part of the dium sp., etc) and rodent species characteristic of Karginsk stage (the Ust’-Karakol section) following tundra–steppe. Although the above luminescence dates the Konoshelskoye Stadial (33–30/29 ka BP). Analogous (and other TL dates beyond ca. 100 ka limits) should be climatic trends are indicated by pollen records from the taken with some reservation, they provide a general pre-Altai Plain with mixed grassland and parkland chronological and stratigraphically corresponding con- communities dominated by Gramineae, Cyperaceae, trol of the particular geological events. At present, the Chenopodiaceae and some pine, spruce, birch and alder correlation of the earlier glacial and sub-aerial deposits trees (Fainer, 1969). Small glacial basins with tributary in SW Siberia still faces many problems related to the bays occupied deep river valleys and intermountain application of different methods and the gaps in the depression of central Altai, as indicated by varved clays local stratigraphic records. from the Chagan-Usun section radiocarbon dated 32–25 ka BP (Rudoy and Kirianova, 1994). 4.1.2. Late Pleistocene The second Late Pleistocene (Sartan/Akkem) glacia- The Late Pleistocene palaeogeographic zones are the tion was less extensive than the former two glaciations most widely distributed (Endrikhinskiy, 1982). The last as indicated by terminal moraines at the >2000 m interglacial record is almost absent in the Altai and only elevations. Glacial basins filled the intramontane de- locally preserved in the form of coarse alluvia (the pressions in the Biya, Chulyshman, Bashkaus, Katun Kuekhtanar Formation), but well represented in the and Chuya basins with the synchronous glacier expan- northern plains by chernozemic steppe–parkland soils sion followed by cataclysmic floods (Okishev, 1982; (Okishev, 1982; Zudin et al., 1982). Pollen records from Rudoy, 1984, 1998; Butvilovskiy, 1985; Baker et al., the Kuznetsk Basin show expansion of southern taiga 1993) (Fig. 2). forests dominated by spruce and the Siberian pine into Periglacial conditions with cold-adapted fauna pre- the former steppe areas (Zudin et al., 1982). The Altai, vailed in the extra-glacial zone (e.g., fossil remains from as well as other southern Siberian mountains, experi- the Biya and Tom’ River terraces; Markin, 1996). This enced two glaciations during the Late Pleistocene as time interval is correlated with formation of the lowest indicated by two tills separated by non-glacial deposits. (5–15 m) terraces. Pollen data show distribution of cold The first (Ermakovo/Chibit) glaciation followed the same expansion pattern as the previous Middle Pleisto- cene glaciation. Large glaciofluvial basins were formed in the upper reaches of the Chuya River (the Chuya and Kuray Basins) with icebergs released from the surround- ing glaciers (Deviatkin, 1965). Accumulation of glacio- fluvial sediments and formation of erosional surfaces in the lower reaches followed the lake drainage cycles. Pollen from the lower terraces of the Katun River dominated by dwarf birch (Betula nana) indicates very cold conditions that prevail today only in the highest mountain elevations. Open tundra–steppe expanded in the northern lowlands and depressions. The mid-last glacial (Karginsk, OIS 3) warming is associated with accumulation of alluvial deposits in the mountains (the Bel’tyr Formation) and the river valleys in the foothills (formation of the second terrace of the 14 Fig. 2. Glaciofluvial terraces near Malyy Yaloman, Central Altai, Tom’ River C dated to 36–27 ka BP), and alluvial resulting from a cataclysmic drainage of a glacial lake dammed by the sands and lacustrine clays in the upper Ob and the mountain ice during the last glacial stage (all photographs are by the Kuznetsk Basin (the Bachatsk Formation) (Zudin et al., author). 136 J. Chlachula / Quaternary International 80–81 (2001) 131–167 periglacial steppe in the foothills and the adjacent plains terraces are correlated with the fourth terrace of the with isolated tree (birch, pine, spruce, willow, but also Biya River in the north-eastern Altai foothills (Dere- Ephedra) communities in more humid settings (Zudin vianko and Markin, 1987). The Middle Pleistocene age et al., 1982). The broken mountain relief differentiated is corroborated by the incorporated large fossil fauna of the regional climatic pattern during the last glacial with the Khasarsk Complex (Mammuthus trogontherii, Bison more favourable microclimate conditions in some priscus longicornis, Coelodonta sp., Coelodonta antiqui- protected locations along the northern Altai foothills tatis, Equus sp., etc.) (Shmidt, 1984). and in the central Katun basin, allowing survival of the warm Pleistocene flora and other biota until the 4.2.2. Late Pleistocene Holocene. The Late Pleistocene deposits are the most widely distributed in the Altai-Sayan Mountains and relate to 4.2. Southern Altai two glacial stages. In the southern Altai, these are indicated by two terminal moraine limits and relics of Archaeologically significant areas of the south-eastern glaciolacustrine sediments from glacial lake basins Altai include the Chuya and Kuray Depressions. The periodically formed in the Chuya and the adjacent Chuya Depression is one of the major intermountain Kuray Depression. Intervals of increased humidity depressions in the Altai-Sayan mountain system extend- and establishment of climatic conditions radically dif- ing about 70 Â 40 km NE–SW in the south-eastern part ferent than the present ones are indicated by five of the Altai near the Russian–Mongolian border. The major erosional surfaces at relative elevations of basin lies at 1750–2000 m asl, and is surrounded by the 80–100, 50, 30–40, 4–6 and 1–1.5 m (Rudoy et al., 2000). south and north Chuya Mountains from the west and Formation of a large glacial lake during the early last north–west, respectively, the Kuray Range from the glacial (OIS 4) stage is believed to be linked with a major north, the Chikhachev Range from the east and the mountain glacier, about 250 m thick, expanding through Saylugem Range from the south. The floor of the basin, the present Kuyakhtenar River valley that dammed the overlying Proterozoic bedrock, is filled by Neocene clays Chuya River by merging with small corrie glaciers form capped by Quaternary alluvium and proluvium, and in the opposite site of the depression. The ice-front the marginal parts by glacial deposits (Deviatkin, 1965). oscillations, leading to partial lake outflows, correspond to about eight lake terraces (correlated with the Katun 4.2.1. Early and Middle Pleistocene River second-fourth terraces), best evident in the During the Early Pleistocene, a high-mountain forest– southern and SW part of the Chuya Depression steppe stretched over the basin as indicated by pollen (Deviatkin, 1965). The embedded and most frequent records with Ephedra and a large fossil fauna repre- molluscs (Lumnaea articularia, Planorbis sp.) attest to a sented by Hipparion sp., Coelodonta sp. and remains of cold, ice-marginal setting, as well as the associated Elephantidae, Bovidae (Deviatkin, 1965). Middle Pleis- pollen records indicating a mosaic periglacial tundra– tocene climatic variations are indicated by a major steppe habitat with Pinus sibirica, Abies sp., Betula nana, glaciation of the SW Altai Mountains associated with a Alnus sp., Ephedra, Chenopodiaceae, Gramineae and series of proglacial deposits in the Chuya Basin, by up to Artemisia. Biotic potential around the glacial lake is 50 m thick alluvial fans particularly developed along the indicated by isolated finds of a typical Late Pleistocene eastern margins at the Kuray Range and glacial facies periglacial fauna, including Mammuthus primigenius, underlying more recent Late Pleistocene ice-marginal Cervus elaphus., Alces sp., Equus caballus, Bos sp., as deposits. Periglacial environments are manifested by well as small rodent open-parkland species (Citellus sp., pollen spectra of grasses (Chenopodiaceae, Artemisia, Cricetus, sp.). The climatic warming and increased Ephedra) and some arboreal taxa (Pinus sibirica, Picea humidity during the mid-last glacial stage (OIS 3) lead sp., Larix, Betula, Alnus) (Deviatkin, 1965). During the to expansion of high-mountain alpine forest dominated glacial maximum, the basin was filled by lacustrine by Pinus sibirica (80%) and Betula nana (25–40%), and sediments, and a series of terraces formed along the some Picea (8–10%), Abies (7–9%) and Alnus (4–7%) margins as a result of the repeated glacial lake water (Deviatkin, 1965). discharge. A cold forest steppe established in the extra- The last glaciation (ca. 22,000–15,000 yr BP) was less glacial zone between the lake and the glaciated extensive than the previous glacial episodes. Terminal mountain foothills with increased (upto 23%) propor- moraines above the 2000 m elevation indicate that tion of arboreal taxa dominated by pine (Pinus silvestris, mountain ice-tongues did not reach the basin during 71%) and birch (Betula sp., 23% and Betula nana, 6%), the last glacial maximum (20–18 ka BP) (Fig. 3). The grasses and herbs (Graminae, 31%, Artemisia,27%, final event of the glacial lake drainage correlates with Polypodiaceae, 23%, Cyperaceae, 10%, Chenopodia- the formation of the first Chuya River terrace (4–6 m). ceae, 9%, Lycopodium, 8%, Botrichium, 3%) and spores Fauna in the extraglacial area around the lake (e.g., (Bryales, 71%, Equisetum 12%). The highest lake Equus caballus from the Kokoria valley) was generally J. Chlachula / Quaternary International 80–81 (2001) 131–167 137

terraces cover older Middle Pleistocene alluvial accu- mulations. The lower complex terraces are associated with the Late Pleistocene glacial stages (Rakovec and Shmidt, 1963). A series of high terraces is developed on the upper Biya River which are believed to have formed during a catastrophic drainage of the Telecke Ozero Lake located in a 325 m-deeptectonic graben (analo- gous to Lake Baikal) filled by glacial meltwater from the surrounding Altai and western Sayan Mountains (Fig. 1). In the lower reaches of the valley near the city of Biysk, upto 150 m thick loess depositsare exposed above the river (Fig. 4). Most of the sub-aerial sediments are thought to have accumulated during the Late Pleistocene above truncated Early (?)/Middle Pleisto- Fig. 3. The Severochuyskiy Khrebet Range, southern Altai (3000– cene formations. Loess deposits (up to 30–50 m thick) 4000 m asl). Evidence for earlier Pleistocene glaciations in the Altai extend over parts of the Rudnoy Altai area. An was largely obliterated and is preserved only locally in deep epigenetic (in situ) origin of the Altai loess was proposed intramontane depressions and the northern foothills. The best (Kriger, 1963), but the actual formation mechanism preserved past glacial forms relate to the last glacial maximum (20 ka BP). remains unclear. Comparing to the major river basins and the northern plains, the mountain loess cover is analogous to that of the preceding glacial stage more discontinuous and variably preserved. (Derevianko and Markin, 1987). The local relief configuration promoted formation of major valley ice fields of coalescent montane glaciers, subsequently transformed into proglacial lakes during 5. Quaternary environments of high mountain areas initial stages of deglaciation. The present evidence indicates the existence of at least 10 large (>100 km2) Quaternary history in the Altai-Sayan area is closely glacial lakes and several hundred of small lakes in the linked with the repeated Pleistocene glaciations that Altai during the last glacial stage. The major glacial contributed to a major landscape restructuring with palaeobasins formed in the Chuya, Kuray and Uimons- intensive erosion of the glaciated alpine zone and kaya Depression in the south-eastern and central Altai, accumulation of thick (pro)glacial, alluvial, proluvial, and in the Teleckoye Lake Graben in the NE Altai lacustrine and aeolian deposits in deep intramontane (Rudoy, 1990). The two largest Pleistocene lakes depressions (Deviatkin, 1981; Arkhipov et al., 1982). occupied the Kuray and Chuya Depressions in the Little is known about the Pleistocene glacial history of upper reaches of the Chuya River. Together, these the Altai, particularly about the earlier alpine glacia- interconnected lakes are assumed to hold more than tions. About five major glaciations in the adjacent 1000 km3 water during the latest glaciation with about a mountain area have been suggested, with the last two 600 m water depth (Rudoy, 1998). Accumulation of assigned to the Late Pleistocene (Baryshnikov, 1992). glacial waters during the early last glacial starting Those, however, may have had very little effect on the around ca. 25 ka BP is fixed by the radiocarbon dates local natural environments in the frontal foothills area of 25,3007600 yr BP (MGU-IO-65) from basal glacio- (Maloletko, 1963). The transitional zone between the lacustrine sediments (the Chuya section), and dates of high southern mountains and northern lowlands has not 23,2507400 yr BP (SOAN 2239) and 22,2757370 yr BP experienced major geographic changes of the landscape (SOAN 2240) from the middle and upper part of the since the Late Pliocene, when the main topographic lake formation (the Iniya section) (Baryshnikov, 1990). features were formed. Little is known about the earliest Following the last glacial maximum, the retreat of the glacial events of the Altai, with the evidence largely wasting glaciers caused a cataclysmic drainage of the obliterated by erosional processes of subsequent glacia- accumulated glacial waters leading to the formation of a tions. Two moraine complexes correlated with the 200 m system of river terraces best documented in the middle terraces in the foothill valleys are believed to be Middle Katun River valley and the upper Biya River valley Pleistocene in age and presumably represent the max- being the major Altai drainage basins (Baryshnikov, imum glaciation evidenced by weathered erratics corre- 1979; Rudoy, 1984). Outbursts of the Kuray-Chuya lated with horizons of major cryogenesis and intensive Lake, dammed by a glacier descended from the Modjoi solifluction of unconsolidated sediments in the foothills. River valley and blocking the Chuya River, are thought The last interglacial deposits (alluvial and alluvio- to have been among Earth’s greatest floods (Baker et al., lacustrine) in the Altai and the Sayans are poorly 1993; Rudoy, this volume). It is assumed that a periodic preserved. Sporadically, relics of the 50–60 m high filling of the Altai glacial basins took about 100 years, 138

