2021

SPA at IU Journal SPA Journal at IU Spring 2021 Edition Journal of the Student Personnel Association at Indiana University

2021 Edition

Table of Contents About the Student Personnel Association at IU ii

Editors and Advisors iii

Letter from the Editors iv

Featured Articles Belonging in the 21st Century [Scholar’s Program]: Exploration of Sense 1 of Belonging Among Black 21st Century Scholars at Indiana University Bloomington Nicole Machovina, Madeline Murphy, Christine Salzman, and Angel Thornsbury

From a Dream to Reality: O. P. Kretzmann’s Vision for Valparaiso University 20 Joseph Finke

Black Student Perception on IU Mask Policy Enforcement 30 and General Feelings of Safety on Campus Valeria Hernandez, Taelor McCarthy, Jaelyn Millon, and Jeffery Waters

Setting the PACE: An Assessment of Political Engagement and Motivations 53 Among Students at Indiana University Elliott Beach, Ryan Carlberg, Abigail Gschwend Harris, Jacob Henry, and Shelby Kuepker

Scholarly Paper Sophomore Leadership and Identity Development in Men’s Fraternities 68 Elliott Beach

Former Foster Youth Application of College Transition Theory 78 Tyra Voget

LGBTQ+ Ally Identity Development in Religiously Affiliated Institutions 89 Jaelyn Millon

Contemporary Issues and Opinions Help Us, Help Students: Supporting Advisors During COVID-19 98 Ashley H. Burelison, Matthew M. Rust, Megan E. Chaille, Amber F. Huff, Madison Crist, & Grace Klosterman

Free Tuition in Higher Education 108 Jaelyn Millon

Guns on College Campuses 111 Jaelyn Millon

i SPA Journal at IU Spring 2021 Edition

Student Personnel Association at Indiana University

Higher Education and Student Affairs School of Education W.W. Wright Education Building, Suite 4228 Bloomington, IN 47405 812-856-8362

Editors Alice Dahlka, Dajanae Palmer, Imani Belton

Faculty Advisors Dr. Lucy LePeau

2020-2021 Journal Review Board Kaitlin Benson, Danielle Feijoo, Joseph Finke, Larry Locke, Esen Gokpinar-Shelton, Jeff Heerdink-Santos, Valeria Hernandez, Daria Ivleva, Nicole Machovina, Jaelyn Millon, Amy Nuñez, Jordan Salinsky, Rebekah Stergar, Kwan Wallace

SPA at IU Officers

President Johnnie Allen Jr. Vice-President Tori Burkhart Director of Finance Adlin Iskandar Director of Administration Sarah Braunstein Director of Member Relations Claire Berman Directors of Outreach Mackenzie Kirsch, Alexis Dilg, and Ash Errichiello Directors of Programming Matthew Nolan and Rachel Rabenstine Director of Technology Julian Thomason

The Journal of the Student Personnel Association at Indiana University is Published annually by the Student Personnel Association at Indiana University with support from the Higher Education and Student Affairs (HESA) program. The Journal is produced to provide an opportunity for HESA M.S.Ed, Ph.D, and Ed.D students and alumni to publish articles pertinent to the field of student affairs. The primary sources of funding for the Journal are alumni donations and support from current students within the HESA department. The important role that each of these contributors has played in the production of this edition is gratefully acknowledged and appreciated.

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SPA Journal at IU Spring 2020 Edition

Journal Editors

1967: Ann Paloney & Michael J. Wiener 1997: Suzanne J. Mendoza, Jennifer Forbes & 1968: Marily Liechty Alan Rose 1969: Dallas Bauman 1998: Jennifer Forbes & Ryan A. Forsythe 1971: George C. Dehne 1999: Naraiah S. Broadus & Christopher R. 1972: Jane A. Lundahl Turner 1973: Helen Mamarchev & Winnifred Weeks 2000: Brent Ericson & Jason Pontius 1974: Elizabeth Brannon, Robert Ciesliki, 2001: Valerie A. Sarma & Kelly A. Kish Barbara Moudy, David Stacy & Dann 2002: Drew Griffin & Victoria S. Pasternak Lobsinger 2003: Victoria Pasternak & Tara L. Sherwin 1975: Dann Lobsinger & Deborah Ann Alter 2004: Matthew D. Nelson & Tara L. Sherwin 1976: Dianne Burnside & Richard Scott 2005: Matthew D. Nelson & Ryan D. Padgett 1977: Susan Hopp, Frank Araiolo & Vince 2006: Laura J. Barnes & Ryan D. Padgett Carunchia 2007: Laura J. Barnes & Lauren E. Morrill 1978: Elizabeth A. Zavodny, Marc Kaplan & 2008: Eddie R. Cole & Lauren E. Morrill- Jim Scroth Ragusea 1979: Jim Scroth 2009: Eddie R. Cole & Autumn T. Harrell 1980: L. E. Wegryn 2010: Autumn T. Harrell & Mark E. 1981: B. J. Bischoff & Brian Pisaro Houlemarde 1982: Rodney P. Kirsch & Janet J. Wright 2011: Mark E. Houlemarde & Tracy L. Teel 1983: Nedra Hartzell & Daniel Salter 2012: Tracy L. Teel & Kelly L. Grab 1984: Susan Buffington & Diane Ledger 2013: Kelly L. Grab & Stephanie T. X. Nguyen 1985: Margaret O’Brien & David Stewart 2014: Stephanie T. X. Nguyen & Woody 1986: Lora Burnett & James Vander Putten Lawson 1987: James J. Holmen & James J. Hurley 2015: Bernard H. Lawson & Matthew D. 1988: David J. Strauss & J. J. Thorp Cramer 1989: J. J. Thorp & Patricia Harned 2016: Matthew D. Cramer & Kody K. Sexton 1990: Patricia Harned & Diane Robinson 2017: Kody K. Sexton & Drew Donaldson 1991: Diane Robinson & Anne E. Spitler 2018: Drew Donaldson, Rebecca E. Kates, & 1992: Anne Spitler & Lisa K. Mitchell Vandana Pawa 1993: Lisa K. Mitchell & Allison Block 2019: Rebecca E. Kates, Vandana Pawa, & 1994: Allison Block & Melody M. Snyder Autumn Kearney 1995: Melody M. Snyder, Lisa P. Lourden, Kelli 2020: Alice Dahlka, Autumn Kearney, & Kputska Smith & John Bean Dajanae Palmer 1996: John Bean & Kelli Kaputska Smith 2021: Alice Dahlka, Dajanae Palmer, & Imani Belton

Advisors

1960-1977: Elizabeth Greenleaf 1997-1998: Teresa Hall 1970-1971: Wanda Deutsch 1998-2000: Ada Simmons 1972-1976: David Decoster 2000-2002: Jillian Kinzie 1977-1982: George Kuh 2002-2004: Kate Boyle 1983-1987: John Schuh 2004-2005: Lori Patton 1987-1988: Don Hossler 2005-2014: Danielle DeSawal 1988-1989: Frances Stage 2015: Karyn E. Rabourn 1989-1990: Don Hossler 2016: Danielle M. DeSawal 1990-1996: George Kuh 2017-2020: Lucy LePeau & Gary Pike 1996-1997: Bruce Jacobs 2021: Lucy LePeau

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SPA Journal at IU Spring 2021 Edition

Letter from the Editors

Alice Dahlka, Dajanae Palmer, Imani Belton

It is with great excitement that we present the 2021 edition of the Journal of the Student Personnel Association at Indiana University (SPA at IU Journal). This publication is a collection of scholarly work related to higher education and student affairs (HESA) that is written, edited, and published by students and alumni of the masters and doctoral HESA programs at IU. 2021 has marked a significant milestone in IU history as the year of adjusting to the changes and transitions required by COVID-19. Though the on campus celebrations have been halted because of the COVID-19 pandemic, we wanted to make sure that the SPA at IU Journal was able to celebrate the amazing scholarship and achievements of the HESA students despite this year’s challenges.

The first edition of the SPA at IU Journal was published in 1967, featuring articles on a variety of topics that provide current students with a time capsule on relevant issues in student affairs throughout history. The SPA at IU Journal also helps keep record of significant milestones in the programs’ histories. At the conclusion of the 2019-2020 academic year, Drs. Gerardo Gonzalez and Gary Pike retired. Both had long and fruitful careers where they have positively shaped the rising generation of higher education scholars and practitioners. During the 2020-2021 academic year, the HESA programs were also fortunate to welcome new faculty. Dr. Vasti Torres returned to the IU HESA program as Professor and Department Chair for Educational Leadership and Policy Studies. We also welcomed Drs. Oscar Patrón, Maurice Shirley, and Cindy Ann Kilgo as Assistant Professors into the program.

The 2020-2021 presented an ongoing challenge to our academic and journal editing experience with the continuation of the COVID-19 global pandemic. Last academic year we dealt with the sudden response to the pandemic. This year we were challenged with learning ways to adapt and make the best of a fully virtual environment. We were able to adapt our training for the journal review board and include a training session for all prospective authors. SPA at IU Journal is a developmental process for all students involved. A testament to this development you will notice an author with multiple manuscripts, we love seeing students resubmit work because they are able to produce great work that can be published.

We wanted to ensure to include an acknowledgement of racial injustice that has been a focal point of the 2020-2021 school year. This school year in addition to navigating a global health pandemic we also navigated institutional and societal responses to the killing of Black and Asian folks across the country. These acts of hate and abuse of power set the background for everyone, especially with so much taking place in the Midwest and close to IU. We want to acknowledge the lives taken from us and hope to continue to publish pieces that push the higher education and student affairs community to advocate for change for those most marginalized in academia.

The 2021 edition marks the third year we have included a Contemporary Issues and Opinions section where we feature editorial style writing. Pieces in this section of the 2021 edition provide opinions on the topics of free college tuition and permitting guns on college campuses. This edition also spans a variety of timelines, ranging from O.P. Kretzmann’s vision for Valparaiso University to supporting academic advisors through the COVID-19 pandemic. We also have the pleasure of including pieces that expand current student development literature. Finally, we offer three original research pieces that provide insight into supporting marginalized student groups through the COVID-19 pandemic and examining political motivations for undergraduate students. This year, we refashioned our submission categories to be broader and allow a greater variety of manuscripts to be submitted. We hope that you see and enjoy these changes in this and future editions.

As the editors of the 2021 edition of the SPA at IU Journal, we would like to thank the authors who participated in this edition of the journal by submitting and editing their piece throughout a semester turned upside down by the pandemic. We also offer our thanks to those who served on the journal review board. iv

SPA Journal at IU Spring 2021 Edition Without the critical feedback of the review board, the 2021 edition would not have come to fruition. Finally, we would like to thank our advisor, Dr. Lucy LePeau, for supporting and challenging us as we sought to make changes and additions to the journal. Several months of dedication from each of the parties mentioned are required to ensure that the SPA at IU Journal upholds the HESA legacy of scholarship each year and the commitment does not go unnoticed.

Lastly, the Journal would not be possible without the continued support of the Student Personnel Association at Indiana University, financial contributions from alumni, and additional resources from the HESA program. With this support, the SPA at IU Journal is consistently able to provide a unique opportunity for master’s, doctoral, and alumni HESA students to experience the publication process and showcase their scholarship. We hope you are as excited to read the scholarship presented in this year’s Journal as we are to deliver it to you. Sit back, relax, and enjoy the 2021 Journal of the Student Personnel Association at Indiana University!

Alice Dahlka is a 2021 alumna of Indiana University’s Higher Education and Student Affairs M.S.Ed. program. She earned her Bachelor of Science in Human Resources Management from Oakland University in Rochester, Michigan. At Indiana University, Alice served as a Graduate Supervisor for Residential Programs and Services, the Practicum Student for Executive Data Review with the Office of Admissions, and a co-editor of the SPA at IU Journal.

Dajanae is a graduating PhD candidate in Indiana University’s Higher Education program. She earned her Bachelor of Arts in Psychology from San Diego State University and her Master of Education in Postsecondary Administration and Student Affairs from the University of Southern California. Her dissertation explores the community building and knowledge generated by Black women doctoral students as they navigate gendered racial microaggressions. She hopes to continue to support the growth and development of graduate students in her future position post-graduation.

Imani Belton is a first year Master’s student in the Indiana University’s Higher Education and Student Affairs program. She earned her Bachelor of Science in Integrated Marketing Communication from Winthrop University in Rock Hill, South Carolina. At Indiana University she serves as a Graduate Supervisors for Residential Programs and Services and Graduate Hearing Officer for the Office of Student Conduct.

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Belonging in the 21st Century [Scholar’s Program]: Exploration of Sense of Belonging Among Black 21st Century Scholars at Indiana University Bloomington

Nicole Machovina, Madeline Murphy, Christine Salzman, & Angel Thornsbury

Abstract

When students have a strong sense of belonging to their university or institution, they may experience gains in outcomes such as higher achievement and retention levels, but predominantly white institutions (PWIs) have traditionally had hostile environments for underrepresented student populations such as low- income students and students of color. We used an interview-based method to examine the sense of belonging amongst 21st Century Scholars students at Indiana University in Bloomington (IUB). The interview questions were constructed using four indicators within Museus’ CECE Model, and responses were analyzed using these same indicators to create a picture of the students' experiences at IUB and within the 21st Century Scholars Program. The results of the interview analysis formulated findings for future research and implications for the 21st Century Scholars program itself.

Keywords

Low income, students of color, sense of belonging

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Nicole Machovina is a 2021 M.S.Ed. graduate of Indiana University’s Higher Education and Student Affairs program and an alumna of The Ohio State University, where she studied Communication Analysis and Practice and minored in Psychology and Leadership Studies. Throughout her time at IU, she worked with Residential Programs and Services, including being a Graduate Supervisor for Willkie Center and McNutt Center. She supported academic initiatives with Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis’ Housing and Residence Life.

Madeline Murphy is a 2021 M.S.Ed. graduate of Indiana University’s Higher Education and Student Affairs Program and an alumna of the University of Tennessee. During her master’s program, she served as an Academic Advisor with the Hutton Honors College, as a practicum student with the IU Athletics Excellence Academy, and as an intern with Brown University’s Pre- College Programs. She plans to continue research in the future to add to the growing topics of student-athletics, academic services, and student development.

Christine Salzman is a 2021 graduate of Indiana University’s M.S.Ed in Higher Education and Student Affairs. She hails from Ohio where she attended The Ohio State University before moving to Portland, OR to be a College Access Coach for low-income students. A combination of her work and educational experiences have increased her passion for increasing college access and retention for underrepresented students through data, research, and collaboration. These skills aided her in this research study and are skills she plans to bring to future research projects to continue to make education accessible for all students.

Angel Thornsbury (she/her) is a 2021 M.S.Ed. graduate of the Indiana University Higher Education and Student Affairs Program and is an alumna of the University of Louisville where she studied Sociology and Communication. Throughout her master’s program, she held a graduate assistantship with Residential Programs and Services and completed a practicum with the IU Office of Student Conduct. She is vested in supporting students as they navigate living on- campus and plans on working professionally in residence life.

Suggested citation: Machovina, N., Murphy, M., Salzman, C., & Thornsbury, A. (2021). Belonging in the 21st Century [Scholars Program]: Exploration of sense of belonging among Black 21st Century Scholars at Indiana University Bloomington. Journal of the Student Personnel Association at Indiana University, 1-20.

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Introduction

When students have a strong sense of belonging to their university or institution, they may experience gains in outcomes such as higher achievement and retention levels (Strayhorn, 2012). Given the positive outcomes, it is important for colleges and universities to be aware of and contribute to a student’s environment to increase their sense of belonging. However, predominantly white institutions (PWIs) have traditionally had hostile environments for underrepresented student populations such as low- income students and students of color (Hope et al., 2018; Means & Pyne, 2017; Jack, 2014). To support low-income students, the state of Indiana has created the 21st Century Scholars Program which is a merit- and need-based aid program to increase college access and retention. At Indiana University Bloomington (IUB), nearly 20 percent of 21st Century Scholars identify as Black or African American (Indiana University Bloomington, 2020). Given the large population of these students on campus, it is important to explore how these students perceive the IU environment and experience a sense of belonging on campus. Prior to the mid-20th Century, Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) educated 90% of Black students pursuing higher education. However, “as education integrated, many institutions were not ready to meet the needs of African-American students, and as a result African-Americans were subjected to many challenges at PWIs” (Haywood & Sewell, 2016, p. 112). This ill-preparedness highlights the importance of researching and assessing Black students at PWIs as this data can “decrease the marginalization of students from historically underrepresented groups” (Singer-Freeman et al., 2019, p. 1). The purpose of this assessment project is to determine what factors affect the sense of belonging and campus climate that Black 21st Century Scholars perceive at IUB. The research team aims to assess the 21st Century Scholars Program benefits, requirements, and the general culture at IUB to determine what factors have the strongest influence on sense of belonging for Black 21st Century Scholars on campus. As the number of low SES students continues to rise at IUB, it is important to assess this population so the resources and knowledge needed to these students can be strengthened. Given these overarching themes in today’s field of higher education, the following research questions remain: RQ1. How does a student’s identity as a Black 21st Century Scholar affect the way they navigate the environment at IUB? RQ2. What are the factors that contribute to the college life experience and sense of belonging amongst Black 21st Century Scholars at IUB? Thus, by conducting one-on-one interviews with Black 21st Century Scholars and analyzing the data based on indicators from the Culturally Engaging Campus Environments (CECE) model as outlined by Museus (2014), the research team aims to answer the research questions and to fill the gaps in current research by providing the unique experiences of these scholars at IUB.

Literature Review

The research team began by utilizing relevant literature in the field to formulate the research questions. The team researched the 21st Century Scholars Program to see how it connects to sense of belonging. To expand on this further, research was done on low-income students, Black students, and how these identities intersect at PWI’s to impact the way Black, low-income students navigate their college experiences. Museus’s (2014) CECE Indicators were chosen as the framework for the interview questions due to how they incorporate these themes into considerations for practice.

21st Century Scholars

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There are many factors that can be attributed to the rise in numbers of low-income students going to college. In Indiana, one of the reasons is the 21st Century Scholars Program. This is a first-dollar scholarship program that offers full-tuition scholarships for qualifying students at universities in the state of Indiana. To qualify, students need to apply in 7th or 8th grade and have a family income under $48,470 for a family of four (IUB, 2020). Recently, an assessment of the 21st Century Scholars Program noted that it was successful in increasing enrollment; however, there has been little research to show if the program impacts student retention or completion rates (Kelchen, 2017). At Indiana University in Bloomington (IUB), over 3,000 current students are 21st Century Scholars (IUB, 2020). Due to the large number of 21st Century Scholars at IUB, “The IUB21CS is Ranked #1 in Indiana for the number of students receiving the 'first-dollar, full-tuition, need-based Indiana 21st Century Scholarship' at any four-year public or private university” (IUB, 2020, par. 3). In fact, the program just placed number one for four-year graduation rates, which is difficult to maintain as the largest program (OVPDEMA, 2020). Given the large number of 21st Century Scholars that attend IUB, it is important to learn more about how the program supports these students, and how this support may affect students’ sense of belonging on campus. Data from IUB shows that 90 percent of first-year, full-time 21st Century Scholars return for a second year (IUB, 2020). However, there is no data for retention rates beyond this, graduation rates, or the factors that may play into a student’s decision on whether to return to campus. To learn more about this, we plan to research the sense of belonging experienced by Black, 21st Century Scholars at IUB, because this information can impact the likeliness of retention for these students.