Table 1 A summary overview of the Quaternary environments and biotic evidence in the Altai region

Chronology Natural settings Pedogenic Vegetation Fauna Cultural stage Oxygen Stages development

Holocene Steppe Chernozems Betula, Salix Ursus arctos Histroric (OIS 1) Parkland–steppe Luvisols Pinus sibirica Canis lupus Iron Age Mixed forests Brunisols Pinus silvestris Bison sp. Bronze Age Alpine forest Grey soils Abies, Larix Lepus sp., etc. Neolithic Cyperaceae

Late Pleistocene Mesolithic Sartan (OIS 2) Steppe–tundra Regosols Artemisia vulg. Equus caballus Glacial Forest–tundra Gleysols Salix polaris Equus przewalski Late Palaeolithic 131–167 (2001) 80–81 International Quaternary / Chlachula J. (24–10 ka) Betula nana Cervus elaphus Akkem Glaciation Betula verucosa Coelodonta antiquitatis (Altai Mountains) Pinus sibirican Capreolus capreolus Picea, Alnus Saiga tatarica Elovka F. (Kuznetsk Basin) Ephedra Mammuthus primigenius 1st Terrace Tom River Chenopodium Bison priscus, Capra sp. Canis lupus, Ursus arctos Lagurus lagurus Meles meles, Gulo gulo Ochotona, Marmota sp., Alopex Microtus gregalis Cuon sp., Uncia sp. Karginsk (OIS 3) Parkland–steppe Chernozems Betula, Pinus Bison priscus Early Late Non-glacial Mixed forests Brunisols Pinus sibirica Alces alces Palaeolithic (55–24 ka) Pinus silvestris Equus caballus Larix, Abies E. przewalski, E. hydruntinus (33–29 ka) Tundra–forest Gleysols Artemisia, Alnus Coelodonta antiquitatis (Konoshelskoye Stadial) Betula albae gigantheus Broadleaved forests Fagus, Corylus Saiga sp., Ovis ammon Juglans, Tilia Capra sibirica Krasnobrodsk F. (Kuznetsk) Tsuga, Quercus Mammuthus primigenius Iskitim PK (Altai Plain) Asteraceae Rangifer tarandus 2nd Terrace Tom’ River Poaceae Panthera spelaea, Felis lynx Lamiaceae Ursus arctos, U. rossicus Muruktinsk (OIS 4) Steppe–tundra Regosols Betula nana Equus caballus Middle Glacial Forest–tundra Gleysols Pinus sibirica Cervus elaphus Palaeolithic (110/73–55 ka) Salix polaris Bison priscus, Bos sp. Mousterian Chibit Glaciation Abies, Alnus Rangifer tarandus (Altai Mountains) Artemisia Mammuthus primigenius Gramineae Equus hydruntinus Chenopodiaceae Capra sibirica Citellus sp., Cricetus sp. Kazantsev (OIS 5) Steppe Chernozems Betula, Abies Bison priscus Interglacial Parkland–steppe Picea, Larix Equus caballus Mousterian (130–110/73 ka) Salix, Alnaster Cervus elaphus Mixed forests Brunisols Larix, Abies Coelodonta antiquitatis Coniferous forests Pinus sibirica Mammuthus primigenius Pinus silvestris Megaloceros gigantheus Broadleaved forests Quercus, Tilia Canis lupus, Panthera spelaea Corylus, Ulmus Vulpes vulpes, Ursus arctos Tsuga, Pistacea Microtus gregalis Berdsk PK (Altai Plain) Cyperaceae Lagurus lagurus Bachatsk F. (Kuznetsk Basin) Asteraceae Ochotona sp. 3rd Terrace Tom’ River Compositae Citellus sp. Middle Pleistocene Tazov (OIS 6) Glacial Steppe–tundra Regosols Artemisia Equus caballus Early Glacial (180–130 ka) Forest–tundra Gleysols Betula nana Bison priscus Palaeolithic Salix polaris Cervus elaphus Estykholskoye Glaciation Pinus sibirica Coelodonta antiquitatis (maximum Altai Mountains) Pinus silvestris Mammuthus primigenius Picea obovata Megaloceros gigantheus

Chernigovo Formation Alnus sp., Rangifer tarandus 131–167 (2001) 80–81 International Quaternary / Chlachula J. Ephedra sp. Ursus arctos Gramineae Canis lupus Polypodiaceae Vallonia tenuilabris Chenopodiaceae Pupilla muscorum Bryales, Botrichium Succinea oblonga Lycopodium Columella columella Equisetum Vertigo alpistris Pisidium sp. Shirta (OIS 7) Mixed forests Brunisols Pinus sibirica Mammuthus Interglacial Parkland–steppe Chernozems Picea sp. chosaricus (230–180 ka) Abies sp. Equus caballus Beziorovo Formation Larix sibirica Coelodonta antiquitatis Charysh PK (Altai Plain) Salix, Betula Lagurus sp., Citellus sp. Alnus sp. Microtus gregalis Samarovo Steppe–tundra Gleysols Artemisia Equus caballus (OIS 8) Glacial Coniferous forests Brunisols Chenopodium Bison priscus (270–230 ka) Betula nana Mamuthus chosaricus Glaciation (Altai Mnts) Pinus sibirica Abies sibirica Larix sp. Tobol (OIS 9) Mixed forests Brunisols Picea sibirica Bison priscus Pebble tool Interglacial Broadleaved forests Pinus sibirica Cervus elaphus Industries (390–270 ka) Pakland–steppe Chernozems Salix, Betula Megaloceros gigantheus Ulmus, Corylus Mammuthus chosaricus Kuznetsk: Kedrovo Formation Juglans, Alnus Equus sivalensis nomadicus Altai Plains: Shiputino PK Quercus, Fagus E. ex.gr. mosbachensis 4th Terrace Tom’ River E. aff. taubachensis M. oeconomicus Coelodonta antiquitatis M. cf. arvalis Rangifer sp., Citellus sp. Panthera spelaea Lagurus lagurus Ursus arctos, U.rossicus Eolagurus sp. Allactaga sp. Pitymus sp. Ochotona sp. Lemmus sp. 139 (continued on next page) 140

Table 1 (continued)

Chronology Natural settings Pedogenic Vegetation Fauna Cultural stage Oxygen Stages development

Glacial (OIS 10) Tundra–forest Betula sp. Bison sp. Tundra–steppe Salix sp. Coelodonta sp. Pinus sibirica Equus sp. Glaciation (Altai Mnts) Picea sp. Artemisia Interglacial Mixed forests Brunisols Pinus sibirica Archidiskodon Pebble tool .Clcua/Qaenr nentoa 08 20)131–167 (2001) 80–81 International Quaternary / Chlachula J. (OIS 11) Broadleaved forests Picea, Abies sp. merid. cromerensis Industries? Parkland–steppe Chernozems Betula sp. Equus sussenborensis Quercus sp. E. ex.gr. sanmeniensis Sergeevo Fr. (Kuznetsk Basin) Tilia, Ulmus E.aff. simionesciu Shardikhino PK (Altai Plains) Alnus, Fagus Panthera sp. Juglans Pitymus sp., Microtus sp. Early Pleistocene (>780 ka) Mixed forests Brunisols Pinus silvestris Archidiskodon Pebble tool Glacial Forest–tundra Gleysols Picea obovata meridionalis Industries? Abies sp. Equus cf. sussenborensis Sagarlyk Fr (Kuznetsk Basin) Betula sp. aff. latifrons Salix, Ephedra Coelodonta antiquitatis Carex pauliflora Bison ex.gr. priscus Ranunculus Prolagurus panonicus reptans Interglacial Mixed forests Brunisols Pinus sibirica Archidiskodon Broadleaved forests Picea sp. meridionalis Parkland–steppe Chernozems Betula sp. Equus singularis Terra rossa Fagus Cervalces sp. Ulmus Hipparion sp. Evsino PK (Altai Plain) Juglans Coelodonta sp. Mokhovo F. (Kuznetsk Basin) Corylus Plio/Pleistocene Mixed forests Brunisols Pinus silvestris Archidiskodon sp. Parklands Chenozems Pinus sibirica Alces latifrons Picea sp. Cervus sp., Bison sp. Betula sp. Equus (Hemionus) sp.

Tsuga E.ex.gr.sanmeniensis Corylus Homotherium sp. Fagus Ursus sp., Canis sp. Ulmus Marmota sp. J. Chlachula / Quaternary International 80–81 (2001) 131–167 141 with the latest cataclysmic flooding around ca. 13 ka BP, surface stabilization followed by formation of palaeo- followed by the final lake basin degradation simulta- sols during interglacial periods. Particularly, the loess– neously with the retreat of wasting glaciers (Rudoy, palaeosol formations broadly distributed in southern 1998). Large alluvial fans formed by unsorted or poorly Siberia provide the most detail multiproxy chronostrati- massive gravely materials secondarily derived from graphic correlation of past climatic cycles (e.g., Arkhi- glacigenic deposits and overlying or laterally merging pov et al., 1982; Arkhipov, 1989; Volkova, 1991; with the highest (110 m) alluvial terraces attest to Chlachula and Kemp, 2000; Chlachula et al., 2001). dramatic and rather short geomorphic processes. During the Early and Middle Pleistocene, palaeosols in Because of the erosional nature of the latest Pleistocene southern central Siberia mostly developed on lacustrine glaciations, the evidence on the earlier (and possibly sediments, whereas loess and loessic deposits was the more extensive) glacial events is preserved only locally in main soil substratum during the Late Pleistocene the intermountain depressions and on the northern (Volkova, 1979, 1990). foothills. In the Kuznetsk Depression, being a major sedimen- In the south-western Altai, the last glaciation (lasting tary basin of SW Siberia bordered by the Salair Range from about 23,000 to 13,000 yr BP) is indicated by a in the west and the Kuznetskiy Alatau Mountains in the series of glaciolacustrine terraces, alluvial fans and east, long-term Quaternary climate variations in the terminal moraines along the southern foothills of the Kuzbass coalmine area (the Bachatsk quarry) are southern Chuya Mountains. The local Quaternary indicated by a 30–60 m thick stratigraphic sequence of record bears witness to the existence of a large glacial loess and lake deposits intercalated by up to 16 well- basin confined by the surrounding mountains eventually developed Early, Middle and Late Pleistocene palaeo- drained through the Argut River valley being a part of sols above the Pliocene red soils (Zudin et al., 1982). the Katun River drainage system corroborating the Rather intensive interglacial weathering processes in the records from the broader Altai area. Prominent lateral high mountain areas are witnessed by a series of buried moraine ridges best preserved in the 1500–3000 m Early and Middle Pleistocene soils in the Rudnoy Altai elevation testify to a massive mountain icecapwith with physical characteristics of a more pronounced glacier expanding far into the valleys. The local Late/ pedogenesis than encountered in arid zones of central Final Pleistocene climatic oscillations are linked with a Asia at the present time, likely due to high solar series of river terraces in the Dzhazator River valley as radiation (Kriger, 1963). Red soils from the NW Altai well as in the adjacent part of Eastern Kazakhstan (the foothills (e.g., the Ust’-Karakol Section in the Anui Bukhtarma River valley). Fossil periglacial features on River basin) indicate considerably warmer ‘‘sub- the Plateau Ukok, including large stony polygons up to tropical’’ conditions in the area as corroborated by 10 m in diameter and formed as a result of intense pollen data (Derevianko et al., 1992c) (Figs. 1 and 5). permafrost dynamics, attest to very severe climatic On the Ob Plateau (the Novosibirsk Priobie), the conditions in extra-glacial mountain areas of the eastern part of Kulunda, and on the Altai Plains near Altai. Biysk in the south-eastern part of western Siberia, loess At present, apart from some isolated corie glaciers in deposits up to 150 m thick accumulated during the Late elevations over 2500 m asl, the major glaciers are Pleistocene during several stages of aeolian reactivation distributed on the northern exposures of the northern of fine silt derived from large (upto 100 m deep) and southern Chuya Mountains (the Aktru and the deflation surfaces in the lowland areas (Volkov and Sofiiskiy ice fields, respectively), and in the Belukha Zykina, 1983) (Fig. 4). Warm Pleistocene interglacial Range. On the Plateau Ukok (2000–2500 m), glaciers are and interstadial periods in the northern lowlands areas found only on the Tabon Bogdo Ula Range (max. adjacent to the Altai Mountains are best recorded on the 4120 m) due to high aridity (precipitation 150–200 mm pre-Altai Plain and the Priobie Loess Plateau. The first per year) despite very low MAT (À101C) (Rudoy et al., Pleistocene warm period in SW Siberia relates to 2000). Today, most of the southern Altai, including the formation of steppe chernozems in the east Kulunda Chuya Depression, is underlain by perennial permafrost region, on the northern Altai Plain and the Priobie (see Table 1). Loess Plateau, and to luvisolic soils in the Kuznetsk Basin. At the Belovo section (Fig. 1), these earliest palaeosols of the Evsinsk Pedocomplex (correlated with 6. Quaternary environments of the northern extra-glacial Oxygen Isotope Stage 17) with two strongly weathered areas palaeosols are chronostratigraphically fixed below the B/M boundary and associated with the Early Pleisto- The Pleistocene climatic changes in the lowland areas cene fauna of the Tiraspol Complex (Zykina and and continental depressions north of the Altai Moun- Krukover, 1988). This is overlain by the Middle tains are generally characterized by accumulation of Pleistocene Belovo (OIS 17–15) and Shardikhino (OIS aeolian (silty and sandy) deposits in glacial periods and 13) Pedocomplexes with brown forest and chernozemic 142 J. Chlachula / Quaternary International 80–81 (2001) 131–167

Climate during the mid-last glacial (Karginsk/OIS 3) interstadial interval was more moderate than during the preceding interglacial, yet conditions during the climatic optimum associated with the lower luvisolic/chernoze- mic soil of the Iskitim Pedocomplex, dated at 35–31 ka BP and associated with Late Palaeolithic cultural layers, were likely warmer than at the present time. The over- lying podzolic, brown forest soils dated to ca. 26–22 ka BP (Volkov and Zykina, 1984) show a gradual cooling towards the early last glacial stage succeeded by establishment of cold periglacial tundra–steppe. These weakly developed late interstadial soils of the Karginsk Pedocomplex are similar in degree of pedogenesis to humic gleysols of central Yakutia, formed under cold Fig. 4. Loess sections (upto 100 m thick) in the Biya River valley on climatic conditions with mean January temperature less the northern Altai Plain, encompassing a high-resolution Late than À271C and low precipitation (300–400 mm) Quaternary climatostratigraphic record including a series of periglacial (Morozova, 1981). Following the last glacial maximum, tundra–forest gleysols and warm, open-parkland chernozemic palaeo- sols interstratified in the aeolian formations. a pronounced aridity at the western margin of southern Siberia correlates with the Eltsovska loess horizon (19–14 ka BP) and chronologically corresponds with the formation of large, ice-marginal glaciolacustrine open-steppe soils; by the Shipunovo (OIS 11) and the basins in the Irtysh and Ob River valleys (Arkhipov, Charysh (OIS 9) Pedocomplexes with forest–steppe 1980). Final Pleistocene climatic fluctuations relate to luvisolic chernozems; and the Koinikhovskiy Pedocom- a thin loess cover deposition interspersed by inci- plex with two steppe chernozems indicating a milder pient soil horizons prior to the early Holocene surface continental climate during the penultimate (Shirta/OIS stabilization. 7) interglacial. The Late Pleistocene is associated with In sum, the sub-aerial formations in the SW Siberian the Berdsk (OIS 5) Pedocomplex including two semi- accumulation regions provide evidence of periodic shifts arid steppe chernozems of the last interglacial, and the in the Pleistocene climates over the territory. The Early Iskitim (OIS 3) Pedocomplex formed by two secondarily Pleistocene interglacials characterized by a higher heat colluviated chernozems overlain by less developed forest balance and humidity were associated with distribution soils dated to 34–24 ka (Zykina et al., 1981; Zykina, of meadow–forests and mixed parklands. The pro- 1986, 1999). gressed climatic continentality during the Middle and The last interglacial pedocomplex, up to 2.5 m thick, particularly Late Pleistocene led to establishment of the attest to a pedogenic development under warm and present-type forest–steppe vegetation during interglacial humid conditions in the forest–steppe zone indicated by periods, and to periglacial steppe during cold stages the lower chernozemic soil correlated with OIS 5e, correlated with glaciations in the mountains. whereas the upper, less mature forest–steppe chernozem indicates a colder and drier climate correlated with the OIS 5c/the BrrupInterstadial (Volkov and Zykina, 7. Biotic evidence 1984; Chlachula et al., 2001). Both soils were disturbed by cryogenic processes under humid and cold condi- 7.1. Palaeobotanical record tions, a common pattern in southern Siberia. The mean annual temperature during the last interglacial optimum Pollen records are the most informative sources of (ca. 125 ka BP) in SW Siberia is assumed to have been palaeoenvironmental proxy data in the broader Altai 1–31C higher than at present with about a 100 mm in- area, because of relatively high fossil pollen concentra- crease in annual precipitation, while climatic conditions tions and a good preservation particularly in caves and were broadly similar to the present ones during the fine-grained (glacio-) lacustrine sediments. The first warmer Late Pleistocene interstadials (Zykina, 1990; significant cooling in Siberia is palynologically docu- Velichko et al., 1992). Increased precipitation and mented for the late Pliocene with pollen taxa indicative annual temperatures contributed to northward expan- of tundra and forest–tundra (Volkova and Baranova, sion of southern taiga forests farther north about 1980). During early glacial periods, only birch (Betula 500–700 km beyond their present distribution limits sibirica) in tundra–steppes, and pine and spruce in river due to increased interglacial summer temperatures by valleys were the principal arboreal species that survived 4–51C relative to the present values (Volkov and Zykina, under severe periglacial conditions. During the penulti- 1991). mate glaciation, vegetation was reduced to more J. Chlachula / Quaternary International 80–81 (2001) 131–167 143 resistant sub-arctic taxa (Betula nana, Salix polaris, Horizon). An increased amount of pine pollen indicates Picea obovata, Larix sibirica), indicating an annual a colder (glacial?) climate during the following period temperature drop by 9–101C to mean January tempera- (the Upper Kochkov Horizon). In general, a shifting tures of À341CtoÀ401C and mean July temperatures of vegetation pattern of forest–steppe and periglacial +141C to +161C. Pollen of birch (Betula nana), pine steppe characterized the regional climatic development (Pinus sp.) and alder (Alnus sp.) rarely occurs in during interglacial and glacial stages, respectively the early last glacial deposits from southern Siberia (Maloletko, 1963). (Velichko, 1993) with Polypodiaceae (Lycopodium pun- During the last interglacial optimum (125 ka BP), a gens,L.alpinum). During the last glacial maximum, belt of mixed broad-leafed forest with conifers stretched being the coldest glacial interval during the Pleistocene, over southern Siberia (Grichuk, 1992a). Dark conifer- polar tundra covered most of Siberia with only ous forest dominated by larch, with mean January ephemeral vegetation present (Betula nana, B. verrucosa, temperatures of À221C and July temperatures of Alnus sp., Artemisia vulgaris, Lycopodium appressum, +161C, and mean annual precipitation of 385 mm, Polygonum amphidium). Forest–tundra trees became were established in the Altai Foothills. The MAT was by more widely distributed during the later glacial phase about 31C higher than at the present time, with due to progressive warming and increased humidity. a simultaneous increase of precipitation rate by ca. In SW Siberia, informative but isolated records come 100–200 mm (Velichko et al., 1992). Pollen records from from the mountain valleys and the foothill depressions. the north-eastern foothills of the Kuznetskiy Alatau In contrast to the later Pleistocene stages, data on the Range show a gradual transition from a cryoxerotic earlier and particularly interglacial environments are periglacial stage of the late penultimate glaciation limited. Warm sub-tropical flora of the Middle Pleisto- indicated by Artemisia-dominated tundra and insular cene, including lime, chestnut, and thermopiles malaco- spruce forest that was replaced by boreal forest and fauna were recorded in a deeply weathered terra rossa forest–steppe at the end of the glacial period (OIS 6). soil at the Chernyy Annui/Ust’-Karakol Site in the The zonal succession during the following thermoxerotic north-western part of Gorno Altai (Derevianko et al., stage of the last interglacial (OIS 5) documents 1992c) (Fig. 5). Fluviolacustrine sediments with abun- expansion of dark coniferous forests (Picea, Pinus dant fossil faunal remains, plant macrofossils and pollen sibirica and Abies) during the early interglacial, enriched from buried valleys in the central part of the south- by some broadleaf taxa (Alnus, Quercus, Ulmus and western Altai provide evidence of changing natural Tilia) during the interglacial climatic optimum (125 ka environments during the late Early Pleistocene, char- BP), and reduction to more cold-adapted communities acterized by increased aridity and reduced temperature during the late interglacial, including birch, alder, pine (Deviatkin, 1965). Approximately present-day condi- (Pinus silvestris) and Siberian pine (Pinus sibirica) tions existed in the Altai foothills during the early (Grichuk, 1984). Middle Pleistocene with grasses (30–70%) and some Dated pollen records from the Karginsk non-glacial trees (birch, pine and spruce) (the Lower Kochkov (interstadial) interval (OIS 3; 59–24 ka BP) provide evidence for a variety of settings in the southern areas of western Siberia. Forest–steppe with birch and fir expanded along the Altai-Sayan foothills and open steppe in the Ob River valley and the Kuznetsk Basin (Nikolaeva et al., 1989). In cave sites in the NW Altai, a significant climatic amelioration during the mid-last glacial stage is indicated by a marked increase of coniferous trees, including spruce, fir and larch, but largely dominated by pine (Pinus silvestris), replacing the former cold tundra–steppe vegetation mostly of Artemisia, Asteraceae, Chenopodium and Salix (Dere- vianko and Markin, 1992). Appearance of broadleaf arboreal taxa, as well as semi-arid species characteristic for the present southern regions of central Asia, bears witness to rather warm conditions during the mid-last glacial climatic optimum. During the later part of the interstadial interval (ca. 33–24 ka BP), mean winter as Fig. 5. Stratigraphic section at Chernyy Anui in the Anui River valley, well as summer temperature decreased by about 4–61C NW Altai, with a buried terra rossa soil dated to the Middle Pleistocene and incorporating pollen of a warm interglacial flora, compared to the present, the MAT decreased by including oak, lime, maple and chestnut together with a thermophilous 2–41C, and the mean annual precipitation by 100 mm malacofauna absent in the area today. (Frenzel, 1992a). 144 J. Chlachula / Quaternary International 80–81 (2001) 131–167