Black Students at PWIs

According to Fry and Cilluffo (2019), 10 percent of undergraduate students identified as Black in 1996 at public four-year institutions, and that number has only slightly increased to 13 percent in 2016. At IUB, Black students make up 4.9% of the undergraduate population (Indiana University, 2020). Despite this increase in Black students at public four-year institutions, Black students still face lower graduation rates. According to Payne and Suddler (2014), in 2005 the national graduation rate for Black students was just 42 percent. In addition to lower graduation rates, Black students also experience anti-validating experiences, such as microaggressions, or "the everyday, commonplace, and often ambiguous forms of racism faced by people of color" (Sue et al., 2007, as cited in Grier-Reed, 2010, p. 181). To cope with racial microaggressions, Black students rely on academic and social spaces referred to as counterspaces, “where a positive collegiate racial climate can be established and maintained” (Solorzano et al., 2000, p. 70). The Neal-Marshall Black Culture Center (NMBCC) is an example of one of IUB’s counterspaces for the 1,502 Black students as it “supports teaching, research, and service missions of the university, while also offering a positive and hospitable social environment for African American and African students, faculty, and staff" (Neal-Marshall Black Culture Center, 2020, p. 1).

Intersectionality of Black and Low-Income Students

This assessment specifically looks at Black Low-SES students in the 21st Century Scholars Program. Means and Pyne (2017) find that “low-income, first-generation college students are also more likely to be Students of Color” (p. 909). When looking at parents' income for dependents who earned bachelor’s degrees during the 2015-2016 year in the United States, 52% made less than $39,200 (Baum, 2019, p. 206). Based on a 2017 study on college student socioeconomic status and mobility, Indiana University students were found to have a median family income over $95,000 (Aisch et al., 2017). With a large population of high-income students, there is a stronger possibility of stereotype threat and a decreased rate of degree attainment amongst low-income students as they study alongside their high- income peers (Jury et al., 2017).

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It is important to consider the intersection between race and social class, invoking intersectionality as defined by Crenshaw (1991). Originally derived in the field of law about Women of Color, intersectionality focuses on the power, oppression, and marginality of Women of Color as a product of “intersecting patterns of racism and sexism (Crenshaw, 1991, p. 1243). This framework has since been applied to other marginalized characteristics such as social class. When studying this specific student population, an intersectional framework can be applied to the body of knowledge available. Of that body of knowledge, research indicates that “race and class in education are intertwined partners,” creating “a tango that negatively impacts college students who belong to racially and economically minoritized groups” (Sarcedo et al., 2015, p. 2). Bridges (2020) shares that colleges have historically struggled to retain and graduate Black students, especially first-generation students from low- income families. Despite the fact the assessment does not focus on first-generation students, it is a helpful context for the student population. Out of any race or ethnicity among students who started in four-year public institutions, “Black students had the lowest six-year completion rate of 45.9%;” and within the same period, 62.4 percent of all students finished a degree or certificate (Shapiro et al., 2017). According to the American Council on Education (ACE)’s Race and Ethnicity in Higher Education report that Black students were more likely than any other racial or ethnic group to be low- income (Espinosa et al., n.d). Over half of all dependent Black students were low-income (51.4 percent), and 65.4 percent of independent Black students were low-income (Espinosa et al., n.d).This is problematic as “socioeconomic gaps in college enrollment and attainment have widened over time, despite increasing returns to postsecondary education and significant policy efforts to improve access” (Page & Scott-Clayton, 2016, para. 4). Despite the gaps in degree attainment, numbers of students from low-income backgrounds enrolling in an institution of higher education have been on the rise. This increase is especially true of public four-year institutions, where “17 percent of dependent undergraduates were classified as being in poverty, compared to 12 percent in 1996” (Fry & Cilluffo, 2019). While enrollment increases are positive, it is worrisome that there are still large gaps in degree attainment between low-income students and their middle- to high-income counterparts. This gap indicates poor retention for low-income students which is harmful because it can leave students with college debt and no degree. The disparities in graduation rates between students of low- and high-income are the result of a variety of factors including psychological barriers, such as students’ identity management, otherwise known as sense of belonging (Jury et al., 2017, p. 25). This can be influenced by a student’s ability to be involved on campus or need to work. Another influence is that of stereotype threat, where low-income students succumb to the negative stereotype that they are not competent enough to graduate, and these stereotypes are largely influenced by the culture of the institution the student attends (Jury et al., 2017).

Sense of Belonging

According to student development research, one significant indicator of retention is a student’s sense of belonging (Strayhorn, 2012; Means & Pyne, 2017). Sense of belonging “refers to students’ perceived social support on campus, a feeling or sensation of connectedness, the experience of mattering or feeling cared about, accepted, respected, valued by, and important to the group (e.g., campus community) or others on campus (e.g., faculty, peers)” (Strayhorn, 2012, p. 3). Having a positive impact on a student's sense of belonging can increase their likeliness to persist to degree completion. A student’s sense of belonging can be impacted in a variety of ways. Some ways are learning communities, learning centers, student organizations, faculty members, peers, and academic advising (Means & Pyne, 2017). Ability to participate in some of these programs can unintentionally exclude low- income students due to the time and money needed to be involved. “Due largely to a lack of resources, low-income, first-generation students are more likely to live and work off-campus and to take classes part-time while working fulltime, which limits the amount of time they spend on campus” (Engle & Tinto, 2008, p. 3).

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Students who are taking out loans and working throughout college are less likely to engage in activities that can contribute to sense of belonging. Recognizing this, 21st Century Scholars works to provide students with a tuition scholarship, also including opportunities as part of the program. Specifically, 21st Century Scholars at IUB have access to advising, peers from similar backgrounds, student organizations, learning centers, and access to faculty.

CECE as a Framework

As it relates to the environmental assessment purposes for this research, the Culturally Engaging Campus Environments (CECE) Model as designed by Museus (2014) was invoked to gauge how college environments influence sense of belonging. Museus (2014) finds that “campus racial climates and cultures influence the adjustment, engagement, and success of racially diverse populations in profound ways” (p. 191). This Model is created as a response to Tinto’s theory of college student success, which is critiqued for “its application to the experiences and outcomes of racially diverse student populations” (Museus, 2014, p. 194). To speak to those racially diverse student experiences, Museus (2014) proposes the CECE Model that “underscores the environmental and individual influences on college success” (p. 207). Overall, Museus (2014) finds that undergraduate students will show a greater sense of belonging if they are met with more “culturally engaging campus environments” (p. 210). The CECE Model finds that there are nine indicators of culturally engaging campus environments. Museus (2014) finds that sense of belonging is a “valid construct among racially diverse student populations and a significant predictor of success in college” (p. 214). The assessment was framed with the foundation of the following indicators: cultural familiarity, cultural validation, humanized educational environments, and holistic support. While all of the indicators have value, the aforementioned four apply most to the assessment as it relates to sense of belonging among students who hold marginalized identities on IUB’s campus. Museus (2014) described the four indicators as follows: ● Cultural Familiarity: “The extent to which students have opportunities to connect with faculty, staff, and peers who share and understand their cultural backgrounds and experiences” (National Institute for Transformation and Equity [NITE], 2017, para. 5). ● Cultural Validation: “Campus cultures that validate the cultural backgrounds, knowledge, and identities of diverse students” (NITE, 2017, para. 5). ● Humanized Educational Environments: “Availability of opportunities to develop meaningful relationships with faculty and staff who care about and are commitment to those students’ success” (NITE, 2017, para. 5). ● Holistic Support: “College students’ access to at least one faculty or staff member that they are confident will provide the information they need, offer the help they seek, or connect them with the information or support they require regardless of the issue they face” (NITE, 2017, para. 5). The four CECE indicators were used to create questions for the interviews to gather data. Each question is associated with a specific CECE indicator. By having the CECE indicators drive the questions, the research team is incorporating the method of inductive data analysis, so the findings emerge from the data rather than assumption (Schuh et al., 2016). According to Museus and Neville (2012), college students of color benefit from connections who understand their background or experiences. As a sense of belonging relies significantly on relationships and given the fact that the focus of this assessment is on the experiences of Black students at IUB, these indicators are vital to incorporate as they focus on campus cultures that highlight and support the cultural backgrounds, knowledge, and identities of diverse students (Museus, 2014). Overall, the indicators will aid the researchers’ understanding of support systems at IUB and how the students navigate IUB as a Black 21st Century Scholar.

Methods

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To answer the following overarching questions, the research team took a qualitative approach through interview-based research: RQ1. What are the factors that contribute to the college life experience and sense of belonging amongst Black 21st Century Scholars at IUB? RQ2. How does a student’s identity as a Black 21st Century Scholar affect the way they navigate the environment at IUB? A qualitative approach was most appropriate for this study as it allowed for a purposeful design in a natural setting and, in turn, created a holistic perspective on the unique case of each participant (Merriam, 2009). The research team also incorporated phenomenology as a strategy of inquiry. Phenomenology is rooted in philosophy, psychology, and education, and it is primarily used to explain phenomena amongst populations, such as students, by documenting their personal reflections through interview formats (Creswell et al., 2007). This approach also allowed for inductive data analysis for “findings to emerge from the data, ideally without predetermined assumptions” (Schuh et al., 2016, p. 121). Thus, the research questions focused on the stories of the participants and identified the differences and commonalities between the participants' experiences both in college and within the 21st Century Scholars program.

Sample

The sample consisted of IUB students who identified as Black and who were members of the 21st Century Scholars program. The students were referred to by pseudonyms throughout the study to maintain privacy and confidentiality. In order to recruit participants based on the sampling criterion, an interest survey was created and provided to prospective students through distribution from the Director of the 21st Century Scholars Program, the Neal Marshall Black Cultural Center, Groups Scholars Program, 21st Century Scholars Leadership Corps, and the Black Student Union at IUB.

Data Collection

To initiate the data collection process, a short demographic survey, created and housed on Qualtrics, was sent to potential participants to complete virtually. All responses were collected and stored through the Qualtrics system, with results being shared amongst the four researchers for this project. The research team worked with the Director of the IUB 21st Century Scholars Program, Dr. Vincent Isom, and the Associate Director of the Neal-Marshall Black Cultural Center at IUB, Dr. Gloria Howell, to distribute the survey to prospective students. The team also created a flyer including information about the study and a QR code to the survey to send to the Group Scholars Program, the Black Student Union, and the 21st Century Scholars Leadership Corps to further increase recruitment efforts. After two weeks of recruiting participants, 13 students completed the demographic survey. The research team created and emailed the prospective participants a Doodle Poll, consisting of two weeks of available times for participants to sign up for a 60-minute interview time slot. After sending out three reminder emails about signing up for interview times and at the two weeks provided in the Doodle Poll, the research team interviewed three students. Due to COVID-19, these interviews were conducted via Zoom and were recorded using the Zoom recording feature. Participants were made aware that the interviews were to be recorded at the start of the call to allow for informed consent and transparency in the research process. All Zoom recordings were saved in the IUB Kaltura software system to assist in the transcription process, and the transcripts were added to the Microsoft Teams folder to ensure security and safety for the participants.

Data Analysis

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After the three recorded interviews, the researchers individually reviewed transcripts to create categories based on the four CECE indicators (Cultural Familiarity, Cultural Validation, Humanized Educational Environments, Holistic Support) that were originally used to formulate the interview questions. Since each question was associated with a specific indicator, key terms and common verbiage within each response was coded and categorized by its corresponding indicator. Following individual coding, the team met as a group to compare the given categories for consistency and to find themes. In the group coding process, the data for each indicator was divided into three sections: Student experiences and 21st Century Scholars Program and IUB efforts that are positive, those that are negative, and what should happen within the 21st Century Scholars Program and IUB. These three sub-categories allowed the group to notice four evident themes within the data based on common responses, references, terms, and experiences: Campus Culture for Black Students at IUB, Faculty and Staff Relationships, Resources and Opportunities within the 21st Century Scholars Program, and Finances.

Positionalities of the Researchers

All the researchers are second year graduate students in the Higher Education and Student Affairs M.S.Ed. master's program. The researchers have experiences ranging from college access, residential life, academic advising, and educational attainment. Combined, the research team has a collective interest in supporting students with marginalized identities as they navigate the collegiate environment and persist to graduation. Most specifically, research interests among the team lie with low-income and first-generation college students succeeding in higher education. One of the researchers has a vested interest in studying 21st Century Scholars as a low-income student herself, while the rest of the researchers acknowledge that they come from middle class backgrounds and how that has shaped their college experiences thus far. From these backgrounds and various passion areas, the team is passionate about identifying ways to support low-income college students within the 21st Century Scholars program. The research team also recognizes that they collectively self-identify as white and are studying Black student experiences within the 21st Century Scholars Program. Formally acknowledging that the team is studying a racial/ethnic group that no one within the team identifies with, the researchers are taking a phenomenological approach to data collection in the research process. The researchers have not created any specific assumptions or hypotheses to collect from the data, but rather are focusing specifically on the experiences of Black 21st Century Scholars who complete the interview process. To avoid generating preconceptions about a student population they do not identify with, this research approach is purely to gain understanding. As white student affairs professionals, the researchers acknowledge that it is vital to engage in working with student populations that are minoritized within higher education. Through this research process, the team aims to gain a more focused understanding of the experiences of Black students in the 21st Century Scholars program and hope to utilize their findings towards recommendations for the program.

Findings

The research team interviewed Zara, Charlotte, and Peyton; all of whom are IUB students that identify as Black. These students hold a variety of roles on campus. Charlotte is currently a Resident Assistant (RA). Both Zara and Charlotte are members of the Hudson and Holland Scholars Program, which is housed under OVPDEMA. Peyton is a member of the Group Scholars Program, which is also housed in the same functional area. Based on the data analysis, the research team found the following four themes: Campus Culture for Black Students at IUB, Faculty and Staff Relationships, Resources and Opportunities within the 21st Century Scholars Program, and Finances.

Campus Culture

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Campus culture has been defined in several ways throughout the history of higher education, but ultimately it is characterized by the university’s “history, mission, physical settings, norms, traditions, values, practices, beliefs, and assumptions which guide the behavior of individuals and groups in an institution of higher education” (Kuh & Hall, 1993, p. 2). Based on the three interviews, the students provided both positive and negative experiences that contribute to the campus culture of IUB. Regarding the positive experiences expressed in the interviews, all three of the students highlighted their different forms of involvement on campus. Charlotte discussed her involvement within the Black Student Union, through which she can create a sense of community amongst students who share her same racial identity, and Zara mentioned her involvement with the Black IU Tailgates, where she is also able to be around people who share her same identity. Zara: I just felt like I belonged [at the Black IU tailgate] because it was people that I related to...you relate more to someone who most likely is the same skin color as you. In addition to racial identity, Peyton touched on his involvement in a soccer club at IUB, which consists of other students that share his same passions and interests, fostering a sense of belonging on campus. All these students’ involvement opportunities were found to correlate with the CECE indicator of cultural validation as these experiences “validate the cultural backgrounds, knowledge, and identities” of the students (NITE, 2017, para. 5). As noted throughout the interviews, most of the students’ peer interactions were occurring outside of the 21st Century Scholars Program. It became evident that the students felt the Program lacked a sense of community. Although the location of the 21st Century Scholars Program is said to have offered a type of counterspace for the students to feel comfortable and relaxed on campus, involvement and community building was an individual effort. Yet, despite this lack of community within the Program, the students expressed growth in themselves through their individual efforts to find a sense of belonging. For example, Charlotte expressed the sense of accomplishment and further validation she felt through her work. Charlotte: I feel like now as a sophomore I can see a huge change within myself, like high school feels such a long time ago...A moment that affirmed my decision to attend IU would probably be...when I first got the RA job or when I made the Dean’s list. Despite these positive aspects of IUB’s campus culture and fostered sense of belonging, the students also expressed the negative experiences they have had throughout their time, thus, affecting the culture they perceive at IUB. Peyton discussed his time in the Quarantine and Isolation Housing when he first arrived on campus and tested positive for COVID-19. Peyton: I had to quarantine in Ashton and that experience wasn't so great because...it wasn't just like a really good living condition. I would assume that because if you're sick, they supposed to take care of you and make sure you're comfortable and check on you and make sure you’re okay. It's actually not that way. Charlotte and Zara both talked their experiences with anti-validation on campus through racist events and microaggressions. Charlotte: One thing I've really realized since I've been here are like microaggressions...I heard of them but had never experienced them. Zara: They were putting like KKK posters in Eigenmann. And so that kind of made me like question IU a little bit too. All these instances were found to have negatively affected the students’ feelings of cultural validation and made them question their place on campus.

Resources and Opportunities

In addition to the connections and relationships the students have made through the 21st Century Program and throughout their time at IUB, they also emphasized the resources and opportunities they have received through the program. With two of the key areas of focus of the 21st Century Scholars Program being “student engagement and enrichment” and “career exploration and preparation,” each

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student mentioned the large number of opportunities the program offers them to excel at IUB (IUB, 2020). Peyton: 21st Century does send out a lot of emails...there's canvas page for groups and 21st century. And there's so many resources for leadership opportunities or mentorship. Zara: And they'll send opportunities. Yeah, like a lot of the events that they have and also send opportunities that kind of relate to your Major. Like they'll send like stem opportunities for like minorities. And stuff that I probably wouldn’t see if I wasn’t in 21st century scholars...they try to give us as many resources as they can. The opportunities and resources the program offers their students plays a large role in their focus on providing Holistic Support. In addition, the CECE indicator of Humanized Educational Environments was also observed throughout the interviews as the 21st Century email list that Peyton mentioned is how Charlotte found the FASE Mentorship program, which provided her with the “opportunities to develop meaningful relationships with faculty and staff” (NITE, 2017, para. 5). Charlotte: The whole reason I found out about the FASE mentorship because it was like a part of like a newsletter that the 21st century scholars sent out. It told us different things on how to be involved and ways just try different outreach tools. Overall, the interviews conveyed that these resources and opportunities have had positive and lasting impacts on their experiences at IUB and within the 21st Century Scholars Program.

Faculty and Staff Relationships

In addition to student experiences and opportunities on campus and perceptions towards culture, another theme that was commonly found throughout the interviews were the students’ relationships to the faculty and staff on campus and within the 21st Century Scholars Program itself. The most common type of staff relationship discussed was that with the students’ advisors, particularly their advisor within their 21st Century Scholars Program. For both Zara and Charlotte, they consistently mentioned their Hudson and Holland advisor Dr. Miriam Attenoukon, Mimi, whom they felt they could go to for questions and concerns that centered around both academic and personal topics. Zara: I literally love my Hudson and Holland advisor. Her name is Mimi and I love her like she was one of the staff and faculty members I was talking about that can like- I can just talk to about like my mental health or how my week has been going and things of that sort doesn't always have to be school, school, school. Charlotte: For starters, my advisor in Hudson is named Mimi...every time I have question, I still go to Mimi. Peyton, who is a part of the Groups Program at IUB, would primarily utilize his Groups advisor, Ms. Berry, as a resource for academic and personal support. In fact, Peyton emphasized that his relationship with Ms. Berry is what keeps him connected to IU. Peyton: If I lose connection with IU, she could be the only one who can actually put me in that situation to reconnect and kind of give me the opportunities to find other resources to kind of get back to where I was. In addition to these advisor relationships, Zara also expressed her positive relationships with professors that have created a sense of validation and belonging. Zara: It's honestly really surprising because...I pass a teacher or professor and they'll know my name. It’s kind of assuring. Through these faculty and staff relationships, it was evident that these responses connected to the CECE indicators of Cultural Familiarity and Holistic support as the students were able to “connect with faculty, staff, and peers who share and understand their cultural backgrounds and experiences” and felt that they are “[provided] the information they need, [and offered] the help they seek” through those relationships (NITE, 2017, para. 5). Despite these positive connections to the IUB faculty and staff, the students also expressed some areas in which their relationship with the 21st Century Scholars Programs staff could be stronger. For

10 SPA Journal at IU Spring 2021 Edition instance, the students expressed a lack of connection to the general 21st Century Scholars Program aside from their specific department, such as Hudson and Holland and Groups. In fact, during a mandatory program for the 21st Century, Charlotte recalled that she could not remember the names of the 21st Century staff members that led the event, and she felt that there was a lack of follow-up communication on their part. Charlotte: I do not remember these two people's names at all. However, it was like a mandatory meeting about how to go super 21st century. It was a man and a woman that facilitated it. I really wish I could remember their names. Although the stronger connections they have made with their assigned advisors have overpowered the potential negative effects of this occurrence, it can still be viewed as a shortcoming on the program’s focus on creating lasting connections between students and staff.

Finances

Alongside the three previously discussed themes, the most common theme to be brought up in each interview was that of finances. When asked the students’ reason for attending IUB, each responded that they were given full tuition paid scholarships to attend the university and be a part of the 21st Century Scholars Program. Charlotte: Alright, so firstly, I chose to attend IU just because they gave me the most money. I had a scholarship to go here. And you know, being a first-generation student was like really convenient. Peyton: The reason why I chose to attend the IU Bloomington was because I got accepted into the Group Scholars Program....Basically mostly, I think for me, it's mostly like financially. Zara: I also got a full ride scholarship on top of being a 21st and do scholars….So that also factored into it. As low-income students, the aspect of financials is very important and highly beneficial to these students as the program pays for their education and preparation for their futures. However, the focus on finances was the students’ primary connection to the 21st Century Scholars Program itself, creating its own unique problem of disconnect. In other words, the students expressed that they utilized the programs resources, such as advisors and staff, solely for financial questions and advice rather than for personal guidance and support or community building efforts. For instance, when asked how the students felt supported by the program, they responded with the following answers: Charlotte: They pay for me to go to school, so I appreciate that. I guess them paying for me to go to school allows like different doors open. Peyton: I would go ask [21st Century] about financials. Aside from the financial help the students receive and the opportunities and resources the 21st Century Scholars program announces to its students, the interviews highlighted that the students would prefer for the program to focus on “creating a sense of community outside of their financial offerings” (Charlotte, personal communication, November 9, 2020).

Discussion

Once the results were finalized, they needed to be evaluated in the context of our research questions: In this analyzation, the research presented several key themes that the participants' answers highlighted. We found that campus culture and resources within the program had a large impact on how Black 21st Century Scholars navigated IUB. Additionally, we found that faculty and staff relationships and finances were contributing factors to participants’ sense of belonging. This discussion will be an expansion of the results and will go further into depth on the participants’ answers within the context of these results.

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Campus Culture for Black Students

There were a variety of factors that led to students feeling like they belonged at IUB. Two participants talked about culturally validating campus spaces, such as the 4th floor of Wells Library during tutoring hours for their program, the Neal-Marshall Black Culture Center, and the building that hosts 21st Century Scholars, Groups, and Hudson and Holland. All these spaces had other students with similar cultural backgrounds and identities that all contributed to the participants feeling like they belonged on campus. Additionally, a participant mentioned an informal gathering, the Black student tailgate, because this space allowed the student to relax and hang out with people who identify like them with “no drama.” Another example was when Charlotte went to BSU’s meeting and felt at home by the natural exchange of Black culture. Spaces the students mentioned above are especially important at PWI’s because they act as counterspaces. “Academic and social counterspaces for coping with racial microaggressions have been identified as essential for the academic survival of African American college students” (Grier‐Reed, 2010, p. 182). Charlotte and Zara specifically mentioned feeling targeted or demeaned by microaggressions on campus and feeling safe in the spaces mentioned previously. Both also mentioned being surprised by the demographics of IUB, as they both went to high schools that had higher percentages of Black students than IUB. Due to this, Charlotte and Zara said they appreciated any opportunity to spend time with other Black students because they could more easily relax and feel like they could be their full selves around people who shared their racial identity. Based on this information, we have recognized counterspaces as a way in which Black 21st Century Scholars navigate the IUB environment and support these students in succeeding on campus.

Resources and Opportunities Within 21st Century Scholars

There were a variety of resources students mentioned within the 21st Century Scholar program that benefited them. Every student mentioned the email opportunities that the program sends out. While Peyton did not personally pursue any of the opportunities in the emails, Peyton acknowledged they have a lot of resources, internship opportunities, and research programs that students can utilize. Zara noted that they were particularly useful for students of color as they shared opportunities specifically for marginalized students that she did not learn about through any of her other involvements. She said if she did not see this list, she was unsure where she would find similar opportunities. Charlotte used this list to get involved in FASE which also helped connect her with IU staff that she feels connected to. In this sense 21st Century Scholars facilitated connections with new staff and an IU programs which impacted the way participants were navigating IUB. In addition to the email opportunities, students shared various resources and opportunities that have helped them feel connected to campus. Many of these occurred through specialized scholars’ programs such as Groups, Hudson and Holland, and the Cox Legacy Scholars program. The participants mentioned enjoying workshop opportunities within these programs and other social activities that helped to create an identity for the group. Zara mentioned they wished 21st Century Scholars had a strong identity like Hudson and Holland, so they were more familiar with members and felt more connected to the group. Similarly, Peyton attended IUB specifically for the Groups Scholars Program and feels connected to campus as a Groups member more so than as a member of the 21st Century Scholars Program. However, creating the same environment as Groups or Hudson & Holland as for 21st Century Scholars can be difficult due to the vastly different sizes of the programs.

Faculty and Staff Relationships

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In our research, we asked about relationships with 21st Century Scholars advisors and staff and noticed there was a lack of connection between students and 21st Century Scholars staff; however, this does not signify that students feel a lack support in the program. It is important to note that the 21st Century Program at IUB is under the umbrella of the Office of the Vice President for Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (OVPDEMA). This Office also oversees programs such as Groups and Hudson and Holland. Due to the connection between these departments, there are shared resources for students. All the participants in this study were in 21st Century Scholars in addition to either the Groups Scholars Program or Hudson and Holland. In the interviews, participants mentioned being encouraged to see the advisor for their specific programs, rather than a 21st Century Scholar advisor. Participants noted that they had extremely close bonds with their program staff, enjoyed spending time with them, and felt like they could go to them for any problem. Charlotte mentioned being visited in the hospital by a program staff. While no student mentioned a 21st Century Scholars specific advisor that they could go to anytime, all students were able to specifically mention at least one staff member in OVPDEMA that they could go to for support. When asked about Peyton’s advisor, Ms. Berry, Peyton mentioned being able to connect with her and that Ms. Berry knows what Peyton is going through. Zara mentioned how they appreciated there was one shared office space 21st Century Scholars, Groups, and Hudson and Holland; they went on to talk about how they could go into the office space and have pleasant interactions with anyone, regardless of the specific office they worked for. The rich connections Charlotte, Peyton, and Zara have with at least one staff member within OVPDEMA positively contribute to their sense of belonging amongst Black 21st Century Scholars at IUB.

Finances

All students mentioned finances being an important factor of their membership in the 21st Century Scholars Program and in their decision to attend an Indiana school. Zara noted that the finances she received from both 21st Century Scholars and Hudson and Holland allowed her to live on campus and get involved in campus life. Both are factors that can contribute to a student’s sense of belonging (Means & Pyne, 2017). Charlotte and Zara specifically mentioned being accepted into leadership positions as something that validated their experience at IU. This shows that the finances offered from the program contribute to the college life experience as well as the sense of belonging amongst Black 21st Century Scholars at IUB (Means & Pyne, 2017). Despite the significant positives associated with receiving the scholarship, the students expressed a disconnect to the Program as a result of its large focus on finances. In other words, the students felt that they could only utilize 21st Century Scholars advising staff to answer their financial questions rather than form connections that could lead to a sense of cultural familiarity or validation. In addition to this lack of potential connection, Peyton also expressed his concern with the arrangement of the scholarship and its limitations on summer course opportunities for students. Due to the variety of students’ curriculum requirements and pathway, this limitation can further hinder a 21st Century Scholars student’s connection to IUB and the program.

Limitations

Through the research process, there were various limitations the researchers worked through. Among those were three main limitations: (1) the number of interviews, (2) the involvement of participants, and (3) the limited understanding of key terms. The following sections outline the specificities of each limitation and how the researchers considered them throughout the assessment process.

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Number of Interviews

The researchers were hoping for between four and eight interviews and did meaningful follow up with the ten students who filled out the demographic information. The assessment process yielded three interviews in total, proving to be a small sample size from the 21st Century Scholar program. While the quantity of interviews was a limitation, the researchers learned a lot from the three quality interviews conducted.

Involvement of Participants

The three participants all mentioned having a strong involvement with the Groups Scholars Program or the Hudson & Holland Scholars Program, both of which are in the same office as 21st Century Scholars. Since the program is all within OVPDEMA, students were often pointed towards resources within their more specific cohort, rather than the 21st Century Scholars Program at large. This led to lower levels of engagement with the program we chose to study. Considering all the interviewees felt their involvement with 21st Century Scholars was minimal in comparison with the other programs in the office, the discussion reflects results for all offices within OVPDEMA.

Incorporation of Key Terms

As the researchers prepared interview questions, they planned for certain questions to go with one of the four CECE indicators. For example, one of the questions included “salience” and was intended to go with Cultural Validation, which concerns how campus cultures validate the cultural backgrounds and identities of students (NITE, 2017). The participants gave thoughtful answers about salient experiences, but the researchers reflected that they should have defined how they were using salience. In another instance, the researchers asked participants what they would do with an unlimited grant. In reflecting, a small example may have helped participants in thoughtfully answering the question. Overall, the lack of examples was a choice from the researchers to limit leading questions, but in retrospect the research may have been impacted by a lack of understanding as well.

Recommendations and Implications for Practice

The results of this assessment project yielded several key themes that were discussed by the participants in the study. Among those themes, the interviews yielded several items that they would like to see improved upon or added to the 21st Century Scholar program experience. To reflect the findings, these suggestions have been complied into a brief summary of recommendations and implications for practice. Overall, the students cited a desire for social outreach and programming from the program, more focused communication from the 21st Century Scholar staff, and mental health support and/or programming. These recommendations come with an admission that they represent a small subsection of the 21st Century Scholar program student body but are worthy of consideration.

Social Outreach and Programming/Identity Building as a 21st Century Scholar

All the interviewees admitted that one of the gaps they recognize in the program is the lack of social opportunities and programming. Charlotte, in response to questioning about social programming she would like to see offered by the 21st Century Scholars program, responded: Charlotte: But I feel like it’d be good to put faces to like the program itself. Just really make it like a home away from home...when I think home away from home, I think of the Group’s program and different initiatives like that...Creating a sense of community outside of the financial offerings they have.

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The other participants shared similar sentiments, reflecting an overall feeling of a lack of identity as a 21st Century Scholar. These students find meaning and identity in the other programs they are a part of, citing Hudson Holland, Group’s, and Cox Scholars. Given this understanding, the first recommendation of this study is focused social outreach and programming to help students build their identity as a 21st Century Scholar. Given that these students find belonging and identity in the other programs they are a part of, bolstering the social outreach of the 21st Century Scholar program would provide an avenue for heavily involved and sparsely involved students to find community in the program. As Charlotte states, there is interest in creating a “home away from home” in the program itself, bridging the gap between the financial offerings the students benefit from and adding social opportunities for the scholars to connect with peers and the staff of the 21st Century Scholar program office.

More Intentional Communication from 21st Century Scholar Staff

The desire to build community and have social opportunities within the 21st Century Scholar program directly relates to the second recommendation, which is more intentional communication from the 21st Century Scholar staff. One of the participants, Zara, spoke about how she has strong connections with her Hudson and Holland advisor, but those relationships do not exist for her in the 21st Century Scholars program, stating: Zara: And so I don’t have a connection with the 21st century staff as much. The only person that I had a connection with was Jennifer Yeah. Jennifer Berry. And that, but, it was only Kinda like 1 encounter. So yeah. Charlotte shared similar sentiments as well, responding: Charlotte: ... While I did meet with them [21st Century Scholar staff], I haven’t been with them since then.... When I mentioned I want to create long, everlasting relationship and connections and things like that...While it did help me in terms of like navigating it, it didn’t really impact my connection at IU just because it was only for a temporary time... because of that, I feel like it will benefit me as a student if it were further. Based on these responses, more intentional communication from the staff of the 21st Century Scholar’s program could help further bolster the community and provide students more resources to connect to the program. The students have strong relationships with their advisors in other programs they are involved with in the OVPDEMA office but did cite that they would be interested in building those relationships within the 21st Century Scholar’s program itself. Creating more opportunities for the students to get to know the staff of the program and to build those relationships would further bolster the positive impact on the students.

Mental Health Support and/or Programming

While a recommendation for bolstering the communication staff have with the scholars in the program is presented, there are various means by which this could be accomplished. Participants in the research spoke to various aspects that facilitate positive relationships with the staff they connect with at IUB. Specifically, Peyton spoke to those aspects that have made him feel more comfortable with IUB staff. When asked if he has opportunities to connect with staff in the program who he feels understand his identities, Peyton responded: Peyton: I believe her name is Ms. Berry and I feel like I can connect with her and she would understand what I’m going through and kind of give me the best advice that she can. A third and final recommendation because of this assessment is intentional support and/or programming around mental health. Specifically, Zara cited the importance of mental health support in her relationships with staff, stating:

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Zara: Like I like the fact that I can just run into one of their staff [Group’s, Hudson and Holland] and it doesn't always have to be like, you know, formal one-on-one. We can just talk about how our day has been and like how we're doing mentally and things like that. So I think they've definitely provided like a I guess you could say a pathway, like they don't make it intimidating to connect with faculty and staff. She went on further to state how she would like to see events pertaining to mental health, including wellness check ins and programs. Given that all the participants cited having an informal connection with staff helped them feel more comfortable, mental health support and/or programming may contribute to building those relationships with 21st Century Scholar staff and bolstering the overall community within the program.

Conclusion

This study examined how Black 21st Century Scholars experience sense of belonging in the program and at Indiana University Bloomington as a whole. Through a phenomenological qualitative study, our research yielded three rich interviews from Black 21st Century Scholars. These interviews shed light on the experiences of these students at IUB, showcasing the positives, negatives, and aspirations moving forward. The data processing revealed the findings of this study contribute to the overall body of literature on low-income Black students by revealing what factors impact their sense of belonging in higher education. Through utilizing the CECE Model (Museus, 2014) to synthesize indicators that contribute to sense of belonging, this research yielded four main themes: faculty and staff relationships, resources and opportunities within the program, and finances. From these themes, it is evident that informal relationship building, financial stability, resources, and opportunities are essential for these students to experience sense of belonging and success at IUB. From this research, we have gained a greater understanding of the conditions that help Black 21st Century Scholars feel belonging at IUB and have gained a better sense of ways to further build upon those experiences moving forward. These findings and subsequent recommendations will bolster the existing positive impact the 21st Century Scholar program has on Black IUB participants.

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Qualitative Health Research, 19(2), 279–289. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1049732308329306 Kelchen, R. (2017). A review of college promise programs: Evidence from the Midwest. MHEC policy brief. Midwestern Higher Education Compact. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED587430.pdf Kuh, G. D., & Hall, J. E. (1993). Using cultural perspectives in student affairs. In G. D. Kuh (ed.), Cultural perspectives in student affairs work (pp. 1-20). American College Personnel Association. Means, D. R., & Pyne, K. B. (2017). Finding my way: Perceptions of institutional support and belonging in low-income, first-generation, first-year college students. Journal of College Student Development, 58(6), 907-924. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2017.0071 Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. Jossey Bass. Museus, S. D. (2014). The culturally engaging campus environments (CECE) model: A new theory of success among racially diverse college student populations. In M.B. Palmer (Ed.), Higher education: Handbook of theory and research (pp. 189-227). Springer, Dordrecht. Museus, S. D., & Neville, K. (2012). Delineating the ways that key institutional agents provide racial minority students with access to social capital in college. Journal of College Student Development, 53(3), 436–452. doi:10.1353/csd.2012.0042 National Institute for Transformation and Equity. (2017). The CECE Model. Retrieved from https://nite-education.org/the-cece-model/ Neal-Marshall Black Culture Center. (2020). History. Retrieved from https://blackculture.indiana.edu/about/history.html OVPDEMA. (2020, November 1). IUB 21st century scholars achieve highest graduation rate milestone. Retrieved from https://diversity.iu.edu/news-events/news/spring-2018/2020-iub-21st-century- highest-rate.html Page, L. C., & Scott-Clayton, J. (2016). Improving college access in the United States: Barriers and policy responses. Economics of Education Review, 51, 4-22. doi:10.3386/w21781 Payne, Y. A., & Suddler, C. (2014). Cope, conform, or resist? Functions of a Black American identity at a predominantly white university. Equity & Excellence in Education, 47(3), 385–403. https://doi.org/10.1080/10665684.2014.933756 Sarcedo, G. L., Matias, C. E., Montoya, R., & Nishi, N. (2015). Dirty dancing with race and class: Microaggressions toward first-generation and low income college students of color. Journal of Critical Scholarship on Higher Education and Student Affairs, 2(1), 1. Schuh, J. H, Biddix, J. Patrick, Dean, L. A, & Kinzie, J. (2016). Assessment in student affairs (2nd ed.). Jossey-Bass. Shapiro, D., Dundar, A., Huie, F., Wakhungu, P., Yuan, X., Nathan, A & Hwang, Y., A. (2017, April). Completing college: A national view of student attainment rates by race and ethnicity – fall 2010 cohort (Signature Report No. 12b). National Student Clearinghouse Research Center. Singer‐Freeman, K., Hobbs, H., & Robinson, C. (2019). Theoretical matrix of culturally relevant assessment. Assessment Update, 31(4), 1-16. doi:10.1002/au.30176 Solorzano, D., Ceja, M., & Yosso, T. (2000). Critical race theory, racial microaggressions, and campus racial climate: The experiences of African-American college students. The Journal of Negro Education, 69, 60–73. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/2696265?seq=1 Strayhorn, T. L. (2012). Exploring the impact of Facebook and Myspace use on first-year students' sense of belonging and persistence decisions. Journal of College Student Development, 53(6), 783-796. doi:10.1353/csd.2012.0078 Taylor, M., & Turk, J. (n.d.). A Look at low-income undergraduates (Race and Ethnicity in Higher Education, pp. 1-15, Rep.). American Council on Education. Retrieved from http://1xfsu31b52d33idlp13twtos-wpengine.netdna-ssl.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Low- Income-Students-Brief-final.pdf

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21st Century Scholars Leadership Corps. (2020). Retrieved from https://beinvolved.indiana.edu/organization/leadershipcorps

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From a Dream to Reality: O. P. Kretzmann’s Vision for Valparaiso University

Joseph T. Finke

Abstract

In his 1940 inaugural address, Valparaiso University President O.P. Kretzmann spoke of his vision for a Christian university. During his 28-year tenure at Valpo, he further defined his vision in speeches and articles. Kretzmann argued a Christian university (a) seeks truth for all, (b) is in the van of progress, (c) is the meeting of Jerusalem and Athens, (d) places Christ at its center, and (e) is focused on students. This article examines these five themes and compares Kretzmann’s vision to actual events and initiatives during his tenure.