A retreat of boreal forest during the following Sartan lacustrine and alluvial deposits 150 m thick. The Glacial (24–10 ka BP) reflects a dramatic dropof the Pleistocene sections, extending for tens of kilometres, MAT and a shift towards a harsh, arid and extremely are classified into eight main chronostratigraphic units cold climate. During the last glacial maximum, i.e., and provide the principal basis for the regional 21–18 ka BP, winter temperatures decreased by at least stratigraphical scheme for the Altai-Sayan area (Zudin 12–141C from present-day values, summer temperatures et al., 1982; Nikolaev, 1985; Derevianko et al., 1990a). by 6–81C, the MAT by À81C, and the mean annual The earliest (Early Pleistocene) Mokhovo Suite precipitation by 250 mm (Frenzel, 1992b). Steppe com- includes basal, upto 20 m thick, Cenozoic sediments munities with cold and aridity-resistant taxa (Artemisia) of red-brown, non-stratified clays and intercalated red and some locally distributed patches of spruce and birch fossil soils chronostratigraphically below the B/M forest covered the periglacial lowland areas of southern boundary (0.78 Ma BP). The associated small and large Siberia (Frenzel, 1992c), with boreal pine and spruce fauna (e.g., Allophaiomys, Prolagurus, Eolagurus, Archi- forest in foothills (Grichuk, 1984, 1992b). Re-establish- diskodon cf. meridionalis, Equus singularis, Cervalces ment of the southern taiga during the Final Pleistocene (Libralces) sp., Ursidae, Bovini and Ovibovini) is followed the trend of climatic amelioration. The N–S/ analogous to the Late Villafranchian fauna in Europe S–N shifts in the vegetation zones governed the general (Foronova, 1999). pattern of spatial distribution of the palaeolithic The overlying Sagarlyk Suite of 15–35 m of lacustrine- occupation, although some protected locations along alluvial, green-greyish sandy clays with interbedded the northern margins of the Altai-Sayan Mountains hydromorphic soils incorporates the late Early Pleisto- characterized by local microclimates remained largely cene fauna (e.g., Prolagurus pannonicus, Archidiskodon unaffected by the negative Late Pleistocene climatic meridionalis (ex gr. tamanensis), Equus cf. sussenbornen- fluctuations. sis, Cervalces aff. latifrons and Bison ex gr. priscus). Fossil pollen records (Picea obovata, Abies, Pinaceae, 7.2. Palaeontological record Carex pauliflora, Ranunculus reptans) are characteristic of cold climatic conditions of forest–tundra, implying Pleistocene fauna from the broader Altai area progressively decreasing annual temperatures. illustrates diversity of the local ecosystems in terms of The following early Middle Pleistocene sedimentary the climatic evolution and the geographical configura- sequence (the Sergeevo Suite) is formed by 5–30 m thick tion. The first significant faunal exchanges occurred alluvial/proluvial brownish, massive, sandy loams, after the Jaramillo palaeomagnetic event (0.98–0.9 Ma) interstratified by several palaeosols. The fossil fauna in response to gradual cooling with increasing amplitude (Pitymys, Microtus, Panthera sp., Archidiskodon mer- during the late stage of the Early Pleistocene (i.e. idionalis (cromerensis), Equus sussenbornensis, E. aff. >0.78 Ma) (Arkhipov, 1991). Among other areas, the simionescui, E. ex gr. sanmeniensis, Cervini (indet.) and Kuznetsk Basin is a unique region for study of Bison sp. (ex gr. priscus) have the European Late Pleistocene fauna in northern Asia. In terms of Villafranchian to the Early Galerian analogues. A completeness of biotic records, it is considered as one progressive, cold-adapted faunal and floral taxa attest of the most important non-glaciated zones of to a certain climatic deterioration during this time (Vangengeim and Zazhigin, 1982). Nine biostratigraphic interval. sequences comprise a rich fossil fauna remains of more The Kedrovka Suite of lacustrine-alluvial clays than 60 species of carnivora, proboscidean and ungulate intercalated by a series of brown forest palaeosols, is (Foronova, 1990, 1999). The palaeontological the most fossiliferous unit of the entire stratigraphic data provide evidence on palaeoecology as well as the sequence. The basal (Krasnogorsk) beds produce evolutional adaptations of Elephantidae, Equidae and abundant remains of Gulo cf. schlosseri, Mammuthus Bovidae from the Pliocene to Holocene (Foronova, trogontherii, Equus mosbachensis, Rangifer sp., Bos sp. 1982; Foronova and Zudin, 1999). Most of the and a large ‘‘priscoid’’ bison, being equivalents of the megafauna is characteristic of open-steppe and park- Tiraspol and Viatkino faunas of Russia and the land–forest environments. Information on the Pleisto- Cromerian fauna of western Europe. The overlying cene, including early human occupation environments is (Latyshovo) beds (with Panthera spelaea, Ursus cf. complemented by palynological, palaeocarpological and arctos, Ursus rossicus, Mammuthus aff. chosaricus, Equus archaeological data (Volkova, 1977; Nikolaev, 1985; aff. taubachensis, E. ex gr. mosbachensis-germanicus, Derevianko et al., 1990a, 1992a). Coelodonta antiquitatis, Cervus elaphus, Megaloceros The basin is one of the southern Siberian continental giganteus and Bison priscus) are correlated with the depressions north of the Altai-Sayan Mountain system. Tobol Interglacial (OIS 9). The uppermost (Krasogolo- The local Quaternary geological record, exposed in large vo) beds enclose fossils of a thin-enamel Mammuthus coal mines above the Paleozoic bedrock, consists of sp., which is intermediate between M. chosaricus and alternating suites of sub-aerial (loessic), proluvial, early form of M. primigenius assigned to the Samarovo J. Chlachula / Quaternary International 80–81 (2001) 131–167 145 glaciation (OIS 8) (Foronova and Zudin, 1999). Similar in the faunal communities had the Eurasian genera faunal complexes are associated with the above Ber- (Carnivora, Rhinocerotidae, Cervidae, Bovidae) and iozovo Suite, formed by ca. 5 m thick loessic deposits, migrants from more distant territories (Elephantidae and assigned to the Shirta Interglacial and early Tazov and Equidae) that became dominant in southern Siberia Glacial (OIS 7–6). throughout the Pleistocene. The environmental adapta- The overlying Chernigovo Suite is represented by up tion of most of the recorded species (including panther, to 15 m thick, stratified alluvial clays and sandy clays. In elephant/mammoth, horse, rhinoceros, giant , view to the incorporating periglacial fauna (Canis ex gr. bison) shows that open-steppe and forest–steppe land- lupus, Ursus cf. arctos, Gulo gulo, Panthera spelaea, scapes were the principal habitats. Fauna species typical Coelodonta antiquitatis, Cervus elaphus, Magaloceros of parkland/forest settings, including taiga and more giganteus, Rangifer tarandus, Bison priscus, and the early densely vegetated riverside valleys, were also present form of M. primigenius) it is correlated with the end of (i.e., bear, wolverine, deer, ). The presence of thin- the penultimate (Tazov) glacial stage (OIS 6) and the enamel elephants and mammoths, thin-legged horses, early last (Kazantsev) interglacial (OIS 5) (Foronova, polar deer, steppe bison, saiga and muskox indicates 1999). cold and arid periglacial tundra–steppes. Interglacial The Bachatsk Suite includes upto 40 m thick, Siberian faunas differed from the forest-oriented com- yellowish non-stratified alluvial loams and loessic munities in other part of Eurasia by retaining steppe and deposits, intercalated with 8–15 grey luvisolic and forest–steppe distributions, because of a more continen- chernozemic palaeosols (Zudin et al., 1982; Nikolaev, tal climate predetermining the overall character of the 1985; Derevianko et al., 1990a). Fossil remains mostly vegetation and biotic zones in Siberia. belong to Canis lupus, Panthera spelaea, Equus sp., E. The palaeontological records from the northern Altai aff. taubachensis, Coelodonta antiquititatis, Cervus ela- Plain and the foothills corroborate the evidence from the phus, Megaceros giganteus, Bison priscus and to an early Kuznetsk Basin. The fossil fauna content of the fourth form of M. primigenius. Rodent species (e.g., Lagurus Tom’ River terrace assigned to the penultimate (OIS 7) lagurus, Myospalax myospalax, E. luteus and C. interglacial includes, among other species, a large form erythrogenus) are indicative of a meadow–steppe land- of Equus sp., E. caballus, Ursus spelaea rossicus, scape. In the associated pollen records, open-steppe Microtus oeconomus, M.cf.arvalis, Citellus sp., Allacta- sporophyte palynological complexes dominate, with ga sp., Ochotona sp., and Lemmus sp. The third terrace prevalence (79–95%) of herbaceous taxa (mesophytes correlated with the last (OIS 5) interglacial produced and xerophytes), and maximum distribution of Grami- remains of Mammuthus primigenius and particularly nae, Compositae and angiosperms, and some arboreal steppe–/forest–steppe-adapted rodents (Microtus cf. taxa (Pinus sibirica, Betula sp.). gregalis, Lagurus lagurus, Ochotona sp., Citellus sp., The final, last glacial stage in the Kuznetsk Basin and some other). The typical Late Pleistocene fauna sequence is represented by 10–15 m thick lacustrine- (Coelodonta antiquitatis, Equus caballus, Bison priscus, alluvial clays of the Krasnobrodsk Suite. Cold-adapted Alces alces, Cervus elaphus, Panthera spelea, etc.) is periglacial tundra–steppe species dominate in the fossil associated with the second (mid-last glacial, OIS 3) fauna record (Mammuthus primigenius, Vulpes vulpes, terrace radiocarbon dated to 36–27 ka BP (Zudin et al., Ursus rossicus, U. arctos, Panthera spelaea, Equus 1982). A similar small and large fauna composition is przewalskii, E. ex gr. germanicus gallicus, E. aff. associated with the first terrace of the last glacial hydruntinus, Coelodonta antiquitatis, Cervus elaphus, (OIS 2). Megaceros giganteus, Alces alces, Bison priscus, Saiga Analogous fauna from the last glacial stage contexts sp., etc.). Pollen from peat lenses in the lower part of the documents the expansion of periglacial grasslands and formation reflects a swamped habitat with herbs, grasses tundra steppes in the boreal and sub-arctic zone of and some coniferous trees (mostly spruce). Cryoturba- Siberia. The tundra–steppe communities with Mam- tions and frost-wedge casts in the upper part of the muthus primigenius, Coelodonta antiquitatis, Lepus formation indicate a major cooling following the mid- sibiricus, Ochotona sp., Marmota, Spermophilus sp., last glacial interstadial interval (OIS 3). The overlying Stenocranius, Alopex, Putorius, Gulo gulo, Rangifer loessic sediments with weakly developed pedogenic tarandus, Bison priscus, and Saiga tatarica, as well as horizons (the Elovka Suite) and correlated with the last Cuon, Uncia and Capra and some other species lived in glacial (Sartan) stage (OIS 2) contained numerous fossil the unglaciated parts of the Altai and Sayan Mountains. remains (e.g., Equus przewalski, Rangifer tarandus) Faunal records from caves sites in the northern foothills including a progressive thick-enamel form of Mam- of the Altai Mountains inhabited by Middle and muthus primigenius (Foronova, 1999). Late Palaeolithic people provide evidence of rather In sum, the Pleistocene fauna of the Kuznetsk Basin diverse and very productive local ecosystems (Ovodov, includes mixed European–Siberian and, to a smaller 1975). Apart from the widely distributed of degree, the central Asian forms. The major importance mixed periglacial forest and parkland–steppe such as 146 J. Chlachula / Quaternary International 80–81 (2001) 131–167 mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, Siberian roe deer, red primary geomorphic setting, preference for a particular deer, moose, reindeer, bison and aurochs, more specific site location was determined by other variables through- species including Asiatic wild ass, argali sheep, Siberian out a longer period of time, having a direct relation to ibex, yak as well as numerous carnivora (cave lion, cave life-ways, the natural adaptation of the palaeolithic hyena, panther, wolf, red and arctic fox, brown bear, people and a specific function of the occupation sites. wolverine) and small species (northern pika, beaver, hare, etc.) are present (Vereschagin and Kuzmina, 1984). 8.2. Geological context The broad biotic variety bears witness to favourable conditions in protected river valleys and the intermoun- The Altai cave sites are situated in the Devonian tain depressions during most of the Late Pleistocene limestone formation with the earliest cultural horizons sustaining the local Middle and Late Palaeolithic at the base of the bedrock. Archaeological horizons at occupation. open-air sites are incorporated in aeolian (loessic) sediments, intercalated with lenses of proluvia and colluviated palaeosols that formed on the loessic 8. Early cultural evidence substratum. The Late Palaeolithic sites in the northern and central Altai are located in the entry zone of cave 8.1. Spatial distribution openings; buried in cover deposits on lower (4–20 m) river terraces; and on alluvial fans adjacent to mountain The spatial distribution of the palaeolithic sites in slopes. The Late Pleistocene climatic variations lead to a south-western Siberia shows that most of the sites are partial obliteration of the palaeolithic record in the situated within transitional zones between the southern central mountain areas that experienced very intense mountain ranges and the northern lowlands. These erosional processes as a result of the cataclysmic geomorphological zones, 75–150 km wide, form a drainage of glacial lake basins. Particularly, these river topographic relief belt of the 300-1000 m absolute valleys are believed to have been the most densely altitude, narrowing or expanding in respect to the occupied in respect to the biotic diversity of the particular physiographic character and the configura- intermountain setting and the local microclimate. The tion of the relief (Baryshnikov, 1992; Baryshnikov and mapped open-air sites are located in secondary or mixed Maloletko, 1999). This pattern of the geographic geological context (e.g. Tyumechin I and II) and are location, reflecting specific environmental adaptation better preserved only in smaller subsidiary valleys (e.g., strategies to local settings, applies for both open-air as Kara-Bom) or as cave sites in higher elevations well as for cave sites concentrated mainly in the (Tytkesken’, Biykonskaya Cave) (Shunkov, 1990; northern part of the Altai Mountains (Fig. 1). Baryshnikov, 1990; Derevianko et al., 1999). The Late The northern Altai in particular is known for the Palaeolithic sites from the northern lowland areas (Tom’ density of sites buried in alluvial, proluvial or aeolian River valley, the Kuznetsk Basin and the adjacent geological contexts (e.g. Ulalinka, Ust’ Karakol, Anui I, Gornaya Shoria Mountains) are buried in the last Dmitrievka, Tytkeskenj, Kara-Bom, Tyumechin 1 and 2 glacial loessic deposits overlying the II–IV river terraces, sites), as well as cave sites (the Denisova, Kaminnaya, but also on lower terraces of smaller tributaries, and on Razboinichiya, Okladnikova, Strashnaya, Logovo tops of high water divides (Markin, 1986). Gieny, Ust’-Kanskaya, Maloyalomanskaya, and Iyl’- In the high-mountain depressions of SE Altai (the chakskaya Caves) that produced the Middle and/or Late Chuya and Kuray Basin), the early sites are represented Palaeolithic cultural occurrences. The principal areas mainly by surface finds, although some isolated loca- include the Anui River basin in the NW Altai foothills tions with stratified geological context are also known. (Denisova, Kaminnaya, Razboinichiya, Okladnikova, The rather thin surface cover reflects the very low- Strashnaya, Iskra, Ust’-Kanskaya Caves; and Anui 1–3, sedimentation rate of aeolian deposits and intensive past Ust’-Karakol open-air sites); the Katun River basin in erosional processes characteristic of the continental the northern and central Altai (Tytkesken’, Maloyalo- upland areas of central Asia, including most of manskaya, and Iyl’chakskaya Caves; and Maima, Mongolia and the eastern Kazakhstan. Contextually, Ulalinka, Tytkesken 2–3, Kara-Bom, Tyumechin I-II the Pleistocene-age sites are associated with (a) the lower and other open-air sites); and the Chuya Depression in (Late Pleistocene) fluvio-lacustrine terraces, 3–4 and the south-eastern Altai (e.g., Kuyakhtenar, Boguty, 10–12 m above the present floodplain either exposed on Bidgon, Torgun, Yustyd). A patterned site location on the present surface (Kuyakhtenar, Boguty) or buried in slope or terrace platform near the confluence of two humic palaeosol horizons (Yustyd I, II); (b) proluvial/ rivers at several Late Palaeolithic localities is apparent alluvial fan deposits (Torgun); or (c) are situated on (e.g., Ust’-Karakol and Anui I in the Anui River basin; elevated (40–50 m) platforms particularly in the SW Tyumechin and Kara-Bom in the Katun River basin; Kuray Range foothills in places of local bedrock and Dmitrievka in the Byia River basin). Apart from the exposures (Bigdon, Chechketerek, Chaganburgazy) J. Chlachula / Quaternary International 80–81 (2001) 131–167 147