Keywords

Christian university, Valparaiso University, Lutheran, University president

Joseph T. Finke is a Ph.D. student in the Higher Education and Student Affairs program at Indiana University Bloomington. He is currently a graduate assistant at the Center for Postsecondary Research. He earned a Bachelor of Arts from Valparaiso University and a Master of Public Affairs from IUPUI.

Suggested citation: Finke, J. T. (2021). From a dream to a reality: O. P. Kretzmann’s vision for Valparaiso University. Journal of the Student Personnel Association at Indiana University, 20-29.

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From a Dream to Reality: O. P. Kretzmann’s Vision for Valparaiso University

As O. P. Kretzmann delivered his inaugural address as Valparaiso University (Valpo) president in October 1940, the university and the nation faced grim outlooks. The university had survived the Great Depression but was financially weak and had an enrollment of less than 400 students. The country faced likely war. In his speech, Kretzmann (1940/1999) acknowledged the threats from Europe saying, “We have come now to the winter of the modern world, and there are few signs of spring” (p. 109). Kretzmann saw two battles— “one fought with bombs and guns” and another concerning the hearts and souls of people (p. 113). Kretzmann said it was the university’s duty to throw itself into the second battle by seeking and transmitting truth. “Let the University set an ideal, a vision, a dream, if you please, for itself—and I am confident that there are still enough men and women in visible Christendom who will see the glory of the dream and, with their prayers and support, help to make it a reality” (Kretzmann, 1940/1999, p. 114). Kretzmann would go on to serve as president for 28 years. He repeatedly spoke of his vision for a Christian university and worked to turn his vision into reality. Five themes emerge from his inaugural address and later speeches and articles. Kretzmann argued a Christian university (a) seeks truth for all, (b) is in the van of progress, (c) is the meeting of Jerusalem and Athens, (d) places Christ at its center, and (e) is focused on students. This article, after providing background on Valpo and Kretzmann, examines these five themes and compares Kretzmann’s vision to actual events and initiatives during his tenure.

Background

This section provides historical context about Valparaiso University before Kretzmann became president. The section also discusses Kretzmann’s background as a well-regarded Lutheran preacher. These oratory skills were on display during his speeches outlining his vision for Valpo.

Valparaiso University

Valparaiso Male and Female College was founded in 1859 by a group of Methodists. Over the next several decades, the institution changed ownership, leadership, and names multiple times (Baepler, 2001). By the 1920s, Valparaiso University was on the verge of bankruptcy and put up for sale. After a deal between the university’s owners and the Ku Klux Klan failed to materialize, a group of Lutheran laity and clergy purchased the nearly shuttered university in June 1925 (Baepler, 2001). Over the first fifteen years of the “Lutheran Valpo,” two men served as president. Although there were achievements like accreditation and faculty recruitment, the university struggled financially during the Great Depression (Baepler, 2001). Enrollment did not reach 500 students. In 1940, the board of directors searched for a new president. After their first choice turned down the offer (Directors hear decision, 1940), the board selected Kretzmann (Elected president by board, 1940).

O. P. Kretzmann

Kretzmann was an ordained Lutheran minister and the executive secretary of the Walther League, a youth organization. Among Lutheran churches, Kretzmann was known as an excellent preacher. He showed off his oratory skills early in his tenure as president as he delivered his inaugural address titled “The Destiny of a Christian University in the Modern World.” Many in attendance recalled that the atmosphere of the small campus changed overnight (Baepler, 2017). However, as Baepler (2017) points out, There was little in the new president’s background that prepared him for the kind of collegiate administration that could realize the vision he had set forth. He was a brilliant opportunist who could take advantage of the situations as they developed. (p. 88)

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The student newspaper, The Torch, hinted at the uncertainty about Kretzmann. While acknowledging his youth and vigor, the student newspaper wrote before his inaugural, “And the whole campus wonders how the dynamic young president will affect Lutheran Valpo’s second fifteen years” (Inauguration of new president, 1940). Kretzmann did not stop stating his vision for Christian higher education after his inaugural address. Most notably, at the urging of colleagues, he wrote an article titled “The Idea of the University” that summarized his understanding of Christian higher education. Prepared for Valpo’s centennial in 1959, the article was published in The Christian Scholar in 1960. In the article he reflected on his twenty- year-old inaugural address. Although “it was an occasion for freeswinging [sic] idealism,” Kretzmann stood by his ideas (p. 312). With the article, he wished to further emphasize the unique characteristics of a Christian university. He recalled how the major concern at the time of his inaugural was the war in Europe and how he saw two battles—one fought with bombs and one concerning the minds and souls of men. He said he underestimated that second battle, which is really an ongoing war. “Our modern wasteland is more thorny and unready for the conquest than I had imagined” (p. 313). As Kretzmann worked to turn his vision into a reality at Valpo, he would find the conquest challenging and thorny.

Truth-Seeking for All

The first theme from Kretzmann’s inaugural address is truth-seeking for all. Kretzmann wanted Valpo to search for and transmit truth to all people. However, this vision faced challenges as the nation and campus struggled through the Civil Rights Era.

Vision

In the inaugural address, Kretzmann (1940/1999) defined a university as “a voluntary association of free men and women in a community which is dedicated to a two-fold task: the search for Truth and the transmission of Truth, free and unbroken, to those who are born later in time” (p. 110). He went on to say it is the “first and supreme requirement” that those in the university know truth, love truth, and search for it (p. 110). The search for truth should be made “with radical sincerity, intellectual honesty, and a deep revere for even its smallest and faintest gleam” (p. 111). He also wished for a devotion to truth to be passed on to future generations. The truth being sought is a universal truth. Kretzmann emphasized the university must “cling to the reality of universal Truth” (Kretzmann, 1940/1999, p. 111). Kretzmann dismissed the notion of relativism, calling it a modern heresy. Instead of relativism, the university should affirm “an order of absolute Truth, of ethical goodness, and of absolute social justice” (p. 111). Baepler (2017) argues the use of “social justice” was bold. It signaled an uncommon vision for higher education and showed a desire for dealing with controversial social reforms. Related to social justice, Kretzmann said that truth “must be one and the same for all races and all nations” (Kretzmann, 1940/1999, p. 111). He argued truth should not be confined to a certain race or nation. At the same time, Kretzmann linked truth to the individual. He said the university should recognize the dignity and worth of each individual. Truth, and thus the university, ought to value the individual.

Reality: Civil Rights

The reality is that Valpo did not always extend its truth seeking to individuals of all races. Valpo contributed positively to the civil rights movement at the national level, but the university had its own shortcomings. In 1950, Kretzmann hosted a group of Lutheran pastors on campus for the inaugural Institute on Human Relations. The following year, the institute received national press. Within a few years, attendees formed the Lutheran Human Relations Association of America (LHRAA), which was

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Finke located on campus but had more than fifty chapters across the country. “While the LHRAA was founded as a broad civil rights group with a particular mission to the Lutheran community, it also had a direct impact” on Valpo (Baepler, 2001, p. 218). First, LHRAA provided support and encouragement for more Black students to enroll. Additionally, “the organization’s presence at Valparaiso helped define the University and kept the nation’s central social and moral problem on the agenda when much of the church and the public wanted to forget it” (Baepler, 2001, p. 218). LHRAA was involved early and actively in the civil rights struggle, and it held credible contacts across the movement. Those connections were evident in 1962, when with Kretzmann’s permission, Andrew Schulze, a professor and the executive secretary of LHRAA, joined Martin Luther King Jr. in Albany, Georgia for demonstrations supporting Black voting and school registration. Schulze and 75 other demonstrators were arrested and jailed. In response, Kretzmann sent bail money and sent a telegram of public protest to President John Kennedy (Baepler, 2017). Despite positive efforts on civil rights issues on the national stage, Kretzmann and the university faced challenges on campus. Kretzmann “learned that civil rights issues, in which he had been a genuine leader in relation to American society at large, took on a very different shape when applied to the university community itself” (Baepler, 2001, p. 279). In 1966, a small group of Black Lutheran youth visited campus and heard racial insults from unknown persons. After learning of this incident, Kretzmann held a special convocation in the chapel, where he denounced racial insults, ordered an investigation, and repeated the university’s commitment to civil rights. But a speech was not enough for some students, including Black students. They wanted more action and created a list of racist features of campus, including the fraternities (Baepler, 2001). Kretzmann and his administration issued responses, but there is little evidence of immediate actions taken in the remaining months of Kretzmann’s presidency.

In the Van of Progress

As a Christian university seeks and transmits truth, Kretzmann (1940/1999) argued it also “must be in the van of the progress of knowledge, not behind it” (p. 112). Being in the “van of the progress of knowledge” meant not separating from society and ignoring scientific discovery. As some Lutheran church leaders rejected the theory of evolution, Valpo professors tried to encourage harmony between science and the church.

Vision

Kretzmann argued that church-related colleges had been in the van of progress earlier in the history of the United States. Kretzmann believed colonial colleges had contributed to the development of American society and that over the twentieth century church-related institutions had lost their way and forgotten their mission. He indicted Christian institutions that appealed to their supporters, families, and students in negative terms. He claimed other institutions thought they deserved support “because we do not do certain things, because we are not as other men are” (Kretzmann, 1962, p. 111). Kretzmann said other institutions were falsely claiming they could protect students from the evils of the world. In a chapel sermon in 1962, Kretzmann preached that the devil is hard at work on Christian college campuses. “You must realize that a campus like ours is a favorite stomping ground for the Evil One. You see, here he has some real enemies. Here he has real work to do” (p. 2). Instead of an escape, a Christian university offers wisdom, understanding, and nobility. Kretzmann argued in his inaugural address that Christian universities are unique in their offerings: We have something to offer you which you can find nowhere else. Others may try to make men scientific; we must do that—and make them wise. Others may give men knowledge; we must give them that—and understanding. Other may try to make men useful; we must do that—and we must make them noble. (p. 112)

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By being in the van of the progress of knowledge, a Christian university is in a position to offer more than other institutions. Graduates from it can be scientific, knowledgeable, and useful like their counterparts from public institutions, but they will also be wise, understanding, and noble. Concerning science, Kretzmann (1940/1999) said, “A Christian University cannot fulfill its destiny by belittling or even ignoring the impact of science upon the life and thought of man” (p. 112). He went on to say that institutions and individuals cannot simply say “no” to reality.

Reality: Evolution

The prime example of Valpo being in the “van of the progress of knowledge” is on the issue of evolution. As enrollment increased following World War II, the university worked to recruit faculty members. Many were Lutheran—often seminary graduates, returning veterans, and Valpo alumni (Baepler, 2001). One of them was Carl Krekler, a biology professor. In 2005, Krekler recalled an incident from the 1950s: [Kretzmann] sent me a letter he had received from a pastor complaining that I was teaching evolution and stating that his congregation would therefore no longer support the university. O.P. asked me how he should reply. Before answering I made some inquiries as to how much that congregation had contributed in the past, then suggested that O.P. tell him that he would deduct the average amount of the previous years’ contributions–zero–from my salary (para. 9). Krekler was not alone in his thinking that evolution and faith could be in harmony. Most of the theologians and scientists on campus agreed there was no conflict between faith in God as the Creator and the theory of evolution. As the hundredth anniversary of Charles Darwin’s book On the Origin of Specific approached in 1959, Kretzmann felt the need to address the “nagging” issue of evolution (Baepler, 2017). He turned to the editor of The Cresset, a public affairs journal founded in 1930s by Kretzmann and then moved to Valpo. The editor attempted to conclude the debate within the church by praising a recent publication by a young pastor from a well-regarded Lutheran family. The debate did not end and continues inside the Lutheran church and universities to this day.

The Meeting of Jerusalem and Athens

The third theme is that the university was the meeting of Jerusalem and Athens. Kretzmann worked to ensure this interaction occurred on Valpo’s campus through institutes that brought church leaders and professors together and through an honors college.

Vision

In his 1960 Christian Scholar article, Kretzmann said the university is to be the meeting of Jerusalem and Athens, or the church and world. Kretzmann claimed this relationship existed from the medieval period through the Reformation and into the eighteenth century. “The university was the free daughter of both the Church and the State, responsible to both, but even more responsible to the disciplined and essentially theological commitment involved in the search for truth” (Kretzmann, 1960, p. 314). However, this fellowship had eroded. Instead, Athens and Jerusalem were being put at odds with each other. “For several centuries there has been a determined and misguided effort to drive a wedge between the Church and university. We have been told that they are really opposed to each other, that they are always at war and that the life of one endangers the life of the other” (Kretzmann, 1960, p. 317). Kretzmann disagreed that they were inevitably at odds and believed they could complement each other. At the university, both are needed. “A valid faith cannot live at the expense of truth; and the truth will never compel the abandonment of an examined faith.” (p. 318). Kretzmann acknowledged there will be tensions. “Athens draws [teachers] toward detachment; Jerusalem demands involvement” (p. 317).

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However, Kretzmann urged Jerusalem and Athens to stop “petty quarreling” and resolve conflicts with a respect for the “totality of truth” (p. 318). While Kretzmann’s commentary on Jerusalem and Athens came later in his tenure, he did allude to these concepts and challenges in his inaugural address. “In the fulfillment of our destiny as a Christian University we shall run head-on into some of the most perplexing problems in modern thought. How can we train a generation which will be both open-minded and deeply committed? Is it possible to be highly intelligent and deeply religious?” (Kretzmann, 1960, p. 113). Although not using the language of Jerusalem and Athens, these are questions a university at the crossroads of the world and church must answer.

Reality: Institutes and Honors College

As part of being at the crossroads of Jerusalem and Athens, Kretzmann felt Valpo was called to serve the church and society by sponsoring workshops and seminars and generating and disseminating knowledge in different fields. In the 1950s, many attempts were made in fields like politics, radio, public relations, law, and drama. The university sponsored or cosponsored up to ten gatherings a year (Baepler, 2001). Some became annual events and permanent fixtures on campus. Namely, the Institute on Human Relations organized into the LHRAA. Additionally, institutes around music and liturgy in worship developed into annual gatherings. The Institute of Liturgical Studies became “instrumental in reenergizing liturgical life through attention to theological foundations” throughout the Lutheran church (Baepler, 2017, p. 137). Kretzmann also conceived of the idea of an honors college. In 1966, he hired a dean for the college before it was formally established. Kretzmann said the honors college was needed to fulfill Valpo’s purpose as a university. The honors college was to be the meeting of Jerusalem and Athens, where faith and reason could work in harmony and grapple with modern issues. Kretzmann “spoke of the need to cope with the flood of new and fragmented knowledge, to promote the centrality of theology and the chapel, and to highlight the importance of social relevance” (Baepler, 2017, p. 228).

Christ-Centered

Kretzmann believed that a university should be Christ-centered, meaning it should constantly direct students’ attention to Christ. In 1958, the Chapel of the Resurrection literally became the center of campus.

Vision

In his 1960 article, Kretzmann said the first great task of a university is to “clarify our thoughts and maintain our loyalties to the historic Christian answer to the question ‘what is Man?’” (p. 314). Everything depends on the answer to this question. The question is “at the heart of the education process” (Kretzmann, 1960, p. 314). Kretzmann goes on to explain that “Man is made by God and for God—and any answer to the problem of his origin, nature, and destiny which says less than that is irrelevant. The Biblical concept of man—created, redeemed, sanctified by the Triune God is the first essential element in the idea of a University” (p. 314). In other words, God created man to serve God. Man owes everything to God, including life and redemption. Answering the “what is Man” question allows a Christian university to evaluate current issues. Earlier in the article he says a distinguishing characteristic of a Christian university is its “unique evaluation of the present crisis in the Western world” (Kretzmann, 1960, p. 313). This is not a surface- level or superficial evaluation of current problems. It is an understanding that the root issue is the sinfulness of men. Addressing this issue, Kretzmann argued, requires Christ. Therefore, as a Christian university responds to contemporary issues, it must be focused on Christ.

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Nothing has been more disastrous for university communities than the false and artificial divorce of the life of the laboratory and the library from the life of the chapel. When all is said and done the college chapel, as the symbol of the reigning Christ, is the great center of the university’s wholeness of purpose and its unique and monumental commitment to the values beyond the boundaries of our humanness (p. 316). In other words, the center of campus should be the chapel, which symbolizes Christ as the center of all activities on the campus. This was not a new thought of Kretzmann in 1960. Before even being president, he delivered a sermon circa 1939 in which he praised the reading and hearing of the Bible at Valpo. “There the World of the God is set before the student daily in chapel exercises, and the secular studies are presented in a such a way that respect and loyalty to the World of God is upheld” (Kretzmann, n.d., p. 3).

Reality: Chapel of the Resurrection

Those chapel services Kretzmann was talking about circa 1939 were happening in a small auditorium. The building paled in comparison to the Chapel of the Resurrection, which was completed in 1958. The construction of the chapel was a major milestone in Kretzmann’s tenure and the fulfilment of his vision for a Christ-centered campus. Planning for the chapel began in the early 1950s. Projecting larger enrollment and wanting a space for all students, the chapel was designed to hold 3,000 people. The final cost was $1.6 million. The size and cost drew detractors, who claimed it was a monument to Kretzmann’s ego. But for him, “the chapel symbolized the centrality of the living Christ in the University and the life of learning” (Baepler, 2017, p. 178). The Chapel of the Resurrection drew attention from inside and outside the campus. It became a notable and recognized place of worship in the United States, won architectural awards, and drew distinguished guests (Baepler, 2017). More important to Kretzmann, it did become the center of campus. It became the place for weddings, funerals, convocations, and festive services.

Student-Focused

Kretzmann placed an emphasis on the experiences of students. He promised in his inaugural address that he and his administration would “always be sympathetically concerned” with students’ problems and that students are “centrally important” to Valpo (p.155). However, in the later years of his tenure, some students felt these promises were not kept.

Vision

Near the end of his inaugural address, Kretzmann (1940/1999) turned his attention to the students present. He called them “the heart of the University” and commended them for their “spirit of loyalty and fellowship,” saying it was one of the most remarkable things about the institution (p. 115). He said he did not value authority that is based on vertical relationships but rather in the discipline of liberty. He joined them in “impatience with all blind traditionalism; in your opposition to all sham and pretense; and in your fight against all the forces and factors which may prevent your full growth and development” (p. 116). He outlined first steps for his administration, which included the development of a social and spiritual life and personal relations between students and faculty. He said the students will be the final measure of the success or failure of the university. This success was to be based on the quality of graduates, not simply the quantity.

Reality: Interaction with Students

It is clear Kretzmann prioritized meeting and interacting with students during his tenure. This began early on and extended until his retirement. In the weeks following his inaugural, The Torch

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Finke announced an all-student reception with designated times for each class to ensure all students had the opportunity to meet the new president (Students Meet, 1940). This face-to-face interaction continued through his tenure. In November 1967, he “adeptly” fielded questions for an hour from students after an address to the All Student Congress. Students asked about Black power, the war in Vietnam, loco parentis, and continued campus expansion. The reporter remarked “After Dr. O.P. Kretzmann answered the last question… one thing was clear. The magic that is O.P. is still there” (Spannaus, 1967). As stated in his inaugural address, an early priority of Kretzmann was to enhance the quality of student life. In January 1941, Kretzmann recruited Sophia “So” Heidbrink to be social director (Campus to Welcome So, 1941). Kretzmann knew her through the Walther League and hired her to create social events. She quickly became a beloved figured on campus and would later become the dean of women and then the secretary and advisor to Kretzmann (Baepler, 2017). O. P. Kretzmann was a visible part of two aspects of student life—athletics and homecoming. He had a regular spot in the balcony for basketball games and participated in homecoming rituals (Baepler, 2001). Additionally, “Valpo Christmas” in the 1950s was marked by decorated houses and residence halls, parties, caroling, and concerts. The Christmas season was highlighted by a vespers service, held the night before the last day of classes and students went home (Baepler, 2001). Although modified, the vespers service is a tradition that remains today. Another element Kretzmann desired was positive relationships between students and their professors. In his last year, these relationships became strained. At a 1967 event called a “bitch-in,” students complained about gaps in understanding and communication between students and faculty. According to The Torch, one student described a meeting with an instructor saying, “I was a student machine and he was an instructor machine” (Willie, 1967). This complaint and other complaints gave the perception that faculty-student interactions were less than positive. Despite generally being a well-liked figure on campus, there were instances that Kretzmann and students did not see eye-to-eye. The most prominent examples are from his last years. There were growing tensions on campus, with a rise of student activism. Kretzmann in 1967 contended the university had yet to become distinctive because it was being drawn into national movements with no Christian basis. According to the article in The Torch (Spannaus, 1967), Kretzmann said, “We have become a ‘me too’ school.” He stated most activism at large universities was “nonsense.” He questioned the Vietnam War, but he said it was not the role of Valpo students to join the national protest movements and they should not go to Washington D.C. Instead, students ought to conduct “a quiet study of the relationship of Christian faith to Vietnam.” There were mixed reactions among students to these remarks, even if Kretzmann still had some “magic.”

Conclusion

This paper has compared Kretzmann’s vision to reality. In many cases, Kretzmann succeeded. In supporting the pursuit of Truth for all, the university and the Lutheran Human Relations Association of American made positive contributions on civil rights issues on the national stage. The Chapel of the Resurrection still serves as the center of campus and a reminder for the institution to be Christ-centered. In other aspects, reality fell short of Kretzmann’s vision; there remained racial tensions, disagreements with the student body, and unresolved disputes on evolution. Despite these shortcomings, Kretzmann is regarded as the visionary for the university. After his death in 1975, the editors of The Torch wrote, “The dreamer is gone, but the dream remains – reality. His dream and faith, the faith of many others, and the will of our Lord have built the ‘impractical’ on the Valparaiso morraine [sic]” (With faith in the Lord, 1975). The tribute spoke of him as both the visionary and builder of the university. Additionally, Richard Baepler adeptly titled his biography of Kretzmann “Keeper of the Dream.” Kretzmann’s 28 years as president overlapped the tenures of some well-known university leaders, including Clark Kerr of the University of California, Herman B Wells of Indiana University, and John

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Hannah of Michigan State University. These three men have been called the visionaries and builders during the golden age of higher education (Gardner & Laskin, 2011). All oversaw the growth of their institutions in enrollment and reputation, but they also fell short. O. P. Kretzmann should be considered a peer of them. Although reality sometimes fell short of Kretzmann’s vision, his dream largely became a reality.

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References Baepler, R. (2001). Flame of faith, lamp of learning: A history of Valparaiso University. Concordia Publishing House. Baepler, R. (2017). Keeper of the dream; O.P. Kretzmann. Valparaiso University Press. Campus to welcome ‘So’, new social director, tonight at Altruria Hall reception (1941, January 9). The Valparaiso Torch. https://collections.valpo.edu/digital/collection/torch/id/4460/rec/1 Directors hear decision at meeting yesterday (1940, January 18). The Valparaiso Torch, 29(15), 1-4. https://collections.valpo.edu/digital/collection/torch Gardner, H., & Laskin, E. (2011). Leading minds: An anatomy of leadership. BasicBooks. Inauguration of new president will highlight week end; Mildred Torgler elected queen (1940, October 10). The Valparaiso Torch. https://collections.valpo.edu/digital/collection/torch Krekeler, C. (2005). On creation and evolution. The Daystar Journal. Retrieved from http://thedaystarjournal.com/on-creation-and-evolution/ Kretzmann, O.P. (n.d.). Sermon on Christian higher education: Proverbs 8:11. O.P. Kretzmann Collection. https://scholar.valpo.edu/kretzmann_collection/113 Kretzmann, O.P. (1960). The idea of a university. The Christian Scholar, 312-318. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41177250 Kretzmann, O.P. (1962). Notes: Chapel address, 1962. O.P. Kretzmann Collection. https://scholar.valpo.edu/kretzmann_collection/178 Kretzmann, O.P. (1999). The destiny of a Christian university in the modern world. [Speech transcript]. In P.J. Contino & D. Morgan (Eds.), The Lutheran Reader (pp. 109-116). Valparaiso University Press. (Original work published 1940). ‘O.P.’ elected president by board Thursday (1940, April 25). The Valparaiso Torch, 29(26), 1-4. https://collections.valpo.edu/digital/collection/torch/id/4370/rec/1 Spannaus, F. (1967, November 3). President fields varied questions from students at ASC briefing. The Valparaiso Torch, 59(15), 1-8. https://collections.valpo.edu/digital/collection/torch/id/11261/rec/2 Students meet new president at reception. (1940, October 17). The Valparaiso Torch, 30(5), 1-4. https://collections.valpo.edu/digital/collection/torch/id/4480 Willie, K. (1967, April 14). Students air grips at “bitch-in”. The Valparaiso Torch, 58(42), 1-3. https://collections.valpo.edu/digital/collection/torch/id/11546/rec/2 With faith in the Lord, he built a dream here. (1975, September 16). The Valparaiso Torch, 68(6), 1-10. https://collections.valpo.edu/digital/collection/torch/id/13188/rec/4

29 Hernandez, McCarthy, Millon, & Waters

Black Student Perception on IU Mask Policy Enforcement and General Feelings of Safety on Campus

Valeria Hernandez, Taelor McCarthy, Jaelyn Millon, and Jeffery Waters

Abstract

Through a qualitative study, the researchers sought to understand the Black student perception of COVID-19 mask policy enforcement and general feelings of safety on campus at Indiana University-Bloomington. In doing so, the researchers sought to understand how to mitigate unnecessary harm and enhance the overall Black student experience on campus. The researchers sent out a demographics survey and conducted individual virtual interviews to gather student narratives. Each of the twelve interviews consisted of one participant and two researchers. The researchers proceeded to individually code each interview analyzing the deductive themes. The researchers then collectively discussed their findings and pulled inductive themes. The three deductive themes were experiences with microaggressions and general feelings of safety, mask enforcement policy, and support on campus. The two inductive themes were gender identity and the compounding racial and COVID struggle. The research concluded that overall, Black students’ feelings of safety on campus felt heightened throughout the COVID-19 pandemic and viewed the mask enforcement policy to be enforced unfairly between Black and White students. Based on the inductive themes, deductive themes, and conclusion, the researchers presented recommendations to campus partners.

Keywords

Mask Enforcement Policy, COVID-19, Feelings of Safety, Black Student Experience

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Valeria Hernandez (she/her/hers) is an alumna from the University of Florida, having earned a dual degree in Psychology and Family, Youth, and Community Sciences with a minor in Educational Studies. She is graduating from IU’s School of Education in the Higher Education and Student Affairs program with a certificate in College Pedagogy. She served as a Graduate Supervisor for Diversity Education and worked as a Practicum student and intern for New Student Orientation. Valeria also worked with La Casa helping facilitate the Latina Initiative as well as the Office of Sorority and Fraternity Life as a Leadership, Prevention, and Wellness Educator.

Taelor McCarthy (she/her/hers) graduated from the University of Cincinnati in 2018 with a Bachelor of Arts in Psychology and a minor in Communications. Prior to starting her graduate work at Indiana University-Bloomington, Taelor served as a Chapter Consultant for Phi Mu Fraternity. At IU, Taelor held an assistantship as a Graduate Advisor in the Office of Sorority and Fraternity Life. Taelor also completed her practicum work with Students in Transition and additional experiences as a Graduate Hearing Officer in the Office of Student Conduct.

Jaelyn Millon (she/her/hers) earned her Bachelor of Arts in Spanish with Chemistry and Biology minors at Hanover College. At Indiana University-Bloomington, Jaelyn earned her Master of Education in Higher Education and Student Affairs with a certificate in College Pedagogy and served as a Graduate Supervisor with Residential Programs and Services. Additionally, Jaelyn completed a practicum as the Bias Response Assistant and served as a Title IX Hearing Panelist. Jaelyn presented on Black Undergraduate Women at Predominantly White Institutions at the Indiana Student Affairs Association Annual Conference (ISAA) in 2019.

Jeffery Waters (he/him) graduated from Oakland University in 2018 with BAs in Psychology and Women & Gender Studies. Jeffery came to Indiana University-Bloomington to study Public Health in 2018; however, he started the Higher Education and Student Affairs program in 2019. He also completed three Graduate Certificates (Public Health, Sexual & Reproductive Health, and College Pedagogy). His assistantship was with Residential Programs & Services as a Graduate Supervisor. Jeffery’s practicum was with The Media School as a Recruiting Coordinator and continued that work as the Recruiting Assistant. Jeffery also interned with the University of Cincinnati as the Academic Initiatives Intern.

Suggested citation: Hernandez, V., McCarthy, T., Millon, J., & Waters, J. (2020). Black Student Perception on IU Mask Policy Enforcement and General Feelings of Safety on Campus. Journal of the Student Personnel Association at Indiana University, 30-52.

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Introduction

Black students who attend Predominantly White Institutions (PWIs) interact with a different campus climate unlike their White counterparts (Easterwood, 2016). In Fall 2020, Indiana University-Bloomington’s (IUB) undergraduate enrollment of African American students was 4.9%, an underwhelming statistic compared to the 73.4% undergraduate enrollment of White students (University of Institutional Research and Reporting, 2020). In a model comparing campus minority enrollments to other BIG 10 institutions, data from 2018 shows that IU’s diversity enrollment, although has increased from 2005, is 23.7% of Degree-Seeking Undergraduates which falls behind ten BIG 10 institutions. University of Nebraska-Lincoln, University of Wisconsin-Madison, and University of Iowa fall behind IU, respectively. Degree Seeking Undergraduates is defined as Black, Hispanic, Native American, Asian/Pacific Islander, and Two or More Races (Campus Minority Enrollments Compared to Peers, 2018). IU is a Predominately White Institution (PWI) which keeps Black students at a disadvantage of needing to navigate a PWI, and this becomes even more difficult when considering the COVID-19 pandemic. Black communities have been impacted by campus climates continually being racially charged as events of police brutality and being disproportionately affected by COVID-19. Liu et al. (2020) noted that the “perceived discrimination associated with wearing masks may contribute to greater mental distress. . . this novel form of discrimination should be monitored” (p. 1). Amongst other discriminatory actions such as microaggressions and stereotypes, Black students are continuing to face racism that goes unnoticed on campuses. Black men face specific stereotypes as being aggressive, threatening, and criminal (Arnett Ferguson, 2000; Collins, 2004; Smith et al., 2007) and many reported that they experienced more frequent interactions with campus and local police compared to other students (see also Smith et al., 2007) (McCabe, 2009, p. 139). In following the CDC recommendations and guidelines and the Public Health Order issued by Monroe County requiring masks to be worn in public, IUB has adopted a mask policy, requiring the entire student population to wear masks in campus buildings, classrooms, and in outdoor spaces where physical distance of six feet cannot be practiced. When students are found in violation of the COVID guidelines and policies, they are required to follow the guidelines for IU’s three-strike system. The purpose of this study seeks to understand the Black, undergraduate student perception of the COVID-19 mask policy at Indiana University - Bloomington (IUB). Given the double pandemic of racism and health discrepancies of COVID-19 negatively impacting the Black population, the researchers wanted to seek ways to mitigate unnecessary harm and enhance the Black student experience on campus. To do this, we seek to answer the following research questions: 1. What is the Black undergraduate student perception of the mask policy enforcement as it relates to the impact on Black communities? 2. What is the Black undergraduate student perception of general feelings of safety on campus? Literature Review While there are several variables that come into play when looking at the way COVID-19 and mask mandates have influenced different populations, the way Black students navigate through their current contexts at Indiana University can be explained by looking into the history of their experiences before and during the pandemic. The researchers used the racial climate framework

32 SPA Journal at IU Spring 2021 Edition and CECE indicator to frame the questions and approach to the study in order to gauge how Black students felt IU valued racial and ethnic diversity. The researchers also elected to use these frameworks in order to see if and how students felt culturally validated by the institution. To properly understand the context, the term microaggressions will be defined and placed into context of the students’ physical environments on campus, followed up by the sociopolitical context of the COVID-19 pandemic and response inside and outside of IUB.

Theoretical Frameworks

In order to evaluate the level of care that Student Affairs practitioners and administrators are providing to their culturally diverse student population, the researchers conducted the study through the lens of the sixth Culturally Engaging Campus Environments (CECE) Model: Cultural Validation. The implementation of the Cultural Validation model allowed students to reach optimal success, persistence, and the completion of their degree (Museus, 2014). According to Museus, the Cultural Validation Model “suggests that students who are surrounded by postsecondary educators who validate their cultural backgrounds and identities will have more positive experiences and be more likely to succeed in college” (p. 212). The researchers strived to create recommendations to campus partners and administrators to ensure that the Black student population is actively receiving adequate and appropriate support. Adding onto this, when looking at campus racial climate, researchers must first define what campus climate even means. The researchers adopted Petersen and Spencer’s definition of campus climate (2009) defined as “the current common patterns of important dimensions of organizational life or its members’ perceptions of and attitudes toward those dimensions” (p. 7). In this study’s case, the important current dimensions and perceptions will be the intersection of a Black racial identity and general feelings of safety within Indiana University and how that interacts with the perception of COVID-19 mask policies. Past studies of campus racial climate have demonstrated that students of color report less favorable perceptions of campus racial climate, with one third of these students of color in the sample having experienced some sort of harassment compared to 22% of White students. For these students, most forms of harassment came from derogatory racial comments (Rankin & Reason, 2005, p. 56). Taking this into account, the overall framework used to create the questions revolved around Woodard and Sims’s (2000) recommendation on “the perceived value of the concept of diversity on campus” (as cited by Hart & Fellabaum, 2009, p. 224). It is important to note that the individual microaggressions discussed that are perpetrated by White students are a microcosm of racism being ingrained into the university which showcases institutionalized racism at play.

Microaggressions Dissecting microaggressions on college campuses is imperative in understanding the racial tensions that are present during a COVID era. Garcia and Johnston-Guerrero (2015) provide a definition for racial microaggressions below: Sue et al. (2007) defined racial microaggressions as “brief and commonplace daily verbal, behavioral, or environmental indignities, whether intentional or unintentional, that communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative racial slights and insults to the target person or group” (p. 273).

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Microaggressions can be intentional or unintentional; however, they portray negative effects toward the targeted individual. These negative effects can cause harm toward the targeted individual which are invalidating and offensive. Many microaggressions can be taken as micro, or just aggression (Garcia & Johnston-Guerrero, 2015). Many incidents we see on college campuses today are more relative to old-fashioned racially-based incidents or outwardly racist situations. Many of these are mistaken as (micro)aggressions and easier to invalidate. Black men are often seen as aggressive and treated as such by non-Black populations in their actions and words (McCabe, 2009). These experiences are seen as (micro)aggressive in nature and are inevitably offensive to the target individual or group. A key component is that microaggressions happen in daily interactions with others and have found a commonplace on college campuses.

COVID-19 The pandemic has made more evident the racial disparities occurring in a sociopolitical context. According to Egede and Walker (2020): A lack of financial resources resulting from years of structural racism confers a host of social risks, including food insecurity, housing instability, and limited access to transportation. In addition, people facing these risk factors are less likely to have insurance to pay for Covid-19 testing and are more likely to avoid using the health care system because of high costs (p. 2). These have been issues affecting the Black community historically in the United States, in conjunction with the reality that the Black community has been disproportionately affected by the COVID-19 pandemic in areas stated by Egede and Walker (2020). Black Americans have the highest mortality rate at 88.4 deaths per 100,000- more than double of their White counterparts (APM Research Lab, 2020). Universities tend to be a microcosm of what is happening on a nation-wide scale (Rodin, 1997). Indiana University has its own climate regarding racial tension with COVID-19, seeing the realities of how their communities are being affected back at home. Conversely, another aspect of COVID-19 would be the increase in unrest amongst Black Americans regarding mask enforcements and the implications for their safety. According to Ruiz et. al (2020) “about four-in-ten Black and Asian adults say people have acted as if they were uncomfortable around them because of their race and ethnicity since the beginning of the outbreak, and similar shares say [sic] they worry that other people might be suspicious of them if they wear a mask in public” (p. 4). When looking at an email analysis in 2009, it showed most emails tend to focus on Black men who “are portrayed to be a threat to neighborhood safety” in predominantly White neighborhoods (Lowe, Stroud, Nguyen, 2017). These fears compounded with other microaggressions experienced by Black students could influence their perspectives towards mask mandates.