(Derevianko and Markin, 1987). Exclusively endemic In the broader Altai area, the earliest ‘‘pre- raw materials were used for stone tool production Mousterian’’ sites well-fixed chronostratigraphically is collected from local alluvial deposits or directly ex- Filimoshki and Mokhovo located in the coalmine area tracted from the bedrock outcrops (mostly felsite and of the Kuznetsk Basin (Derevianko, 1990). The Mo- occasionally vein quartz). Chronology of the local khovo Site 1, deeply buried in the Bachatsk quarry, is of palaeolithic records represented exclusively by stone particular significance in view to its primary geological industries can be extrapolated only from their general context. Sealed by 37 m of loessic, lacustrine and alluvial technological characteristics. Age differences between sandy deposits intercalated by a series of palaeosols, this the sites are also indicated by the differential degree of site was positioned on an old (Paleozoic) weathering aeolian abrasion of the individual specimens. The surface. The cultural finds referred to the Acheulian limited number of the mapped sites does not allow a tradition included 9 pieces of mostly rudimentary closer temporal assessment as well as a cultural worked quartzite flakes and cobble fragments (Fig. 6) classification of the cultural assemblages. In general, found with scattered bones of Mammuthus sp. and Bison the present material can be assigned to four chronolo- priscus (Derevianko et al., 1990a, 1992a). Biostratigra- gical stages according to the specific stone flaking phy of the site with the large as well as small fauna from criteria and referred to as the Middle Palaeolithic, early the record-incorporating Kedrovo Formation (Equus Late Palaeolithic, Late Palaeolithic and Final Palaeo- caballus cf. chosaricus, E. ex.ger. sivalensis-nomadicus, lithic (Derevianko and Markin, 1987). Coelodonta antiquitatis, Bison sp., Bos sp., Alces alces, Rangifer tarandus; Lagurus lagurus, Eolagurus sp., Pitymus sp., Microtus cf. gregalis, M. cf. oeconomus) 8.3. Chronological classification as well as of the overlying Bachat Formation (Mam- muthus trogontherii-primigenius, Dicrostonix simplicitor- 8.3.1. Early Palaeolithic henseli) support a Middle Pleistocene age, tentatively The Early Palaeolithic is the most fascinating of the correlated with the Tobol (OIS 9) Interglacial (Zudin Pleistocene cultural assemblages. The Ulalinka site from et al., 1982; Markin, 1996). A TL date of ca. 430 ka from the northern Altai foothills represents one of the first the overlying geological formation is thought to discovered and most intriguing palaeolithic sites in corroborate the chronostratigraphy of the Middle Siberia (Okladnikov, 1964), the authenticity as well as Pleistocene interglacial malacofauna assemblage from the antiquity of which have been a subject of debate for the artefact-bearing deposits (Nikolaev and Markin, decades. The cultural record was incorporated in a 1990; S.V. Markin, personal comm. 1993). The biotic gravely river alluvium and included a simply flaked (pollen and carpological) evidence from the upper part ‘‘pebble tool’’ stone industry. The age of the site has of the Kedrovo Formation shows a mixed forest–steppe been variously estimated to 690 ka–1.5 Ma (Okladnikov, dominated by spruce trees and grasses (Chenopodium 1964, 1982, 1983; Okladnikov and Ragozin, 1978; Ragozin, 1982) and less than 100 ka (Maloletko, 1972; Tseitlin, 1979) with a more recent time interval (ca. 150–40 ka) being more likely (Baryshnikov, 1990). The latest geological studies point to a rather recent age of the industry-bearing terrace (o13 ka BP) presumably formed during the last (OIS 2) Pleistocene deglaciation of the area (Baryshnikov and Maloletko, 1999). The pollen record from sand lenses of the alluvium is characteristic of the present habitat with mesophytic grasses (Cyperaceae, Urticaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Ra- nunculaceae, Rosaceae, Hypericaceae, Violaceae and Compositae) and the southern taiga trees (Pinus, Betula and Salix). Older (Middle Pleistocene) deposits are found as relics at the very base of the terrace, but their association with the stone industry has not been demonstrated. A possible presence of isolated artefacts on the former pre-terrace surface may be due to subsequent geological processes and a secondary intru- sion of these specimens during the later terrace Fig. 6. Mokhovo Site 1 (Kuznetsk Basin). A retouched quartzite flake formation. Palaeomagnetic investigations implying an from the archaeological horizon stratigraphically 36 m below the early Middle Pleistocene age of the cultural record present surface buried under the Middle Pleistocene lacustrine clays (Derevianko, 1990) leave the age of the site open. TL-dated to ca. 450 ka (according to Derevianko et al., 1990a). 148 J. Chlachula / Quaternary International 80–81 (2001) 131–167 album, Amaranthus retroflexus, Artriplex patula)in (Units 22–21) in the Anui River valley, the NW Altai. association with some aquatic taxa implying a warm Located in the Devonian limestone about 28 m above and relatively dry habitat. A Middle Pleistocene age has the present valley bottom (Fig. 8), the archaeological been suggested for a nearby site (Mokhovo 2) in view of finds (stone artefacts) were contextually associated with the archaic nature of the lithic industry with some 1.5 m thick clayey slope deposits. The lithic industry Acheulian reminiscences (Derevianko et al., 1990a), (112 and 45 pieces) with signs of the Levallois prepared- although the geological context implies a more recent core technique was made on clastic materials (porphyry, (mid-last glacial) chronology (Fig. 7). tuff, quartz, sandstone and siltstone) from the local river Other potential Middle Pleistocene cultural occur- alluvium. Numerous bone fragments of fossil fauna rence may come from the base of the Denisova Cave represented by steppe species (Equus sp., Bison sp.,

Fig. 7. Mokhovo Site 2 (Kuznetsk Basin). Stratigraphy of the Late Pleistocene section (the Bachatsk Formation) with a duplicate cryogenically disturbed chernozems of the Karginsk (OIS 3) Pedocomplex radiocarbon dated to 30,3307445 yr BP, overlying the early last glacial (OIS 4) loess and the last interglacial pedocomplex with the prominent OIS 5e chernozemic palaeosol (Unit 11) distorted by fossil frost-wedge casts during the following cold stage (OIS 5d). The upper pedocomplex (at the 2.5–3.0 m level) incorporated fossil fauna remains of horse (Equus caballus) and woolly rhinoceros (Coelodonta antiquitatis), and a specific Middle/early Late Palaeolithic lithic industry with archaic ‘‘Acheulian’’ elements, including typical handaxes. Legend: 1–13 stratigraphic units, 14 krotoninas, 15–19 micro(bio)stratigraphy samples (modified according to Derevianko et al., 1990a). J. Chlachula / Quaternary International 80–81 (2001) 131–167 149

northern Altai foothills. Excavated in the Devonian limestone of the Anui Range (Fig. 9), the site has produced, apart from the cultural records, a completed biostratigraphic sequence for the mid-last glacial inter- val. Pollen records from the main occupation layers (Unit 3 and 7), 14C dated to 42–28 ka BP, show pre- dominance of herbs and grasses (80%) with Asteraceae, Poaceae, Lamiaceae, Fabaceae, Chenopodiaceae and Artemisia in association with some mixed arboreal taxa (Betula albae, Salix sp., Pinus silvestris, Picea, Abies, Larix). The vegetation illustrates warm climatic condi- tions with some arid floral elements characteristic of the

Fig. 8. Denisova Cave, the Anui River valley, NW Altai Foothills. A general view of the Middle/Late Palaeolithic site in the Devonian limestone bedrock.

Coelodonta antiquitatis, Lepus timidus) as well as forest species (Megaloceros gigantheus, Cervus elaphus, Ursus sp., Vulpes vulpes) indicate a mosaic occupation habitat. Pollen of broadleaf arboreal taxa (e.g., Quercus, Ulmus, Pistacia) from the lower horizon attests to warm and humid conditions with a shift to a drier and cooler climate of open steppe in the upper layer (Markin, 1996). The assumed late Middle Pleistocene age is primarily based on the TL dates of 288756 and 224756 ka BP from the lower and upper part of Unit 22, and a date of 155731 ka BP from the Unit 21 (Derevianko and Laukhin, 1992). Supplementary dat- ing, however, is needed to confirm this chronological assignment.

8.3.2. Middle Palaeolithic The Middle Palaeolithic localities are particularly abundant in the Altai area and are represented by both cave sites (Ust’-Kanskaya, Strashnaya, Denisova, Ok- ladnikova, and possibly Kaminnaya) and open-air sites (Kara-Bom, Ust’-Karakol, Tyumechin I and II). These are assigned to the classical Mousterian stage dating to the first half of the Late Pleistocene (OIS 4–3). Earlier (last interglacial, OIS 5) cultural manifestations with a typical Levallois stone industry may come from the Denisova cave (Units 9–10), in the NW Altai, dated by palaeomagnetism to 115–80 ka BP. This chronological assignment, however, does not correspond to a more recent TL date of 6071.6 ka BP from the topof stratum 10 (Derevianko and Laukhin, 1992) as well as the Fig. 9. A stratigraphy profile of the Okladnikova Cave (Room 2, geological age of the cave formation estimated on the Section 2.1). Legend: 1Fhumic loam, 2Fyellowish silty-sandy basis of the Anui River erosion to a maximum of ca. sediments, 3Fbrownish-grey clays, 7Freddish-brown alluvial/collu- 60 ka BP (Panychev et al., 1988; Baryshnikov and vial clays with coarse karstic debris with inclusions of a redeposited Maloletko, 1997). gravely alluvium at the base above the limestone bedrock. The main concentration of the Middle Palaeolithic artefacts and palaeontologi- The Okladnikova Cave in the Anui valley is one of the cal remains originates from Unit 3 (14C dated to 28–42 ka BP) and principal, multistratified sites, providing detailed infor- Unit 7 (44–45 ka BP) (modified according to Derevianko and Markin, mation on the Late Pleistocene ecosystems in the 1992). 150 J. Chlachula / Quaternary International 80–81 (2001) 131–167 present central Asian semi-deserts (Derevianko and due to the lack of datable materials (Derevianko Markin, 1992). The recorded fossil fauna is character- and Markin, 1990; Shunkov, 1990; Derevianko et al., istic of forest steppe (Mammuthus primigenius, Bison 1999). priscus, Rangifer tarandus, Coelodonta antiquitatis, The key, open-air site Kara-Bom (Okladnikov, 1983) is Capra sibirica) as well as a mountain habitat (Cervus located in the south-western part of the Elovsk Depres- elaphus, Ovis ammon, Capreolus capreolus, Ursus arctos, sion in central Altai at the foot of a steepvalley near the Felis lynx, Panthera spelaea, Crocuta sp., Vulpes vulpes), confluence of the Altairy and Semisart Rivers belonging showing a wide exploitation range of palaeolithic to the Katun River basin. The local Quaternary deposits, people. A mixed taiga–steppe setting is also indicated mostly of glacial and glaciofluvial origin and related to by small faunal species (Lepus timidus, Castor fiber, the last (Sartan) glaciation, are relatively thin and usually Marmota sp., etc.) and rodents (e.g., Sorex sp., Citellus do not reach more than 10–20 m. Flat tops and cones of sp., Cricetullus sp., Arvicola terrestris, Microtus gregalis, the surrounding mountains (2000–2600 m asl) are formed M. oeconomus, Lagurus lagurus, Ellobius sp.), as well as by colluvial sediments, made of ‘‘kurums’’ (products of a wide variety of birds. The stone industry, largely made frost weathering), stone trains and bedrock outcrops. on local quartz, is characterized by the developed Glacial landforms, such as moraines (15 m high), Levallois technique with prevalence of side-scrapers drumlins and erratic boulders, upto 5–10 m 3 in size can and points in the resulting stone tools forms (see be observed along watersheds and the river valleys. Fig. 10). Several cultural horizons were exposed within collu- Analogous biotic records from Denisova Cave with vial deposits overlying a rocky bedrock platform, a suite of Mousterian horizons (Units 20B-12) (Figs. referred to as the Middle Palaeolithic (Complex A) 11 and 12) display a gradual shift from a dry steppe dated to 60–45 ka BP and early Late Palaeolithic (Unit 20–19) to a mixed taiga forest of pine (Pinus (Complex B; Units 1–6) dated to 45–30 ka BP (Dere- sibirica), spruce, fir with admixture of warm broadleaf vianko and Petrin, 1997; Derevianko et al., 1999). The taxa, including oak (Units 14–12), indicating warmer basal (‘‘Mousterian’’) layers (Units 1–2) produced a climatic conditions than in the area today. Remains of typical periglacial small and large fossil fauna (Marmota horse, woolly rhinoceros, bison, red deer, elk, bear, baibacina; Citellus sp., Allactaga sp., Equus sp., Mam- wolf, fox and other species attest to mixed inter-zonal muthus primigenius, Coelodonta antiquitatis, Bison sp., communities (Derevianko and Markin, 1992). A colder Capra sibirica and Panthera spelaea) indicative of cold climate of the following part of the interstadial interval and arid mountain tundra–steppe with isolated trees is indicated by pollen records from the Strashnaya Cave (mainly birch and alder). The upper cultural layers in the Charysh River valley (Unit 3) with increased (Units 6–1) associated with a mixed parkland/steppe proportions of grassland taxa (53–60%) dominated and temperate forest fauna communities (Citellus sp., by Artemisia and accompanied by arboreal species Allactaga sp., Marmota baibacina, Capra sibirica, Equus (Pinus, Picea, Betula) characteristic of a (periglacial) cf. hydruntinus, Equus sp. and Crocuta spelaea) and forest–steppe habitat (Derevianko and Zenin, 1995). vegetation zones, including warm-adapted taxa (nut- An earlier occupation in the Anui River basin from tree, elm, maple, lime) attest to climatic fluctuations the base of the Ust’-Karakol Site is manifested by during the mid-last glacial interval. poorly diagnostic artefacts from sandy-silty sediments The cultural remains (stone artefacts, fire-places and (Unit 19A) and a clayey pedogenic horizon (Unit flaked bones) were embedded in loamy and fine- 18A,B) radiometrically dated to 133733 (RTL 661), gravel slope deposits intercalated by colluvial and and 100720 (RTL 659)/90718 (RTL 658) ka BP aeolian sediments that formed an inclined terrace-like (Derevianko et al., 1996). At the open-air site Kara- surface leaning against a vertical rock exposure. The Bom in central Altai, an ESR date of 63,200 yr BP basal, 5 m-thick package of rock-debris, interspersed by originates from a sterile layer separating two Mouster- colluviated strata and sealing typical Middle and Late ian layers (Petrin and Chevalkov, 1993; Derevianko and Palaeolithic industries characteristic of the Levallois and Markin, 1999). A survival of the Middle Palaeolithic parallel blade flaking technique, respectively, and the tradition until the mid-last glacial interval (OIS 3) in the corresponding stone tool forms (Levallois flakes, side- Altai region is indicated by a series of radiocarbon dates scrapers, ‘‘beaked’’ and notched tools, retouched blades within a time interval ca. 45,000–33,500/25,000 yr BP and end-scrapers, etc.) suggests a long-term and/or from the Okladnikova and Strashanaya Caves corrobo- periodic seasonal human occupation of the locality. This rated by the palynological evidence with temperate was apparently conditioned by a favourable geomorphic forest–steppe species (Derevianko and Markin, 1992). setting with a south-facing slope exposure, a local fresh At present, there is no chronological control on the water source, by the abundance of quality raw materials middle part of the Denisova Cave section (Units 20–12), for stone tool production and of the migrating game. and other Mousterian sites in the Altai area (the Ust’- The Late Palaeolithic layers with rather non-diagnostic Kanskaya Cave, Ust’-Karakol, Tyumechin I and II) artefact forms, but apparent reminiscences of the J. Chlachula / Quaternary International 80–81 (2001) 131–167 151