Methods

In order to critically analyze the way that Black undergraduate students perceive the current climate at IU campuses amidst the two pandemics, COVID-19 and systemic racism (Williams & Youmans, 2020), we decided to take a qualitative approach in order to collect in-depth student narratives about their individual experiences. We collected data through two primary methods: a demographic form and twelve individual, virtual interviews. We intentionally recruited students for the study on the IU Bloomington campus. We chose to include a demographics survey through the Qualtrics platform to help them make a note of and understand the various social

34 SPA Journal at IU Spring 2021 Edition identities that may have played a role in their experience as Black undergraduate students and help with inductive themes based on their answers and social identities from the virtual interviews.

Positionality

Our research team consists of individuals who identify as Black, Latinx, and White. Considering these identities, our goal was to acknowledge our implicit biases, work to remove these biases, and remain aware of the societal power dynamics during our virtual interviews. Given that our researchers are actively involved with various student groups on campus such as Sorority and Fraternity Life and Residential Life, it is important to acknowledge the relationship that exists between the researchers and participants. After hearing and reading testimonies on social media from Black folks at IU and across the nation sharing their struggles in navigating two pandemics simultaneously, it was evident that these incidents negatively affected our students within the spaces they worked in. Our motivation stemmed from the desire to help IU’s Black undergraduate students to feel safer on campus in a climate of high racial tensions by seeing which IU COVID policies directly harm these students and addressing them.

Recruitment

In order to best recruit a variety of participants who self-identify as Black, researchers utilized the convenience and criterion sampling strategies (Thomas, 2006). The researchers recruited students who live in the campus residence halls as well as students involved in sorority and fraternity life, the Media School Ambassadors, New Student Orientation, and Residential Programs and Services. The researchers recruited participants through the use of virtual flyers distributed through GroupMe, email listservs, and through individually reaching out to students they directly worked with to share the opportunity. Recruitment methods were also utilized through the IUB Black Student Union and the Neal-Marshall Black Culture Center by requesting them to forward the virtual flyers created. Pseudonyms were given to the participants to allow for anonymity when discussing the findings later. Researchers also recruited participants by engaging with students face-to-face at the Indiana Memorial Union, Woodlands Dining Hall, and other various outdoor spaces with high areas of student traffic. The researchers initially were interested in conducting focus groups; however, after difficulties coordinating the focus groups, the researchers found it easier and more engaging to conduct individual, virtual interviews instead.

Demographics Survey

In order to properly gauge who the study is representing and how to properly vet participants, the researchers used a demographics survey. This was done in order to accurately describe the sample size and target group in conjunction with placing participants into the appropriate focus group (Hughes, Camden, & Yangchen, 2016). The questions prompted the following information about the students: racial identity, gender identity, ethnic identity, age, and class standing (Appendix A). Regarding demographics, the term gender identity is defined “as a person’s deeply-felt, inherent sense of being a boy, a man, or male; a girl, a woman, or female; or an alternative

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Hernandez, McCarthy, Millon, & Waters gender… These gender identities may or may not correspond to a person’s sex assigned at birth or to a person’s primary or secondary sex characteristics” (APA, Divisions 16 and 44, 2015, p. 20). This is asked in order to gauge which of the focus groups the participants will be placed in. The study wants to acknowledge "the fact that many social justice problems, like racism and sexism, are often overlapping, creating multiple levels of injustice, " (Crenshaw, 2017). Keeping this in mind for the analysis of perceptions regarding mask enforcement, each group was divided on the basis of gender identity to take into account the intersecting experience between race and gender within the following focus groups: Black female-identifying people, Black male- identifying people, and a mixture of gender identities. In addition to gender identity and race, it is important to look at ethnic identity. Ethnicity is defined as “a social group that shares a common and distinctive culture, religion, language, or the like” (“Ethnicity”, n.d.). According to the US Census Bureau (2013), “it is important to collect information about ethnicity and race because it can help researchers to assess disparities in health and environmental risks.” By asking for ethnic identity, it opens up the avenue for students who believe they need to choose between their race or ethnicity when looking at groups or communities (i.e. an Afro-Latina woman) by offering them that choice. It also allows the researchers insight to see if cultural and ethnic backgrounds influence the participants’ responses in addition to their racial background. Another aspect of identity that is being taken into account within the demographic survey is the participants’ age. At Indiana University, approximately 40% of the student body falls outside of the 18-21 traditional student age while about 76% of the student body identify as undergraduate students (College Factual, 2020; College Tuition Compare, 2020). Student experiences might vary based on age despite being enrolled as an undergraduate student in conjunction with their class standing (i.e. first year, second year, etc.). Regarding ethical consideration when utilizing the surveying platform, researchers determined that anonymity would be strongly protected through this Qualtrics platform considering the security of the website. Though the question types revealed the identities of the students, the Qualtrics form is secure in that the students needed to utilize the Duo feature and their IU credentials. The researchers were the only individuals with access to the demographic responses.

Individual Interviews (Virtual) According to Hurtado, Milem, et. al (1998), there are four dimensions to be considered when analyzing campus climate, and racial and ethnic climate are amongst them (as cited by Hart and Fellbaum, 2009). Our questions were framed around the following theme, “To what extent do campus operations demonstrate that racial and ethnic diversity is an essential value?” (Hurtado, Milem, et. al, 1998 p. 297). We also used the CECE Model from Museus (2014), crafting the questions through the lens of cultural validation as the indicator to see if Black students felt their safety was being valued simultaneously with their racial identities as racially minoritized students (Appendix B). The interviews were scheduled to last between thirty to forty-five minutes as “participants are likely to suffer from fatigue when discussions are longer,” (Nyumba, Wilson, Derrick, & Mukherjee, 2018). By keeping it close to that time range, students were more likely to continue to stay engaged within the conversation. The dialogues used a semi-structured model, paired with guided questions, to provide support and direction for the session and facilitator while allowing for freedom of discussion. This process paralleled what we would have done with

36 SPA Journal at IU Spring 2021 Edition the focus groups; the questions planned to be used for focus groups were instead used verbatim within the individual interviews. Due to the virtual nature of the interview sessions, the researchers took notes and audio recorded the individual interview Zoom sessions. The virtual interviews lasted for around thirty to forty-five minutes on average and were facilitated by two researchers per interview. It is important to note that this aspect of the interview was communicated with participants and only researchers had access to these recordings. The recordings were immediately destroyed following the completion of the study in order to protect and respect the participants’ identities, narratives, and confidentiality.

Data Analysis The researchers predicted three deductive themes that would surface during interview sessions based on the literature review. Those themes were: support on campus, microaggressions and general feelings of safety, and mask policy enforcement. In addition to the deductive themes, the researchers identified two inductive themes after analyzing the data given the meaningfulness to participants: gender identity and the compounding racial and COVID struggle. Upon completion of the interviews, it was the responsibility of each researcher to analyze recordings of each interview. During the individual listening sessions, the researchers utilized pre-coding methods by highlighting and making a note of codable moments in the voice recordings to bring to the collective coding session (Saldana, 2015). After the individual pre- coding, the researchers each compiled notes of deductive themes and then came together to discuss similarities and differences of the deductive themes. The researchers came together because “. . . team members must coordinate and insure that their sometimes individual coding efforts harmonize . . .” (Saldana, 2015, p. 36). This collaborative coding allowed each researcher to present their pre-coding and come together to decide how the deductive themes were brought up and to merge all of the notes before the manual coding commenced. Through the coding process, the researchers discovered gender identity, an additional theme that surfaced. As a result of these discussions, the researchers were able to come to a consensus as to what themes are relevant to the study and how they drive the results. The researchers pointed out themes in the voice recordings and discussed with each other how each theme was mentioned by the participants through manual coding methods (Saldana, 2015). The frequency of the themes provided the relevancy across all of the individual interviews and how they were discussed put together a story of the participants’ experiences. In order to assure ethics of the study and opportunity for rapport building with the participants, the researchers were transparent with the participants before initiating the interviews regarding the method of collecting and recording the data. The researchers also assured the participants that the data would be destroyed immediately upon completion of the study.

Limitations

There are a few limitations when looking at the two main selected methods of collecting data. When looking at demographic’s surveys, there is always the potential that participants are not answering honestly. In conjunction with this point, given the demographic survey will be administered digitally, there is the possibility of non-responsive participants as well as a lack of accessibility if participants do not have WiFi or internet access (Jones, Baxter & Khanduja,

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2013). While this is something outside of the researchers’ control due to COVID-19 restrictions, it is still important to recognize those implications and who is potentially being left out. A limitation of the focus groups was lack of participant availability. When creating focus groups, there was difficulty in finding dates and times that worked best to create three identity- based groups to promote and facilitate fruitful dialogue and conversation. Because of this, the researchers decided to conduct individual interviews. This decision was made collectively by the researchers. Choosing to conduct individual interviews allowed the researchers to develop rapport with the participant with ease and to be appropriately attentive to student narratives that were shared. Additionally, given the health and safety risks of conducting the interviews in person as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, the individual interviews were conducted via Zoom. An ethical consideration the researchers must prepare for and prevent is the potential of “zoom- bombing” in which an unwelcome individual joins the meeting, compromising the confidential space that researchers created. For this reason, the researchers enabled the waiting room feature to give the researchers complete control over who would be allowed to enter the meeting. Lastly, while acknowledging the various ethnic and racial identities that the researchers have, the researchers have considered the sensitivity of the information being shared as well as the verbal and nonverbal ways that the questions are posed in order to prevent any potential re- traumatization from occurring.

Findings The three deductive themes that the researchers predicted prior to analyzing the data were present within the individual interviews conducted. These three themes were microaggressions and general feelings of safety, mask enforcement policy, and support on campus. After analyzing the data, the researchers discovered gender identity and a compounding racial and COVID struggle as two inductive themes that were also present during these interviews. Each theme is further examined and supported by student narratives shared with the researchers.

Microaggressions and General Feelings of Safety on Campus An overarching theme that researchers were interested in understanding more about relates to the aggressions or microaggressions that students may experience on campus before and after the impact of the Coronavirus pandemic. Additionally, researchers gathered narratives on student perspectives of safety at Indiana University-Bloomington. When researchers asked the participants about their experience with aggressions in general as it relates to their racial identity, all but one of the participants gave tangible examples of times when they had encountered these experiences. These experiences took place in academic, residential housing, and general public areas around campus. Many of the students mentioned feeling isolated in the classroom given that they are often the only or one of very few Black people in the classroom or laboratory. Rose described a situation where peers and professors would be exclusionary, and Azula shared an experience where professors have reprimanded or scolded the Black students for incidents that non-Black peers would also be doing without being yelled at or scolded. Azula stated, “A lab supervisor came into the lab. . . and yelled at [me and another student of color] for having our phones out and yelled at us telling us how disrespectful it was, while everyone else watched and then put their phones away. I put my phone away, but everyone else was doing it too.” Similarly, Isaiah explained that within the residence halls, he has been written up for incidents multiple times this

38 SPA Journal at IU Spring 2021 Edition year but his non-Black co-workers responsible for the same actions were excused. Daniel stated that in casual situations, non-Black people tend to ask invasive and inappropriate questions. People have asked him about his hair, if his father was ever home, and if he had a plug for illegal substances. When asked about their general experiences with aggressions or microaggressions on campus specifically in regard to the mask policy enforcement, students overwhelmingly stated that they had not experienced or noticed many microaggressions in relation to the mask policy. While the participants did not explicitly stress that they experienced any microaggressions, examples were given that read as microaggressions. As the researchers, we will not label their experiences as such; however, these examples can objectively read as microaggressive. Toph stated that “I get a lot of snickers when people walk past me. They will go out of their way to make sure they don’t walk past me.” Toph also mentioned that “cop cars slow down to watch me. As soon as I enter a building, people look at me. I genuinely think that the cop car slowing down is annoying.” Toph explained a situation when an older White man walked past her as she was wearing her mask and the man grunted and stared at her. She said, “it’s like my presence disturbs them for some odd reason. Like it’s very obvious that I’m a student.” Angelica expressed her frustration regarding her experience with the mask policy. She stated that “it’s on a case-by-case basis when a person is written up, so you never know if you’re going to get written up”. By this, Angelica was referring to being documented by an RA or another university official, which would consequently initiate a conduct record.

Mask Enforcement Policy Due to the nature of the study and interview questions, there was overwhelming data on experiences of wearing masks and the mask enforcement policy, which was anticipated as we predicted deductive themes. Of our 12 participants, all expressed that wearing masks is important. Separate from the mask-wearing requirement on campus, seven participants reported that wearing a mask helps to prevent being infected or exposed to the virus and is a stress-free way to protect oneself and others. Experiences with the mask enforcement policy differed. While all participants are impacted by the mask enforcement policy by being students at IU, some participants held positions as RAs within residence halls and had an extra layer of enforcement responsibility amongst their residences. Erica mentioned that there are “inconsistencies with residences who are being written up and who are not.” She continued to say that “someone has been written up over the times needed to be removed from the residence hall.” In residence halls there is a three- strike system if a resident is seen without wearing a mask. Angelica reported inconsistencies with wearing masks. “There are loopholes within the policy, and they pick and choose who they want to write up.” An example that was given regarding these loopholes was not having to wear a mask outside but as soon as you enter a residence hall without a mask, you are written up. Another example given by Isaiah was in relation to fellow RA’s being issued consequences of not wearing masks. “I do know about three RAs who had their mask under their nose. . . all three of them were written up but one was fired, and she was Black.” When asked about experiences with the mask enforcement policy and how they differ from non- Black students at IU, ten participants spoke to personal or observed experiences of inequities. Most participants also expressed how mainly White students are seen without wearing a mask or White students feel more comfortable enforcing the policy. Katara shared an experience of friends who identify as Hispanic, “three White girls told them to put their masks on and they had

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Hernandez, McCarthy, Millon, & Waters almost called the police.” Participants expressed always being cautious and that they always have their mask on for experiences such as this. Erica spoke to her opinion of how she doesn’t see a difference in mask enforcement but sees a difference in mask enforcement response amongst White students; “I had a White resident from California who said my parents pay $50,000 per year for me to be here so I don’t have to wear a mask.” This is an example of mask enforcement response and how it intersects with privilege or potentially “entitlement” as Erica expressed. Participants shared feelings of the mask enforcement policy being too strict and others experiencing that the policy was not strict enough. DeJaye stated that “in recent times of being on campus, so many are not wearing masks. . . it’s just a piece of fabric.” Isaiah stated that “I think that it is very strict and that’s good in a sense, but I think that a lot of times people adversely get hurt by the COVID-19 policies.” Isaiah gave an example of his resident who stepped out to take his trash, “like slipping your mask off for a second or stepping out to take the mask off for a second and a student can be sent home.” Though the participants’ experiences varied, many of the students expressed their perceptions of inconsistencies about the mask policy enforcement.

Support on Campus The participants discussed different aspects to their perceptions of support on campus, or lack thereof and gave their insight into how supported they feel by the institution. Every student discussed aspects of support through different offices or resources; however, not every student knew about the resources or how to utilize said services. Azula shared, “I know they [support services] exist and that’s basically it.” Azula also shared that she only knows of these different support services based on her position on campus working in residence life. Azula’s experience aligns with the other participants. The only participants who were aware of the services provided on campus and what they provide were employed student leaders. The participants who did not explicitly share that they held a student leadership role either did not know the support services provided or the extent to what those services provided. After being asked if she knew about support services on campus, Rose shared, “I do not, I would utilize these resources if it really bothered me.” This sentiment aligns with other students who shared that they would seek out resources if it surpassed a breaking point. Joan shared, “I feel if it gets worse, then I’ll go seek help, but for right now I’ll just let it be.” The participants who did not explicitly share that they were student leaders all came to the conclusion that they either had heard of the resources or not at all and they would either utilize them if they knew more or use the services if it surpassed a threshold. Lack of support on campus also comes from the faculty and other academic/residential living spaces. According to our data, ten out of twelve participants shared that they had experienced a form of microaggression in the spaces that were supposed to provide support for their experience on campus. These microaggressions often surround their racial identity of being a Black student on IU’s campus, Rose shared, “Once, I was the only girl in a physics class and the only Black person too. I sat in the front, but I wasn’t even acknowledged by the professor.” Rose felt that she was overlooked due to her identities of being a Black woman and did not feel supported in

40 SPA Journal at IU Spring 2021 Edition that environment. Chris shared, “. . . surprised looks in class if you know an answer, or if you’re the one who has a grasp on the course material.” These spaces harbored racial microaggressions for these participants and created a hostile, non-supportive environment. Two participants spoke more explicitly on the intersecting microaggressions and creating non-supportive spaces, Toph shared, “People make assumptions even more because they can’t see my face.” Jeff shared, most people decide to cross the street with COVID, but it happens more when it’s cold and I’m wearing a hoodie and mask.” These two participants shared how the intersection of their racial identity and mask policies have created situations of assumptions and more weariness around them. These can contribute to a lack of support experienced in general on campus.

Gender Identity While the previous themes were deductive in nature, we found that the participants described similar experiences and perspectives when grouped by the basis of gender. Of our twelve participants, four identified as male, one as non-binary, and seven as female. When asking about general feelings of safety on campus, mostly everyone agreed on the fear surrounding COVID. However, when it came to feelings of safety and experiences of microaggressions based on their racial identities, the approach to their responses differed greatly. When talking about the intersection between wearing masks, every single man- identifying student generally denied claims about ever having been targets of racial microaggressions and feeling unsafe when being asked directly. “COVID doesn’t care about your race so everyone is a danger. I’ve never felt threatened as a Black person, so I guess I’ve been pretty chill on that front too,” Isaiah shared. Chris also mentioned he had not experienced any racial microaggressions, but he considered himself “lucky in that regard.” Daniel also stated he had never experienced any racial microaggressions regarding the mask policy. In a similar vein, Emerald shared that he doesn’t “walk around with the perception that [he is] Black. [He] just walk[s] around like a student. [He has] not had an experience where [he has] felt conscientious of [his] color and [he is] grateful because of that.” Despite never explicitly claiming experiences of microaggressions, many participants shared experiences of microaggressions per our definition in the literature review, even if they were unable to label it as such. Most of the men shared that the only time they have been aware of their race was when they were the only person of color in a room, or people being hyper-aware of their presence. Three of the four men (as well as the non-binary student) talked about wanting to appear less threatening when wearing masks, but no one has treated them differently for it. Six women in the group shared tangible experiences regarding microaggressions on campus outside of the mask policies, with four of the seven women referencing their hair as a source of these experiences.

Compounding Race and COVID Issue

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The second inductive theme noted by the researchers regarded the compounding struggles Black students experienced in regard to their race and health discrepancies presented in the Black community with COVID. All but one participant discussed experiencing a form of racial microaggression pre-COVID. When asked about their IU experiences during COVID, many of the responses turned into worries of public health and less about the racial components. A few participants discussed how we are in a public health crisis, not a race issue, Katara shared, “Right now, it’s not based on race, it’s based on public health.” This is an example of students seeing one issue at a time, and not seeing it as a multi-layered situation. When one problem appears, the others do not simply disappear. This became apparent with some of the participant’s interviews. The microaggressions on campus were still present; however, with the harsher mask policy enforcement on Black students, this has created a compounding issue and more for Black students to navigate on IU’s campus. This became even more apparent when talking about how Black students have had differing experiences in terms of mask policy enforcement than their White counterparts. Toph shared, “When I take my mask off, I’m breaking the rules. If White students take their masks off, they’re getting a breath of fresh air.” The racial microaggressions have manifested into differences in enforcement between Black and White students. This seemed to manifest in a majority of the interviews with the participants with one exception who believed that race was not an issue on campus, Emerald shared “I haven’t heard any friends with a COVID race story . . . American society is on the COVID factor in general, not the race thing.” Emerald shared earlier that he does not believe that race is an issue on campus and that he feels like “. . . just another student . . .” on campus. Emerald’s experience seems to be the outlier from the other participants’ experiences. Race and COVID have compounded and created an intersecting way to create more microaggressions toward Black students on campus. Many students’ experiences have evolved into an intersecting and compounding issue of race and COVID.

Discussion/Implications Mask Enforcement Policy The experiences shared by the participants speak to the racial climate that is apparent on IU’s campus. For example, Black students seemed to be more hyper-aware of the mask policy enforcement when reflecting on their own personal experiences as well as other Black peers’ experiences. The inequities expressed amongst participants show the potential differences in the mask enforcement policy of Black students compared to their non-Black peers. Many of the participants shared internalized fears of discrimination based on how mask policy would be enforced. They felt that they may be targeted based on their observed experiences or as a result of institutionalized racism. Together, the narratives show the inconsistency with how the policy is being enforced among their Black peers. An additional implication regarding the mask enforcement policy is the intersection of two “pandemics”: the impact the COVID-19 pandemic has had on the Black community and the racial pandemic that is manifested in our society. When talking

42 SPA Journal at IU Spring 2021 Edition to our students, we found that their experiences regarding fear of being racially profiled while wearing masks (particularly our Black men participants) align with the findings of Ruiz et. al (2020). Students shared that during efforts of protecting themselves and others from the virus by wearing a mask, they sensed fear from other students while walking around campus. A student even mentioned that individuals suspected them of planning to steal something simply because they looked like a thief. Not only are Black students experiencing racism in their daily lives, but they are also simultaneously navigating the health discrepancies of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Black Women’s Experiences As stated in the discussion section, an inductive theme we discovered was the difference in approaches and lenses on our students on the basis of gender. The Black women in our study as a whole tended to provide us with more tangible examples of experiences with racial and gender microaggressions addressed towards them pre- COVID and concurrently. Several of these instances involved people touching them or their hair and asking “is this real?”, according to Azula. In addition to this, many of the women talked about being afraid of walking around at night or walking alone in general and found comfort in being surrounded by friends or people. The men in the study did not discuss experiences of wanting to be around other individuals in order to feel more safe. The women tended to be more cautious not only because of their race, but in conjunction to their gender identity and the fear of being sexually assaulted. The women also spoke about mentors (typically other faculty of color) who have helped them succeed in their undergraduate experiences, which would align with our framework of the CECE model of cultural validation (Museus, 2014). Toph’s experience highlighted this in her interview, by sharing the reason she was able to get back into her scholarship program after she had been harassed and bullied for a semester by a group of men was because a Black professor took the time to invest in her and helped her re- register for courses and get involved. “If it wasn’t for the [African American and African Diaspora Studies] department, I genuinely would have dropped out and I don’t know what I would have done,” she shared.

Student Support One theme that the researchers discovered during the participant interviews is that students are aware that there are resources available to them on campus when they encounter difficult situations, but they have many misconceptions and uncertainties about these forms of support. Student employees and student leaders interviewed during this study stated that they felt informed about the resources on campus. For example, each of the participants who are Resident Assistants were aware of resources available to them in the Dean of Students office such as Bias Incident Reporting and CARE reporting. An additional common theme researchers noticed is participant’s hesitancy to report because they did not think that their situation called for support from the Dean of Students office or they were hesitant due to misconceptions of reporting and attaching their name to a Bias Incident Report. When asked if he sought out these resources after experiencing incidents of

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Hernandez, McCarthy, Millon, & Waters bias, Isaiah stated that “I guess I’m aware of these resources, but they’re not the first thing I would think of. My mindset has just been ‘wow this is crazy’, but I’ve never thought that I should fill it out. You think when stuff happens, I just wonder if it’s really that big of a deal to report it.” When the researchers explained the Bias Incident Reporting process to the participants and stated that typically students are able to remain in control regarding how they choose to proceed, the majority of the students expressed their surprise. Daniel said, “I didn’t know that students had such a wide variety of options [when reporting bias incidents], so I will definitely spread the word to my friends. I most definitely think I would have felt more encouraged to utilize bias incident reporting if I would have known about the wide variety of options.” Overall, each participant stated that they would have utilized these resources had they known more information about the process of bias incident reporting or the support services in general at IU.

Recommendations

In order to enhance the Black student experience and mitigate any unnecessary harm placed on Black students at IU, the researchers have made the following recommendations for the department of First Year Experience (FYE), Office of Student Conduct (OSC), Residential Programs and Services (RPS), the Dean of Students office, and the Office of the Vice Provost for Faculty & Academic Affairs. Each recommendation was based on Museus’ (2014) cultural validation CECE model and Woodard and Sims’s (2000) recommendation on “the perceived value of the concept of diversity on campus” (as cited by Hart & Fellabaum, 2009, p. 224). With this in mind, each recommendation aims to provide the resources for faculty and other campus partners to best support Black students at IU.

The Office of First Year Experience Programs (FYE)

Our recommendation for FYE is more effective marketing for bias incident reporting and support services provided by the Dean of Students. Orientation is a monumental part of the transition for students and the perfect opportunity to disseminate information to incoming students. According to Baxter Magolda’s Self-Authorship theory, incoming students are more likely listening to external formulas and will take what they are told at face value from authority figures (Baxter Magolda, 2001). Enhancing the marketing techniques for FYE would provide an ideal opportunity to make sure that all students know about the services provided through the Dean of Students office. Many of the participants did not know about what services were provided on campus, aside from CAPS or going to a professor/mentor. Bias incident reporting and other services were primarily known by student employees or leaders through their positions on campus. Spreading knowledge more widely and effectively would mitigate confusion regarding such resources and would ensure that students have the knowledge to use resources that are provided on campus to combat racial/COVID microaggressions.

Office of Student Conduct (OSC) and Residential Programs and Services (RPS)

The researchers realized an opportunity for collaboration between two of the most prominent areas of student engagement: the Office of Student Conduct (OSC) and Residential Programs and Services (RPS). RPS houses 33% of Indiana University’s students (U.S. News,

44 SPA Journal at IU Spring 2021 Edition n.d.), majority of which are first year students. The opportunity to collaborate presents itself here since there are several staff members working in residence life trained on writing up students for COVID violations, with multiple strikes leading to conduct cases. Many student interactions happen in the residence halls, and based on the participants’ feedback, where they spend a lot of time because of COVID restrictions. Due to this, majority of mask enforcement write-ups occur within the residence halls. Currently, through RPS’s residential curriculum and Student Engagement Plans, it is the RA’s responsibility to talk about the policies and regulations to their residents through Community Builders and Community Meetings that occur at the beginning of the year. However, there is no mandatory way to assess if every resident fully comprehended the content of these meetings. In conjunction to this, currently student employees are the ones who receive a bulk of the preventative training programs that fully allow them to understand the context and rationale behind policies while residents might not. When students are found in violation of the COVID guidelines and policies, they are required to follow the guidelines for IU’s three-strike system. As it currently stands, the first violation results in an educational conversation between the student and a hearing officer on the importance of wearing a mask without an official sanction. This means students do not receive an extensive conversation with accountability measures on the understanding of the importance of the mask enforcement policy until after they have been written up for their first violation. As stated earlier, about half of our participants believed the mask enforcement policy was too strict and enforcement was not uniform across the board. We are led to believe that while the students in general believe in the importance of wearing a mask (the policy), they might not agree with the methods of the enforcement (the context). Recognizing that COVID has the potential to end in the future, we wanted to take the concept of prevention beyond the mask enforcement policies. We would recommend for OSC to collaborate with RPS to have a mandatory form of accountability (taking attendance) and assessment (i.e. a quiz on Canvas) after the residence hall community meetings. These meetings would range in topics that would not just talk about the policies put in place, but the rationale of the enforcements and importance of them. Tying back to Museus’ (2014) cultural validation, this recommendation relies on proactive philosophies which informs practitioners to be preemptive to cultural issues and the why before issues arise. Students feel heard and feed into their cultural validation when practitioners are proactive in conjunction to being reactive, as opposed to solely the latter.

Dean of Students Office and Office of the Vice Provost for Faculty & Academic Affairs Given that an overwhelming majority of the participants stated that they have experienced aggressions, microaggressions, and feelings of isolation regarding being “the only one” in academic settings, the researchers would like to make recommendations addressing this student struggle. Researchers would like to recommend that the Dean of Students office, in collaboration with the Office of the Vice Provost for Faculty and Academic Affairs, create a mandatory online canvas module for faculty regarding racial competency specifically as it relates to how they should be supporting Black students in the classroom at IUB, a Predominately White Institution. An additional recommendation that researchers hope the Dean of Students office and the Office of the Vice Provost for Faculty and Academic Affairs will collaborate on and strive towards is creating a Training Coordinator position who would collaborate with the Director of

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Bias response. The Training Coordinator would focus specifically on conducting mandatory online or in-person training for faculty as they support their Black students who are “the only one” in the academic setting. According to Keonya, Lisa, and Campbell-Whatley (2016), “an interesting impact from the [Summer Diversity] Institute was a sense of validation for faculty to be themselves. . . [and] it was okay to be in the process of developing. . . Students also became more aware of and questioned their language, attitudes, and behaviors relative to diversity” (p. 6). Consequently, the researchers find that this recommendation would be quite beneficial for preparing faculty for interactions with their students in the classroom.

Dean of Students Office and Office of the Vice Provost for Faculty & Academic Affairs Given that an overwhelming majority of the participants stated that they have experienced aggressions, microaggressions, and feelings of isolation regarding being “the only one” in academic settings, the researchers would like to make recommendations addressing this student struggle. Researchers would like to recommend that the Dean of Students office, in collaboration with the Office of the Vice Provost for Faculty and Academic Affairs, create a mandatory online canvas module for faculty regarding racial competency specifically as it relates to how they should be supporting Black students in the classroom at IUB, a Predominately White Institution. An additional recommendation that researchers hope the Dean of Students office and the Office of the Vice Provost for Faculty and Academic Affairs will collaborate on and strive towards is creating a Training Coordinator position who would collaborate with the Director of Bias response. The Training Coordinator would focus specifically on conducting mandatory online or in-person training for faculty as they support their Black students who are “the only one” in the academic setting. According to Keonya, Lisa, and Campbell-Whatley (2016), “an interesting impact from the [Summer Diversity] Institute was a sense of validation for faculty to be themselves. . . [and] it was okay to be in the process of developing. . . Students also became more aware of and questioned their language, attitudes, and behaviors relative to diversity” (p. 6). Consequently, the researchers find that this recommendation would be quite beneficial for preparing faculty for interactions with their students in the classroom.

Dean of Students Office In order to address the common theme of students being unaware of the options that Bias Incident Reporting provides students, the researchers recommend that the Dean of Students office create a student leadership position focused fully on supporting Black students through programming. This upperclassmen student leader would lead Black student support groups focused on processing through and finding coping mechanisms for being the only Black student in academic, residential, and other areas of campus. According to Cox et al. (2018), “. . . Black students in the present study explained receiving support from several sources within the university, primarily their peers. Most research on Black student engagement shows that they receive support from their peers, particularly their Black peers (p. 209). For this reason, researchers found it most appropriate that the person facilitating these support groups is a Black student leader.

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Another recommendation that the researchers would like to propose to the Dean of Students office is to have the Director of Bias response or a representative of the Dean of Students office present at Student Staff trainings for Residential Life focused specifically on the misconceptions that students have about reporting bias incidents. The researchers would then hope that the Dean of Students office would encourage Resident Assistants and CommUNITY Educators within RPS to emphasize these misconceptions during community floor meetings and general interactions with the students who live on campus

Conclusion

The COVID-19 pandemic in addition to a “racial pandemic” has introduced additional difficulties for Black students on campus. Overall, research shows that general safety on campus has not been cultivated on campus prior to the pandemic and continues to be a stressor with the mask policy enforcement. Support on campus, while available for the student population, is not presented in appropriate ways to be utilized as such to enhance the student experience, specifically the Black student experience. General safety and support on campus is necessary for successful collegiate experiences and must be advocated for as we continue to navigate COVID- 19 and eventually, a post-COVID world.

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Appendix A: Demographics Questions

The list of demographic questions, per the Qualtrics survey, are as follows: 1. First and Last Name 2. What are your pronouns? 3. IU Email 4. Age 5. What is your gender identity? 6. What is your ethnic identity? 7. What is your current year at Indiana University-Bloomington? 8. Do you currently live on campus? 1. If yes, do you live in a residence hall or Greek facility? Qualtrics Link (preview): https://iu.co1.qualtrics.com/jfe/preview/SV_bEs0tMkogSyMd7L?Q_CHL=preview&Q_Survey VersionID=current

Appendix B: Individual Interview Protocol

• Introduction o Welcome participants o Introduce yourself as facilitators and graduate student researcher o Explain what individual interviews are o Allow participants to introduce themselves (Name, pronouns, year, fun fact) • Purpose of Study & Confidentiality o The purpose of this study is to gather student narratives about their personal experiences regarding mask enforcement policy in order to make recommendations for the Dean of Students office to consider in order to further support Black students and mitigate unnecessary harm that Black students experience. o Due to the virtual feature of the individual interviews, the researchers took notes and audio recorded the interview sessions. It is important to note that this aspect of the interview was communicated with participants and only researchers had access to these recordings. The recordings were immediately destroyed following the completion of the study. o Pseudonym • Introduction of questions • Individual Interview Questions - Back and forth o What has been your experience as a Black student on Indiana University’s campus? How has that changed through your years at IU, if at all? Has your experience changed at all with the transition to virtual learning? o Can you speak specifically on your experience with your feelings of safety on campus before compared to now in a COVID environment? Has that changed with COVID rules and regulations? o Do you feel that wearing a mask is important? Why or why not?

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o What are your thoughts and feelings on the mask policies in place around campus? o What has been your experience with wearing masks on campus? In relation to being a Black student? Black woman? Black man? Black gender non-binary, if applicable? o What experiences have you had in relation to mask enforcement that may differ from non-Black people on campus? o Have you experienced aggressions or microaggressions on campus due to mask policies? How did you navigate those experience(s)? o Aggressions or micro-aggressions as a result of racial identity? o Did you find support on campus after experiencing these situations? How did you utilize those resources? o (If applicable) Are you aware of services that are provided through the Dean of Students Office (ie bias incident reporting, CARE reporting)? If yes, have you utilized these? If no, would you seek these out if you knew more about support the office provides? o What resources have you utilized on campus to find support during COVID? What are resources you have heard of but may not have utilized them yourself? o Would you like to discuss other aspects of your experience as a Black person on IU’s campus in relation to mask policy enforcement? • Close individual interview session o Thank participants o Provide contact information if further follow up is requested o Explain how data will be analyzed and shared • During individual interviews o Utilize guided questions to prompt participants o Use probes and follow up questions where needed

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References American Psychological Association, Divisions 16 and 44. (2015). Key terms and concepts in understanding gender diversity and sexual orientation among students. Retrieved from https://www.apa.org/pi/lgbt/programs/safe-supportive/lgbt/key-terms.pdf

Baxter Magolda, M.B. (2001). Pathways into young adulthood. In M. B. Baxter Magolda Making their own way narratives for transforming higher education to promote self-development (pp. 37-70). Sterling, VA: Stylus.

College Factual. (2020). IU Bloomington student population stats. Retrieved from https://www.collegefactual.com/colleges/indiana-university-bloomington/student- life/diversity/#chart-age-diversity

College Tuition Compare. (2020). Student population at Indiana University-Bloomington (IU). Retrieved from https://www.collegetuitioncompare.com/edu/151351/indiana-university- bloomington/enrollment/

Cox, W., Dorley, T., McDougal, S., Wodaje, H. (2018). Black Student Engagement: Resilience & Success Under Duress. Africology; The Journal of Pan African Studies. 12(7). 192- 215.

Crenshaw, K. (2017). The urgency of intersectionality [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.ted.com/talks/kimberle_crenshaw_the_urgency_of_intersectionality? language=en

Easterwood, A. (2016). Racial Stressors and the Black College Experience at Predominantly White Institution. 1-49. doi: 129.237.33.46

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Hart, J., Fellabaum, J. (2008). Analyzing campus climate studies: Seeking to define and understand. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 1(4), 222-234.

Hughes, J. L., Camden, A. A., Yangchen, T. (2016). Rethinking and updating demographic questions: Guidance to improve descriptions of research samples. Psi Chi Journal of Psychological Research, 21(3), 138-151.

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Indiana University (2018). Campus Minority Enrollments Compared to Peers. Retrieved from https://uirr.iu.edu/facts-figures/enrollment/diversity/IUBLA_peer_comparison_2020.pdf

Jones, T. L., Baxter, M. A. J., Khanduja, V. (2013) A quick guide to survey research. Annals of The Royal College of Surgeons of England, 95(1), 5-7.

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Keonya, B., Merriweather, L., & Campbell-Whatley, G. (2016). The Effects of Diversity Training on Faculty and Students’ Classroom Experiences. International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning. 10(1). 1-9.

Lowe, M. R., Stroud, A., Nguyen, A. (2017). Who looks suspicious? Racialized surveillance in a predominately white neighborhood. Social Currents, 4(1), 34-50.

Mukherjee, N., Huge, J., Sutherland, W. J., Mcneill, J., Van Opstal, M.,Dahdouh-Guebas, F., & Koedam, N. (2015). The Delphi technique in ecology and biological conservation: Applications and guidelines. Methods in Ecology and Evolution, 6, 1097– 1109

Museus, S.D. (2014). The culturally engaging campus environments (CECE) model: A new theory of success among racially diverse college student populations. In M.B. Palmer (Ed). Higher education handbook of theory and research (pp. 189-227). Springer.

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Ruiz, N., Horowitz, J., & Tamir, C. (2020). Many Black and Asian Americans say they have experienced Discrimination amid the COVID-19 outbreak. Pew Research Center. https://www.bing.com/newtabredir?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewresearch.org%2Fso cial-trends%2F2020%2F07%2F01%2Fmany-black-and-asian-americans-say-they-have- experienced-discrimination-amid-the-covid-19-outbreak%2F

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Williams, J. L., Youmans, Q., R. (2020). Two pandemics, one responsibility: Constructing a response to COVID-19 and systemic racism. American College of Cardiology. Retrieved from https://www.acc.org/membership/sections-and-councils/fellows-in-training-section/ section-updates/2020/06/12/14/42/two-pandemics-one-responsibility-constructing-a- esponse-to-covid-19-and-systemic-racism

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Setting the PACE: An Assessment of Political Engagement and Motivations Among Students at Indiana University

Elliott Beach, Ryan Carlberg, Abigail Gschwend Harris, Jacob Henry, & Shelby Kuepker

Abstract

In the months leading up to the 2020 U.S. presidential election, researchers surveyed IU students in the Political and Civic Engagement (PACE) certificate program in order to understand how PACE students were engaged politically, what motivated them to engage politically, and how those motivations were shaped by the changing political landscape. Using primarily quantitative methods, researchers utilized Cabrera et al.’s (2017) ten student activism and engagement premises as a foundation for their research. Researchers further worked to establish a spectrum of political engagement which ranged from slacktivism to activism, a scale that became more evident and applicable throughout the analysis. Through both a quantitative and qualitative analysis, researchers found that there was not a strong connection between the years of involvement in the PACE program and the number of ways a student is politically engaged. Additionally, researchers found that there was a wide array of motivations for students joining the PACE program which could be leveraged by PACE administrators in programming or curriculum. Our findings revealed that PACE students are very altruistic in their vision and hopes for society.