Fig. 10. Okladnikova Cave. A typical Mousterian stone industry (Unit 7) with a biface (1), Levallois points (2–6) and side-scrapers (7–8) (according to Derevianko and Markin, 1992).

Levallois technique, suggest a continuity of the Late 8.3.3. Late Palaeolithic Pleistocene cultural development in the larger Altai area The emergence of the Late Palaeolithic in the Altai (Derevianko et al., 1999). region is related to the Karginsk (mid-last glacial) 152 J. Chlachula / Quaternary International 80–81 (2001) 131–167

Fig. 11. Denisova Cave. A Middle Palaeolithic (Mousterian) stone Fig. 13. Stratigraphy of the Ust’-Karakol Site in the Anui River industry made on local raw materials from from the Anui River gravels valley, NW Altai, with several Late Palaeolithic occupation horizons (scale=15 cm). radiocarbon dated to 28,700–31,400 yr BP. Complex post-depositional processes are evidenced by slopewash and cryogenic periglacial disturbations of the original occupation horizons as a result of climatic fluctuations in the Altai Mountains during the mid-last glacial interstadial interval.

Fig. 12. Denisova Cave. An early Late Palaeolithic stone industry characterized by the Levallois technique and displaying a laminar tendency of flaking. Fig. 14. Ust’-Karakol Site. Stratigraphy of the eastern wall of the excavation, with large limestone blocks incorporated in the mid-last glacial colluvium at the base of the section overlain by the Karginsk (OIS 3) brown forest soil and the last glacial aeolian sediments. The climatic warming and the triggered changes in the prominent chernozemic soil with the dark humic Ah horizon in the upper part of the profile topped by the recent slope colluvium attests to natural habitat. The principal localities, distinguished by intensive weathering processes accelerated during the early Holocene a laminar tendency of stone tool flaking in the (excavation V.N. Zenin). archaeological records, include the multicomponent site Kara-Bom (with the six occupation levels radio- carbon dated from 43,30071600 to 30,9907460 yr BP), 1996; Derevianko and Petrin, 1997). Except for typical Kara-Tenesh (14C dates from 42,16574170 to Late Palaeolithic stone tool inventories (retouched 26,8757625 yr BP), the Maloyalomanskaya Cave blades, end-scrapers, burins, etc.), ‘‘archaic’’ pebble-tool (Unit 3; 33,35071145 yr BP), Ust’-Karakol I (Unit 3; components, as well as microblade assemblages indica- 31,41071160 and 29,90072070 yr BP), Ust’-Karakol II tive of the Final Pleistocene development also appear (31,43071180 yr BP) (Figs. 13 and 14), the Denisova (Kara-Tenesh, Denisova Cave, Stratum 11; Iskra Cave, Cave (Units 7–8 of the terrace zone), the Strashnaya in association with a small bone industry) (Derevianko Cave (Unit 3B), Kaminnaya Cave (Fig. 15) and possibly et al., 1995). A rather exceptional element represents Anui I (Unit 3) (Derevianko and Markin, 1990; large bifacial foliate points from the Ust’-Karakol Site. Derevianko and Shunkov, 1992; Petrin and Chevalkov, The multistratified open-air site Ust’-Karakol 1 in the 1993; Derevianko and Zenin, 1995; Derevianko et al., Anui valley enclosed in polygenic (alluvial, slope and J. Chlachula / Quaternary International 80–81 (2001) 131–167 153

Gorna Shoria region in the Tom’, Kondoma, and Mrasu River valleys are manifested by the concentration of short-term occupation sites (Bedarevo II, Ilinka II, Shorokhovo I, Shumikha I, Sarbala III) including a specialized workshop site (Shumikha I) buried in the loess cover on topof the second, third, and fourth terraces (17–30, 30–45, 50–60 m), and distinguished by retouched blades in the lithic inventories predominantly produced on quartz (Markin, 1986). A gradual climatic warming with the approaching end of the Pleistocene completely restructured the former ice-marginal and periglacial settings in the Altai region invaded by mixed taiga forest leading to establishment of the present biotic communities (see Table 2).

Fig. 15. Kaminnaya Cave, the Karakol River valley, NW Altai Foothills. A view of the excavation with the Middle and Final Palaeolithic occupation horizons sealed in cryogenically distorted 9. Cultural development during the Middle and Late karstic and aeolian deposits (excavation S.N. Markin). Palaeolithic in the Altai

A broadly synchronous regional development with some specific local variations characterizes the Late aeolian) deposits incorporated a suite of Middle and Pleistocene cultural milieu of the Altai area. The earliest Late Palaeolithic horizons bearing witness to a certain sites with the diagnostic Middle Palaeolithic attributes continuity of the occupation of the NW Altai. The Late in the stone industry are characterized by the typical Pleistocene climate variations in the area are indicated Levallois technique and a high percentage of side- by the geological context with the Mousterian records scrapers, notched and denticulate tools on flakes, the (Units 17–13) sealed in the early last glacial (OIS 4) Levallois points and blades, as well as by bifaces colluviated, fine-grain deposits and with the Late (Figs. 10 and 14). The principal records from the Ust’- Palaeolithic records (Units 11a-8, 5) buried in light Kanskaya, Okladnikova, Strashnaya and Denisova aeolian (loessic) sediments intercalated by pedogenic Caves from the Anui River valley and the open-air site horizons 14C dated to 35–26 ka BP (Derevianko et al., Tyumechin I in the Ursuk River valley can be places 1996) (Figs. 13 and 14). A mixed forest–steppe with fir, within different facies of the typical Mousterian pine, spruce and alder from the early part of the mid-last (Anisiutkin and Astakhov, 1970; Okladnikov and glacial stage (OIS 3) is indicated from the Denisova Ovodov, 1978; Derevianko et al., 1985a, b; Derevianko Cave, Unit 11 (Markin, 1996). A cryoturbation asso- and Markin, 1992). Except for the northern Altai ciated with Unit 9, incorporating a heterogeneous Late foothills and the Katun’ River basin, analogous Palaeolithic complex, is correlated with the Konoshels- assemblages also appear in the southern upland depres- koye Stadial (33–29 ka) and linked to a mountain sions (Barburgazy, Bigdon, Yustyd II) (Derevianko and forest–tundra habitat. Markin, 1987) (Fig. 16). The increased density of the Late Palaeolithic sites in The appearance of the Late Palaeolithic cultural the northern parts of SW Siberia adjacent to the Altai complex in the Altai foothills, as an indistinct entity Mountains shows a spatial expansion of the occupation with some local technological variants, is thought to be into the former cold tundra–steppe zone of the preced- linked with a gradual transformation of the Mousterian ing early last glacial stage (OIS 2). In the Kuznetsk tradition in the local milieu by introduction of the more Basin, inhabitation during an interstadial interval is progressive elements during the early stage of the mid- demonstrated by open-air sites (Shestakovo, Mokhovo), last glacial interstadial interval (ca. 45–30 ka BP). This with the key (workshop) site Mokhovo 2 (14C dated to view is supported by the persistence of the typical 30,0307445 yr BP) associated with a steppe chernozem Mousterian tool types in the early Late Palaeolithic of the Iskitim Pedocomplex (Derevianko et al., 1990a, layers best indicated at Kara-Bom, Kara-Tenesh, Deni- 1992b) (Fig. 7). An open landscape setting is corrobo- sova Cave (Unit 11) and Okladnikova Cave (Unit 1, 14C rated by the fossil fauna represented by the typical Late dated to 33,3007520 yr BP) (Derevianko and Markin, Pleistocene species (Mammuthus primigenius, Coeolo- 1992; Derevianko and Petrin, 1997; Derevianko et al., donta antiquitatis, Equus caballus, Bison priscus, Alces 1999). The principal site in the Altai region, Kara Bom in alces, Cervus elaphus, etc.) (Derevianko et al., 1990a; the Kayarlik River valley, with the transitional Middle Derevianko and Zenin, 1996). The late last glacial and Late Palaeolithic stone tool inventories best climatic variations and the resulting ecosystems in the illustrates the complex nature of the cultural milieu with 154 J. Chlachula / Quaternary International 80–81 (2001) 131–167

Table 2 Chronology of the palaeolithic sites in SW Siberia (radiocarbon dates according to Ovodov, 1975; Derevianko and Petrin, 1997; Derevianko et al., 1996, 1999; Derevianko and Markin, 1987, 1992; Markin, 1986)

Chronostratigraphy Site (Horizon) 14C age (yr BP) Context Cultural record

OIS 2 Sartan Denisova Cave (Unit 1b) 9890740 Aeolian Mesolithic Glacial 10,800740 (microlithic 10,690765 and bone Iskra Cave (Unit 5b) Aeolian industries) Kaminnaya C. (Unit 11) 10,3107330 Aeolian 10,8607360 Denisova Cave (Unit 9) Cryoturbated Final Maima, Karaturuk Colluvial Palaeolithic Yustyd I, II Palaeosol (microblade Kuyakhtenar, Bidgon Surface industries) Barburgazy, Torgun Surface Kuyakhtenar Surface Tytkesken Colluvial Late Ilyinka II, Shorokhovo I Aeolian/Loessic Palaeolithic Shumikha I, Bedarevo II Aeolian/Loessic (‘‘mixed’’ Ust’-Kuyum (Unit 4) Aeolian industries) Ust’-Sema, Tyumechin IV Colluvial Dmitrievka, Shestakovo Aeolian/Loessic OIS 3 Karginsk Mokhovo 2 30,3307445 Palaeosol Interstadial Strashnaya Cave 25,0007(SOAN 785) Interval 28,7007850 (SOAN 2614) 29,90072070 (IGAN 877) Early Late 31,41071100 (SOAN 2515) Palaeolithic 31,43071180 (IGAN 1077) Kara-Bom (Unit 4) 30,9907460 (GX 17549) Aeolian/Colluvial 32,2007660 33,7807570 (GX 17593) 33,8007600 (Levallois 34,1807640 (GX 17595) and blade 33,000 (ESR) industries) Kara-Bom (Unit 5) 43,30071600 (GX 17986) Kara-Bom (Unit 6) 43,20071500 (GX 17597) Anui 1-2 20,3507250 Colluvial 27,1257580 Maloyalomanskaya Cave (Unit 3) 33,35071145 Kara-Tenesh 26,8757625 Aeolian/Colluvial 31,4007410 42,16574170 Ust’-Karakol 1 (Unit 2) 28,7007850 (SOAN 2314) Aeolian (Unit 3) 29,90072070 (IGAN 837) Aeolian 31,41071160 (SOAN 2515) (Unit 4) 35,10072860 Colluvial Ust’-Karakol II 31,43071180 Colluvial Denisova Cave (Unit 11) >37,235 Okladnikova C. (Unit 1) 33,3007520 Colluvial 35,5007700 (Unit 3) 28,47071250 (SOAN2459) 40,1007600 42,5007600 Colluvial 38,7257140 (Unit 7) 44.673.3 (TL) 44.874.0 OIS 4 Muruktinsk Kara-Bom Colluvial Midldle Glacial Mousterian 1 >42,000 (AA 8873) Palaeolithic >44,000 (AA 8894) (Levallois Mousterian 2 >62,200 (ESR) Mousterian) Tyumechin I, II Proluvial Ust’-Kanskaya Cave Colluvial Denisova Cave (Units 20b–12) J. Chlachula / Quaternary International 80–81 (2001) 131–167 155

Table 2 (continued)

Chronostratigraphy Site (Horizon) 14C age (yr BP) Context Cultural record

Strashnaya Cave Colluvial (Unit 3a–b) >45,000 Denisova Cave Colluvial (Unit 9–1) 66719 (TL)a OIS 5 Kazantsev Denisova Cave (?) Colluvial Interglacial (Unit 21) 155731 (TL)a OIS 7 Shirta (Unit 22) 224756 (TL)a Interglacial 282756 (TL)a Ulalinka (?) 15 ka–1.5 Ma Fluvial ‘‘pebble tools’’

a Derevianko and Laukhin (1992). a progressive development of both the Levallois techni- evolution, largely retaining a mixed ‘‘archaic’’ character que and the blade-reduction oriented technologies. The of the lithic industries with low proportions of ‘‘early Late Palaeolithic’’ collections display, apart from secondarily modified blades accompanied by microlithic the above archaic features (Fig. 12), a more progressive elements (Anui II, Units 8-13, 14C dated between 27 and one- and two-platform core blade extraction that 21 ka BP, the Iskra Cave) (Derevianko and Shunkov, predominates in the ‘‘classical Late Palaeolithic’’ collec- 1992; Derevianko and Zenin, 1995). The particular tions with retouched blades, end scrapers, burins, etc. stone tool forms are represented by foliate bifaces in A similar ‘‘mixed’’ technological character as ob- combination with end-scrapers, burins, side-scrapers, served in the Altai can be found in most of other Late denticulated and notched tools and chisel-like tools Palaeolithic stone industries in Siberia dating to the (Shunkov et al., 1994). Some specific local variants in second half of the Karginsk (OIS 3) interstadial interval. the Katun’ and Chuya River valleys in central and In the Transbaikal region, analogous assemblages, southern Altai also appear (Srostki, Ust’-Sema, Maima, representing a combination of both the Mousterian Urozhnaya, Ust’-Kuyum, Karaturuk, Yustyd I, II, and Late Palaeolithic elements, are documented at the Boguty) characterized by a parallel flaking and micro- Malaya Siya, Makarovo IV, Arembovskogo and Var- blade flaking techniques and wedge-shaped core varina Gora sites, and some layers of the Bryansk assemblages (Lapshin and Kadikov, 1981; Lapshin, cultural complex (Medvedev et al., 1990). They also 1982; Kungurov, 1984, 1993) (Figs. 17 and 18). At some appear in the Angara region (the Oka Complex) sites (e.g., Ust’-Kuyum) wedge shape cores come with (Volokitin, 1990) and the upper Yenisei area (e.g., both the Levallois cores and typical blade cores. Other Afontova Gora, Kamennyy Log) (Drozdov et al., 1996). chronologically broadly equivalent palaeolithic records An analogous facies has been recorded in synchronous are characterized by high proportion of ‘‘archaic’’ industries in Mongolia (Orkhon 1 and 7, Mol’tyn-am) scrapers and burins (Karaturuk, Maima). A specific and North China that testifies to similar processes of the Final Palaeolithic variant from the NW Altai foothills cultural development as in Siberia (Okladnikov, 1981; (Denisova Cave, Unit 1 with 14C dates of 9890740; Derevianko and Petrin, 1990). 10,690765; 10,800740 yr BP; Iskra and Kaminnaya During the following interval, i.e., at the end of the Caves) is distinguished by microlithic prismatic cores Karginsk Interstadial and in the early last glacial and microblades, and some bone artefacts, including (Sartan) stage, more progressive Late Palaeolithic composite tools (points) and ornaments (Derevianko cultures with the advanced technique of the prismatic et al., 1995) (Fig. 19). core flaking reminiscent of the European traditions These most recent stone industries have close equiva- emerged in vast areas of Siberia: on the eastern margin lents at the Final Palaeolithic sites in the Gorna Shroria of the West Siberian Lowland (Shestakovo and Tomsk and Tom’ River area, as well as in the Kuznetsk Basin site), in the upper Yenisei River basin (Tarachikha, (Markin, 1986). Analogous finds in the Yenisei area Afanassieva Gora, Novoselovo 12, Ui I), as well as in (Afontova Gora and Kokorevo II, Maina), the Angara the Angara River basin (Igetei I, Krasny Yar, Malta, River basin (Fediaevo), the Transbaikal region (Oshus- Buret’) (Drozdov et al., 1990; Medvedev et al., 1990; kovo), the Sagaiskaya Graben with surface finds and the Derevianko and Zenin, 1996; Vasiliev et al., 1999). Such adjacent part of northern Mongolia (Abramova, industries, however, are absent in the Altai area, 1979a, b, 1989; Derevianko and Markin, 1987; Dere- indicative of complex and regionally divergent cultural vianko et al., 1990a, b; Vasiliev, 1990, 1992; Vasiliev evolution in different parts of Siberia. et al., 1999) show similar tendencies in the final stage of In the Altai region, the previous development seems the Late Palaeolithic development over a broader area to have continued without any intermittence in the of southern Siberia. 156 J. Chlachula / Quaternary International 80–81 (2001) 131–167

Fig. 16. Barburgazy, Chuya Depression, southern Altai. A Middle(?)/late Palaeolithic stone industry (points) displaying attributes of the Levallois technique of flaking from an exposed surface site (according to Derevianko and Markin, 1987).

10. The palaeolithic of the Altai region in context of the (glacial/interglacial) changes in association with the Pleistocene peopling of Siberia overall early human biological evolution, leading to acceleration in development of new adaptive patterns The initial prehistoric peopling of the vast territory of responding to shifting natural environments. The ear- southern Siberia is closely linked with the cyclic climatic liest occupation of western Siberia is believed to have J. Chlachula / Quaternary International 80–81 (2001) 131–167 157

Fig. 17. Bigdon Site, Chuya Depression, southern Altai. A Late Palaeolithic stone industryFscrapers on flakes (1–3) and burins on blades (4–8) from an open-air workshop site located near a bedrock exposure at the Kuray Range foothills (according to Derevianko and Markin, 1987).

taken place as early as 800 ka, but certainly during some rudimentarily flaked stone tools scattered on the high of the later Middle Pleistocene interglacials prior to the (130 m) Ob River terraces, and also found within gravel last interglacial (Derevianko, 1990; Ranov, 1990a). alluvium. In view of their stratigraphic position and the The oldest possible cultural records are indicated by associated malacofauna, an Early Pleistocene age 158 J. Chlachula / Quaternary International 80–81 (2001) 131–167

Fig. 18. Yustyd I Site (Unit 2), Chuya Depression, southern Altai. A Final Palaeolithic stone industry characterized by wedge-shaped cores and a microblade stone flaking technique (according to Derevianko and Markin, 1987).

(>1 Ma?) was suggested. Other sites on the 50–60 m and TL-dated to 567–324 ka.) (Deviatkin et al., 1992). terraces date to the Middle Pleistocene (e.g., the These general chronological estimates would corrobo- Latamna Site with artefacts ca. 8 m below the surface rate the evidence from the adjacent areas of central J. Chlachula / Quaternary International 80–81 (2001) 131–167 159

SW Siberia, corresponding Early Palaeolithic occur- rences are known from the Minusinsk Basin, central Siberia, contextually associated with the 60–70 m Yenisei terrace (the Kurtak sites) and age-extrapolated to the Tobol (OIS 9) Interglacial (Chekha and Laukhin, 1992; Chlachula et al., 1994; Drozdov et al., 1999). In Tuva, analogous, mostly surface finds, characterized by side scrapers, bifaces and denticulate tools, originate from alluvial fan deposits (Torgalyk near the Ubsu-Nur Lake) (Astakhov, 1990). In the Angara Basin, east Siberia, the earliest palaeolithic records from the alluvial formations (Igetei) are assigned to a late Middle Pleistocene/the Samarovo (OIS 8) glacial stage (Medve- dev et al., 1990). In the adjacent parts of central Fig. 19. Denisova Cave. Final Palaeolithic ornaments and small tools Asia, analogous Early Palaeolithic records occur in tra- made on animal bones and teeth. vertine deposits in the arid zone of eastern and southern Kazakhstan (Artiukhova, 1990; Aubekerov and Artiukhova, 1990; Derevianko et al., 1997a, b) as well as largely exposed on the old deflation surfaces in western, central and southern Mongolia (Derevianko et al., 1985a, b, 1992b, 1997a, b), Derevianko and Petrin, 1990, 1995). Their geographical distribution in the presently arid and climatically extremely continental areas attest to more favourable and particularly humid environmental conditions in several stages during the Pleistocene. In Mongolia, the most suitable conditions existed during more humid early glacial stages with upto a 50–100% precipitation increase compared to the inter- glacial and late glacial stages. A mosaic landscape and the diversity of ecosystems with mountain forest–steppe, saline steppe and alpine steppe provided a variable potential for the early human inhabitation. The earliest sites are likely deeply buried in alluvial fan deposits, but Fig. 20. The Chuya River basin, SE Altai. A high-mountain semi- also distributed on the high river terraces located in the desert (ca. 2000 mw asl) characterized by extreme seasonal temperature former transitional forest/steppe zone (Derevianko et al., 1 1 fluctuations (+40 C/À60 C) occupied during glacial stages by vast 1990b). The recorded Early Palaeolithic localities proglacial lakes (up to 1000 km3 in volume) evidenced by a system of terraces along the basin’s margin. Due to a very low aeolian geographically concentrate on the southern slopes of sedimentation rate most of the Pleistocene occupation sites are the Mongolian Altai and Khangar Mountains, and the exposed on the present surface and concentrate near former river central Gobi Desert, with the earliest ‘‘pre-Acheulian’’ channel and on the lacustrine terraces. sites in the Narin-Gol River valley (Deviatkin and Malaeva, 1990b). The Early Palaeolithic occupation is assumed to have concentrated in the foothills during AsiaFKazakhstan, Tajikistan and Mongolia. In Tajiki- interglacial periods, and shifted into more open plain stan, the earliest sites, referred to as the ‘‘Loess settings during glacial periods. Climatic fluctuations and Palaeolithic’’ (e.g., Kuldara) predate the Matuyama/ differential amounts of precipitation are thought to have Brunhes palaeomagnetic boundary (>0.78 Ma) (Ranov, been the principal factors behind this geographical 1984, 1988; Lazarenko, 1992). The Middle Pleistocene distribution pattern. Parkland forest–steppe in the colonization is also assumed for the southern Russian foothill areas may have been the most favourable Plains in the area north of the Black and Azov Seas locations for occupation (Deviatkin and Malaeva, (Velichko and Kurenkova, 1990; Velichko et al., 1997). 1990a). Geographically, the earliest sites are distributed In greater southern Siberia, initial early human in southern Mongolia, whereas the later sites are found dispersal is represented by core and flake industries in the more hilly central and northern parts of the (Fig. 6) occasionally displaying ‘‘Acheulian’’ elements of country as a result of climatic shifts towards continental bifacial flaking (Larichev et al., 1987; Derevianko, 1990; climate, and more pronounced regional aridization Drozdov and Chekha, 1992; Markin, 1996). Apart from (Derevianko et al., 1992b). 160 J. Chlachula / Quaternary International 80–81 (2001) 131–167

The Middle Palaeolithic sites in Siberia, referred as to of kilometres point to migrations of early human the Mousterian or ‘‘Mousteroid’’ tradition and corre- populations, cultural diffusion processes and the con- lated with the last interglacial and the first half of the vergent development of the Mousterian Palaeolithic last glacial (ca. 130–40 ka BP), are geographically rather technocomplex. The existing anthropological evidence unevenly distributed, with the major concentration of from the Denisova and Okladnikova caves suggests a cave and open-air sites in the NW Altai foothills. In common phylogenic evolutional lineage with the other parts of the territory, the pre-Late Palaeolithic, ‘‘classical’’ Near Eastern and particularly European Late Pleistocene cultural records are scarce (the Neanderthals (Turner, 1990). Although infiltration of Pribaikal and the Transbaikal regions) or cannot be the new cultural elements by biological diffusion in the identified as a separate techno-chronological complex form of a direct migration or a gene flow process from (the Angara Basin) (Medvedev et al., 1990; Volokitin, the western and/or southern parts of Eurasia to Siberia 1990). The Levallois–Mousterian materials have been can be assumed, an independent origin within the local documented in the upper Yenisei Basin (the Tuva cultural milieu and a subsequent development is Depression, and the northern and southern Minusinsk envisaged (Derevianko and Petrin, 1997; Derevianko Depressions); yet most of these are represented by and Markin, 1999). surface finds only scattered on old deflation surfaces The appearance of the Late Palaeolithic tradition and or eroded from the primary geological context on its local derivates within southern Siberia is linked with the Yenisei River lakeshores (Astakhov, 1986, 1990; the climatic amelioration and the resulting shifts in the Drozdov et al., 1990; Drozdov, 1992a, b). In Tuva, a Pleistocene ecosystems during the mid-last glacial concentration of exposed open-air sites with mixed interstadials. The transitional Middle/Late Palaeolithic pebble tool and the typical Mousterian inventories have industries are principally distinguished by a high been mapped along the Tanu Ola Mountain slopes percentage of archaic tool types and persistence of the (Sagly) and at the Ubsa-Nur Lake shore referred as to Levallois technique in addition to the blade flaking the ‘‘Mousterian pebble tool tradition’’ (Abramova, procedures and the progressive stone tool forms 1985; Astakhov, 1986, 1990). Isolated occupation sites (retouched blades, end-scrapes, burins, etc., see Figs. 12 with lithic industries attributed to the Mousterian and 17). In terms of general cultural evolution, two tradition are known from Khakasia and from the separate Late Palaeolithic traditions in southern Siberia Kuznetsky Alatau foothills (the Dvuglazka Cave, Units seem to have co-existedFthe more progressive blade- 5–7) (Praslov, 1984; Abramova, 1985). A broad reduction oriented tradition derived from the local territorial variability of the Mousterian tradition in Middle Palaeolithic Levallois technocomplex; and the north-central Asia is also evident in Mongolia, with a conservative tradition, largely retaining the Early ‘‘Denticulate Mousterian’’ in southern Khangai area Palaeolithic (‘‘pebble tool’’) flaking (Larichev et al., (Orkhon 1, 7) (Derevianko and Petrin, 1990; Derevian- 1990; Drozdov, 1992a, b). Emergence of the former ko et al., 1992b). In general, it is assumed that the origin throughout the Siberian Late Palaeolithic shows that the of the southern Siberian and Mongolian Mousterian lies Levallois technique cannot be viewed in this cultural in central Asia, following initial development in the milieu from the same time-diagnostic perspective, but Near East (Okladnikov, 1964; Ranov, 1988, 1990b; more as a chronologically transgressive technological Derevianko and Markin, 1992). element. Apart from the Altai area, the corresponding The formal heterogeneity of the stone tool assem- sites are known in the upper Yenisei Basin (Kashtanka, blages from the Altai Middle Palaeolithic sites may Kurtak IV) and the upper Angara Basin (Ust’-Kova) indicate a local occupation asynchroneity and/or differ- (Drozdov, 1992a, b; Drozdov and Chekha, 1992). ent facies of the Mousterian tradition reflecting specific During the preceding cold stage associated with the ways of adaptation to local Pleistocene environments. Konoshelskoye Stadial (34–29 ka BP), survival of the The presence of springs or alternative fresh-water palaeolithic groups is evident in some parts of southern sources is an important element of the natural habitats Siberia (the West Transbaikal, the upper Angara and of most of the palaeolithic sites in the Altai area and the Yenisei areas, the northern Altai) serving as biotic neighbouring eastern Kazakhstan region (Derevianko refugia surrounded by extremely cold arctic tundra et al., 1999). In terms of the general lithic industry (Bazarov et al., 1982; Drozdov et al., 1990; Shunkov, composition (Figs. 10 and 11), certain technological and 1990). The Final Pleistocene colonization of southern typological resemblances can be observed between Siberia relates to a warm interstadial between 16 and the Altai Mousterian and the analogous Middle 13 ka, prior to the final cold (Younger Dryas) oscilla- Palaeolithic variants from central and eastern Europe, tion, and indicated by the expansion of the microlithic as well as central Asia, Kazakhstan and Mongolia technocomplexes with microblades and wedge-shaped (Ranov, 1984, 1990b; Derevianko, 1990; Derevianko cores (Fig. 18) as a result of new cultural adjustment and Petrin, 1990; Derevianko and Markin, 1992). The responding to transformations of the former periglacial cultural similarities over a distance of several thousands ecosystems. J. Chlachula / Quaternary International 80–81 (2001) 131–167 161

A successful adaptation of the Late Palaeolithic 11. Summary and conclusion people to the Siberian periglacial environments is explicitly indicated by open-air sites from the Arctic The climatic changes and the related shifts in natural region. The gradual northern expansion may have environments during the Quaternary in southern Siberia reached as far as north as the New Siberian Islands are well apparent in the geological, biotic as well as early and the Wrangel Island during the last glacial maximum cultural records. The broad distribution and differential (20–18 ka BP), when the continental shelf expanded and preservation of glacial landforms and glacigenic deposits the present islands were connected with mainland Asia over large areas of the Altai-Sayan Mountains attest to (Pitulko, 1992). Late Palaeolithic sub-arctic sites are multiple Pleistocene glaciations, with the penultimate mapped in the European part of Russia, with the (late Middle Pleistocene) glaciation being the most Byzovaya Site in the middle Pechora River, dated by extensive. The past glacial dynamics controlled by the radiocarbon to 28–25 ka BP and located 175 km south of regional atmospheric air-mass circulation flows in the Arctic Circle (Ivanova et al., 1989; Velichko et al., conjunction with the ongoing neoteotectonic activity 1997). The palaeolithic peopling reached other northern and river erosion shaped the geologically recent relief areas including the Oka and Lesna River basins into the system deepriver valleys and intermountain (Velichko and Kurenkova, 1990). Nevertheless, the depressions. The cyclic nature of glacial and interglacial northernmost parts of Eurasia were likely occupied periods led to periodic transformations of the local since the mid-last glacial interstadials, as documented by environments and generation of specific ecosystems a possible cultural evidence from the west-central adjusted to particular topographic settings and respond- Chukotka Peninsula (Laukhin, 1990; Laukhin and ing to climatic variations. Drozdov, 1991a, b), and the Nepa Site in the upper According to the present palaeontological evidence, Tunguska River region (Zadonin and Semin, 1990). the most distinct changes in the natural habitat in the However, the archaeological record from the Diring- broader southern Siberia occurred during the Middle Yuriakh Site in the middle Lena River basin (Mocha- and Late Pleistocene as indicated by the appearance of nov, 1992; Waters et al., 1995) shows that most of the new morpho-structural forms of large fauna (particu- Siberian territory was peopled during several much larly of the Mamuthus/Elephas lineage) with ‘‘thick- and earlier stages, sometime during the Middle Pleistocene. thin-enamel’’ dental system, corresponding to steppe/ On the other hand, vast glacial lakes in the interior forest–steppe and periglacial tundra/forest tundra, western Siberia during the late last glacial stage inhibited respectively. A pronounced climatic cooling around the Late Palaeolithic peopling in western Siberia between the Early/Middle Pleistocene boundary is manifested by 22,000 and 17,000 yr BP (Arkhipov and Volkov, 1980). large fossil fauna with emergence of cold-resistant Conclusively, the spatial distribution of early cultural species and corroborated by other multiproxy (palaeo- remains documents climatic instability over large parts botanic, geological) evidence. The fossil fauna records of Siberia during the Pleistocene. Some of the cultural provide a detailed biostratigraphical classification of the record from the last interglaical and the mid-last glacial Quaternary deposits in the SW Siberian territory as well interstadials was likely obliterated by erosion of glacial as a basis for palaeoenvironmental correlations with meltwater from the Altai Mountains stored in large other areas of northern Eurasia. proglacial lakes and released as cataclysmic floods, Palaeolithic inhabitation of the Altai area is closely which destroyed most of the older open-air sites on the linked with the Pleistocene climatic changes over the river terraces in the foothills and the intermountain broad territory of southern Siberia (Fig. 20). The depressions. Particular geographical locations of archae- accelerated Pleistocene neotectonic uplift, triggering ological sites indicate that environmental conditions intensive erosion in the river valley, restructured the during the early periods were generally more favourable local natural habitat. Because of the pronounced for palaeolithic occupation than during later periods. climatic continentality of the territory, even minor The northern sub-arctic and the southern desert areas variations in atmospheric humidity and heat balance had a reduced biological potential compared to the led to major changes in local ecosystems, particularly in present because of low annual temperatures (e.g., open basins and upland depressions. On the other side, Yakutia), extreme seasonality contrasts (e.g., the Arctic relatively stable environmental conditions seem to have coast), and/or low precipitation values (e.g., southern persisted in deep river valleys of the central and Mongolia). All these environmental characteristics northern Altai because of the high precipitation and applied to the Altai during the Late Pleistocene. the mildewing effect of the mountains well apparent in Consequently, a markedly different density of the the area today. Carboniferous and Devonian limestone palaeolithic occupation for particular areas must be formations locally excavated by the progressive bedrock anticipated. The early cultural records may thus be erosion to form caves provided shelter for a more significant indicators of past climatic variations in a permanent inhabitation of the Altai particularly in the particular area. more protected areas in the northern foothills and 162 J. Chlachula / Quaternary International 80–81 (2001) 131–167 the central intermountain depressions characterized by a in form of the Mousterian industries likely reflects local microclimate. Cataclysmic drainage of glacier particularities in adaptation to local settings including a waters periodically dammed by glaciers during glacial differential use of raw materials, but also a certain stages in the topographically higher southern, central asynchroneity between the sites, leading to some stylistic and eastern parts of the Altai Mountains had tempora- differences within the generally uniform cultural rily a dramatic impact on the local ecosystems. milieu. Enormous erosion processes associated with these major Dramatic cooling during the early last glacial stage events significantly reduced the preservation potential of led to establishment of full glacial conditions in the early occupation sites in the flooded areas with localities central and southern Altai and to replacement of boreal preserved in high topographic elevations above glacial forest by periglacial tundra–forest in the northern Altai basin waterlines. and by arid tundra–steppe in the adjacent lowlands of The initial peopling of the Altai region likely occurred the Ob River and the Kuznetsk Basins. Warm climatic in some of the Middle Pleistocene interglacials in the fluctuations between cold stadial intervals are indicated process of the northern expansion of warm-adapted by embryonic soils in the loess formations on the pre- biotic communities. Mixed coniferous and broadleaf Altai Plain and by some sparse cultural records in the forests were established in the tectonically active protected locations in the mountain area. Occupation of mountain areas with maximum elevations about the central and southern Altai was evidently impeded by 1500–2000 m. Parklands covered most of the adjacent inhospitable periglacial environments and expansion of northern Altai plains with continental depressions filled glaciers in the upper reaches of the Katun and Chuya by lakes and drained by meandering river valleys. valleys subsequently filled by large proglacial lakes. Warm and humid climates prevailed in the presently Progressive warming during the early mid-last glacial strongly continental areas of inner Asia, including interstadial stage (59–35 ka BP) caused wasting of the ice southern Siberia and the adjacent parts of eastern fields accompanied by releases of ice-dammed lakes and Kazakhstan and Mongolia. Abundant rudimentary large-scale mass-wasting processes. The former valley worked core and flake stone industries scattered on glaciers either completely disappeared or receded to the high river terraces and the former lakeshore margins of highest elevations where they survived as corie glaciers. the present arid basins attest to several periods of Mixed forests dominated by birch, pine, spruce and fir inhabitation and a certain environmental stability. invaded the former periglacial and ice-marginal land- There is limited evidence suggesting persistence of the scape. The presence of broadleaf arboreal taxa (e.g. oak, Early Palaeolithic occupation during glacial stages in lime, chestnut, maple) indicates a moderate climate southern Siberia, although some intermittent semi- warmer than at the present time. Appearance of the continuity in the southernmost areas (the Kuznetsk transitional early Late Palaeolithic records is linked to and the Minusinsk Basins) is assumed in view of finds of adaptation to new biomes, including sub-alpine forest, pebble tools from old periglacial alluvia in association dark coniferous forest, mixed parklands and open with large cold-adapted fauna. Mastering the technique steppe with particular faunal, including mixed, non- of fire making was clearly the main pre-condition for analogue communities. The identical geographical dis- early human survival in cold tundra–steppe and tundra– tribution of the Middle and Late Palaeolithic sites and forest habitats. the time-transgressive stone tool technologies and the Climatic warming with the northern invasion of resulting typological inventories suggest a regional mixed southern taiga during the early last interglacial cultural continuity during the Late Pleistocene in the preceded a shift to more continental conditions and Altai-Sayan region. open-steppe landscapes during the later stage. This Increased humidity and cooling during the later stage environmentally favourable period is linked with the of the interstadial interval (ca. 35–24 ka BP) initiated appearance of the Mousterian technocomplex and its colluviation processes and cryogenic deformations derivates in the broad territory of southern Siberia from related to the Konoshelskoye Stadial (33–30 ka BP) the Altai in the west to Lake Baikal and the Angara followed by warmer climatic oscillations with formation River basin in the east. The increased topographic of podzolic forest gleysols. Re-establishment of cold gradient, resulting from a progressed tectonic uplift re- tundra–steppe and tundra–forest habitats is culturally activated in the late Middle Pleistocene and from drier associated with developed Late Palaeolithic industries continental conditions, intensified erosion processes dominated by the blade-flaking techniques potentially and deepening of river valleys and mountain depres- surviving in the Altai area in the protected locations of sions. Changes in the relief influenced the local climate the northern foothills throughout the last glacial regime and opened new habitats for the Middle maximum (20–18 ka BP). Appearance of the microlithic Palaeolithic population largely concentrated in the assemblages with wedge-shape cores in the final stage of transitional zones of 500–1000 m elevation in the karstic the palaeolithic development is linked to the climatic area of the NW Altai foothills. 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The Upper Glaciations and Palaeoclimates of Siberia during the Pleistocene. Quaternary Deposits and Fossil Soils of the Novosibirsk Priobie. Project: Quaternary Glaciations of the Northern Hemisphere. Nauka, Moskva, 203pp. (in Russian). 本文献由“学霸图书馆-文献云下载”收集自网络，仅供学习交流使用。

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