Keywords

Political engagement, student activism, political motivations

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Elliott Beach hails from Springfield, Ohio. He received a B.A. in history from Thiel College and his M.S.Ed. in Higher Education & Student Affairs and a Certificate in Institutional Research in spring 2021 from Indiana University-Bloomington. His primary interests center around student conduct, sorority and fraternity life, and student leadership. As a strong believer in the positive potential of the fraternity experience, Elliott works to support a more accountable fraternity and sorority experience. After IU, Elliott will work for Delta Sigma Phi Fraternity as the Senior Associate Director of Accountability working with chapters to support a safer fraternity experience.

Ryan Carlberg is a part-time graduate student in the Higher Education and Student Affairs (HESA) master’s program within Indiana University Bloomington’s School of Education. In addition, he serves as a full-time employee in the university’s Office of the Vice President for Diversity, Equity, and Multicultural Affairs. Because of his administrative background and the interaction between his dual roles, Ryan understands that, in order to thrive, campus communities must provide faculty, staff, and students with the support needed to do their very best work. For that reason, he looks forward to earning his degree and using the competencies gained through the HESA program to better serve IU.

Abigail Gschwend Harris (she/her) is an alumna of the University of Tulsa where she received her B.M. in Piano Performance in 2016. For the past two years at Indiana University, she has worked as the Graduate Assistant for Strategic Initiatives in the Office of the President, primarily serving as the Board of Aeons advisor. Additionally, she worked with Union Board as a Graduate Programming Advisor with both the Concerts and Canvas Creative Arts committees. In May 2021, Abigail will receive her M.S.Ed. in Higher Education and Student Affairs and a Graduate Certificate in Institutional Research. Post- graduation, Abigail will serve as the Assistant Director of Admissions for the Kelley Direct Online MBA and MS Programs where she looks forward to growing as a professional.

Jacob Henry graduated in 2021 with a M.S.Ed. in Higher Education & Student Affairs, along with a Graduate Certificate in Institutional Research. He received his B.M. in Music Education with an Instrumental Specialization from Bowling Green State University in 2015. At Indiana University, Jacob served primarily as a Graduate Advisor for Student Organizations in the Student Involvement and Leadership Center. His research interests include: enrollment management with a focus on equitable practices, adult learners/nontraditional students and their assimilation to campus life, and support services for underrepresented and minority students.

Shelby Kuepker’s student affairs journey began at Augustana College in the Office of Student Life where she co-led the university’s programming board and Welcome Week. At IU, Shelby’s love for student activities, leadership programs, and new student programs blossomed. She held assistantships with the Student Involvement and Leadership Center and Indiana Memorial Union, serving as Student Organizations Graduate Advisor and Union Board Graduate Advisor. Shelby completed her practicum experience in the Office of First Year Experiences with the Hoosier Link Program working with IU’s transfer students. Shelby also served IU’s Student Personnel Association as Outreach Co-Director. In summer 2020, Shelby interned virtually with University of Houston’s Prospective and New Student Programs. Shelby is excited to leave IU with a wealth of new knowledge, experiences, and friends and colleagues in the field.

Suggested citation:

54 SPA Journal at IU Spring 2021 Edition

Beach, E., Carlberg, R., Gschwend Harris, A., Henry, J., & Kuepker, S. (2021). Setting the PACE: An assessment of political engagement and motivations among students at Indiana University. Journal of the Student Personnel Association at Indiana University, 53-67.

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Introduction

Student-affairs educators in the United States (US) today assert that meaningful engagement in co-curricular activities increases the success rate of students’ academic performance and personal and professional development (Patton et al., 2016). Throughout the Fall 2020 semester, ongoing current events—including the run-up to the US presidential election, the worldwide health crisis caused by COVID-19, and calls for racial and social justice following instances of police brutality, among others— continued to develop while the frequency of meaningful interactions and student-oriented developmental activities, co-curricular or otherwise, dwindled. With this in mind, our research team sought to examine political engagement among Indiana University (IU) students during the fall 2020 semester—specifically students who have proven to be invested in politics prior to and amid the convergence of the aforementioned politicized events. Generation Z (i.e., current, traditionally-aged undergraduate students) comprises an estimated 20.3% of the American population (Frey, 2020). These students are nearing and passing the voting age at a time when Americans’ trust in establishment and government is incredibly low, no matter party affiliation (Jackson, 2020). Across the US, reactions to the global pandemic and entrenched systems of oppression have amplified feelings of discontent, distrust, and disrepute in the lead-up to a presidential election and political season unlike any other (Ingraham, 2020). With uncertainty abound, institutions of higher education have not been spared from strife, and, in fact, 2020 has seen colleges and universities centered in a political and ideological discussion. These times have posed existential questions related to how colleges and universities operate and how they serve to develop political and civic engagement among their primary constituencies: students. While the interests that led to this study and the proceeding implications are aimed at the institutional level, the research was done at the student level which comprised our sample population. This confluence of events combined with the current semi-volatile, uncertain environment of college and university campuses all but ensures “young people could wield significant political power” in the 2020 election and the direction of American politics going forward (Sprunt, 2020). This quantitative study seeks to answer the following research questions: 1. How are Political and Civic Engagement (PACE) students at Indiana University Bloomington (IU) engaged politically? 2. What motivates them to engage politically, and how are these motivations being shaped by the changing political landscape? For the purposes of this research, individuals included in the study sample are defined as currently enrolled undergraduate students earning a certificate in PACE through the College of Arts and Sciences at Indiana University Bloomington. Political engagement among these students will be defined broadly using a lightly modified version of Cabrera et al.’s (2017) ten student activism and engagement premises. In this framework, political engagement (1) embodies an intentional, sustained connection to a larger collective; (2) involves developing and exercising power; (3) considers the vision of what social progress looks like; and (4) seeks to change the political landscape. The setting of this study is the hybrid/virtual environment on and around the IU Bloomington campus during the fall 2020 semester. The study concluded in early December 2020, which means the US presidential election took place during the course of our research. We incorporated three phases of data collection and subsequent data analysis: 1) a review of current literature within our theoretical framework and a scan of national student voting trends, 2) an analysis of publicly available PACE program data, and 3) a survey. In addition to the internal PACE program data, our survey included a block of demographic questions. In sum, this assessment was broached for the purposes of better understanding how students enrolled in the PACE certificate program engage politically. Prior to analyzing final results, the researchers hypothesized that COVID-19 and the national Black Lives Matter movement would be motivating factors for political engagement among the sample of students. This untested assumption was informed by the conceptual and theoretical frameworks discussed elsewhere in this text.

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Positionality Statement

Collectively, all of the researchers conducting this environmental assessment personally identify as “active” in the political engagement continuum based on how we define political engagement in this study, grounded in Cabrera et al.’s (2017) engagement premises. This engagement takes the form of voting regularly, donating time and resources to political campaigns and causes, and remaining informed of current events and trends that affect not only their most salient identities but those of individuals with differing viewpoints and personal characteristics. With this in mind, the researchers support candidates associated with the Democratic Party and their positions within the party range from centrist to progressive. In addition, the researchers identify as White, cisgender, and heterosexual. Three researchers identify as men and two as women. Because our research team consists of five student affairs professionals who are concerned about and engaged in social justice and inclusion issues, we have a concern for the physical, mental, and emotional well-being of all students with whom we work. Our perspective leads us to hypothesize that COVID-19, Black Lives Matter (BLM), and other recent national developments will be motivating factors for college student political engagement. Researchers found it important to disclose these identities and perspectives as they could be sources of bias through the data collection and analysis process. Researchers will utilize external entities and authentication methods to ensure their positionality does not influence results.

Literature Review

To better understand the underlying motivations explored in the subsequent research, this literature review seeks to develop a definition of political engagement and examines broad categories of political engagement among traditionally aged college students. Additionally, the literature review includes the expectancy-value theory of achievement motivation, which defines how students are motivated to be involved.

Political Engagement Premises

Cabrera et al.’s (2017) ten student activism and engagement premises laid the foundation for the research’s definition of political engagement. Political engagement refers to interest and engagement with political issues and topics. Our research will analyze how PACE students’ engagement with various activities are expressions of slacktivism or higher on the spectrum towards activism. This definition and Cabrera et al.’s (2017) premises regarding slacktivism vs. activism drove the creation of our survey instrument and analysis.

Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation

Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation operates on the belief that “individuals’ choice, persistence, and performance can be explained by their beliefs about how well they will do on the activity and the extent to which they value the activity” (Wigfield, 2000, p. 68). Values are influenced by “task-specific beliefs such as ability beliefs, the perceived difficulty of different tasks, and individuals’ goals, self-schema, and affective memories,” which allows the motivation of the PACE program students to be measured through an academic and involvement lens, including their personal beliefs around this motivation. Through utilizing Cabrera et al.’s (2017) differentiation between slacktivism and activism behaviors and activities, the questions asked in the survey had a centralized focus on what is motivating PACE students to get involved in certain aspects of political engagement.

Conceptual Framework

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Black Lives Matter

With the recent murders of Black individuals such as Breonna Taylor, George Floyd, Elijah McClain, and countless others, the Black Lives Matter movement and a call for racial justice, system reform, and fund reallocation in the county has grown tremendously in the past six months. In 2018, Jonathan M. Tisch College of Civic Life predicted a politically active generation was on its way; from 2018 to June 2020 (months before the election), the percentage of youth that claimed to partake in convincing their peers to vote increased from 33% to 50% (2020). As the youth were already paying increased attention to the political landscape in the country, the COVID-19 pandemic struck in March 2020, causing more of the country to be at home and locked into social media and news outlets more than ever. Between May 27, 2020, and June 10, 2020, American voter support of the Black Lives Matter movement “increased almost as much as it has in the preceding two years” (Cohn & Quealy, 2020). The Black Lives Matter movement has the potential to serve as a motivating factor for students’ increased and crystallized political engagement in the ongoing existence of police brutality and inequities against Black people in the United States.

COVID-19

The Coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19), and specifically, the impact it has had on the US, also brings about the motivation for increased political engagement. The World Health Organization declared this pandemic as a “public health emergency of international concern” (Zhou et al., 2020). In addition to the ways in which COVID-19 has caused increased isolation in communities everywhere and directed attention towards media outlets, the pandemic has been greatly politicized along party lines and was a major talking point leading up to the 2020 election. The political landscape, in general, has additionally seen major changes, from senate meetings moved to virtual formats to the current presidential campaigns’ lack of events. Lastly, COVID-19 has a direct impact on the current higher education landscape including campuses holding classes and extracurricular programming in a hybrid or entirely virtual format. This new virtual educational environment has forced much political engagement to be conducted online instead of in person.

Political Engagement: Activism v. Slacktivism

Activism in higher education has a long history and remains a critical way in which students, faculty, and staff can advocate for local and global issues. While modalities of activism have evolved over time, today’s activist movements continue to raise awareness and demand change for issues regarding equal rights, social justice, and identity advocacy (Altbach & Peterson, 1971; Ince et al., 2018; Greene II, 2016). Many researchers use the terms advocacy, engagement, activism, and interchangeably to discuss participation in political issues. Our team sought to define political engagement based on Elliott and Earl (2018) and Cabrera et al. (2017), pulling pieces from each source to create a definition that could be quantifiably measured amongst IU PACE students. Elliott and Earl (2018) claim that modern activist groups and organizations who want to initiate real change in the political landscape should direct attention to engaging the younger population in order to find success in implementing actionable change. The fusion of the COVID-19 pandemic and the rise of the Black Lives Matter movement have brought increased political engagement in the youth, 79% claiming that COVID-19 crystallized the way politics impacts their lives (Jonathan M. Tisch College of Civic Life, 2020). Social media platforms have the ability to connect people and ideas more often than ever, and younger people engage with online platforms arguably the most of any generation. This study offers that youth participation and engagement with political organizations and conversations are the early stages of activism; once individuals are interested and begin participating in political discussions, they enter the spectrum of political engagement (Elliott & Earl, 2018). Furthermore, our team was inclined to

58 SPA Journal at IU Spring 2021 Edition view political engagement as a spectrum in which students fall depending on the ways in which they engage. As activism moves to an online format, Cabrera et al. (2017) point out the danger of practicing “slacktivism”, a lackluster version of supporting political issues, disguised as activism but requiring little effort on an individual’s behalf (p. 2). Therefore they distinguish slacktivism from activism—the latter of which where political engagement will ideally occur. Our team recognizes that even the practice of slacktivism shows effort in political engagement. This occurs through signing petitions or liking a post on social media. While these activities are easy to do and require little risk, they show that an individual has an interest in political issues and has a vision for a better society (Cabrera et al., 2017). If we view political engagement as a spectrum where behaviors fall in various places, slacktivism exists on one end and activism exists on the opposite. Activism involves the following or is described as: an intentional, sustained connection to a larger collective; developing and exercising power; the description of behavior and not the description of an identity; some level of risk; a hope to change the political landscape; rarity, and few students engage in true activism (Cabrera et al., 2017) In this study, political engagement refers to interest and engagement with political issues and topics. Our research will analyze how PACE students’ engagement with various activities are expressions of slacktivism or higher on the spectrum towards activism.

Methods

Contextual Background

The PACE program at Indiana University Bloomington is a 22 credit hour certificate that gives undergraduate students opportunities to engage in political and civic studies as a supplement to any degree. Before being admitted to the program, students must meet with a PACE advisor and complete a prerequisite class, PACE-C 250 Leadership and Public Policy. Our team is interested in PACE students specifically because their participation in the program shows they are interested in and are enacting political engagement simply by being in the program. Admitted students must maintain a 2.7 GPA in the program’s courses while, at the same time, shaping the program requirements to their individual interests. PACE courses promote role-playing exercises to deepen student learning about historical events. All certificate-bound students are required to complete an internship in which they will be able to exhibit how they have applied the knowledge gained in PACE courses, build relationships with those unlike themselves, and “clarify [their] values, interests, and personal and career goals” (PACE, 2020). Many PACE students participate in local community service. They can engage in an Issue Forum course where they moderate a panel on a current issue with experts in the field and then facilitate a productive dialogue across differences. In Fall 2020, PACE partnered with peer institutions in the Big Ten Academic Alliance and the IU Student Government to lead the Big Ten Voting Challenge, an effort to encourage civic engagement through competition (PACE, 2020). Student testimonies on the PACE website delve into the skills built and commendations earned through participation in the program. Students mention gaining the following through their time in PACE: ● ability to engage in dialogue with others who hold different perspectives ● listening and empathy skills as ways to get to know new people and cultures ● empowerment to vote and engage with politics in the country ● confidence to seek leadership roles within student organizations (2020).

Survey Distribution

The PACE program coordinators served as partners in distributing our survey to participants. The 22 question survey instrument was distributed electronically through the PACE listserv and Instagram

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Beach, Carlberg, Gschwend Harris, Henry, & Kuepker page four times from October 8, 2020, and closed on October 27, 2020. The PACE Political Engagement Motivations survey posed questions related to politically-based engagements and motivations for political engagement. The survey also contained questions regarding demographic information, engagement with the PACE program, political identity, voting methods, and other voting-related information. Demographic information depicts respondents’ aggregate data categorized by race, gender, class standing, years in PACE, and interest in PACE. Disaggregated demographic data was not used in the analysis due to homogeneity. Before analyzing motivations for political engagement, we found it important to understand how our participants engage politically. To do so, we asked participants to select all that apply from a list of 13 activities that they have engaged in within the last 60 days. Each activity is considered one that shows political engagement, but some exemplify behaviors of those who are nearing activism as opposed to slacktivism. Among surveyed PACE students, political-engagement levels were measured using a select- all-that-apply response format. This design allowed respondents to indicate which of 13 predetermined activities they engaged in (defined for the purposes of this research study as “within 60 days of participating in the survey”). The question “Which of these statements most aligns with your motivations for political engagement?” gauges how PACE students visualize how social progress plays out in relation to their actions in society. Based on the ideas of Cabrera et al. (2017), students were able to choose from the options “I have a vision for a society in which it progresses from the current state” and “I seek to contribute to society’s social progress”. Respondents were presented with pre-written options which included ways that Solórzano and Delgado Bernal (2001) regard as factors that yield more success in engagement and activism—if an individual is motivated by experiencing oppression or seeing loved ones experience oppression, for example. When understanding why PACE students engage in some ways more than others, or at all, is significant to take into account their motivations. Within the survey introduction text, participants were given thorough informed consent content as dictated by the IRB. The survey was developed and distributed using the survey software Qualtrics, had several internal and external reviewers, and took about five minutes for participants to complete. The survey was anonymous other than if students volunteered to be reviewers or wished to be entered into a random drawing for five, $10 gift cards to local Bloomington businesses. Descriptive and inferential statistical analysis of the survey data was conducted using SPSS and Excel. The goal of the survey response rate was 15%. We received 14 responses out of the 52 survey recipients yielding a response rate of 27%. Our aim was to gather a diverse and representative sample of IU’s PACE program with the threat of data saturation in mind (Boddy, 2016). The 15% response rate goal was set with the knowledge that there are 50-60 students currently enrolled in the PACE certificate program. The guiding survey framework was Cabrera et al.’s (2017) student activism and engagement premises which informed the development of survey questions and how we analyzed PACE students’ engagements. While the following does not represent the order in which questions in the survey were posed to participants, we have divided our results into 5 categories, listed below.

Results

Our survey results were analyzed using both quantitative and qualitative approaches. The regression analysis examined the relationship between the number of ways participants are engaged politically (independent variables) and the number of years in the PACE program (dependent variable). The research team also created summarizations of the quantitative information provided from the survey results.

Category 1 – Demographics

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During the three weeks that the Political Engagement Motivations Survey was open, 14 unique respondents accessed the questionnaire with 12 individuals from the PACE program recording completed entries. Materials submitted in the two incomplete entries were reviewed and included in the subsequent findings. In terms of race, eight identified as White, two as Asian, and two as multiracial. Respondents also largely identified as female (ten) versus male (two). Responses came from juniors (three) and seniors (nine). Their time in the PACE program ranged from one to four years with two each in the program for 1, 2, and 4 years, and eight respondents in the program for 3 years. Participants identified with a range of motivations—options of which are listed as learning outcomes for the program on the PACE website. The majority (83.3%) of participants affiliate with the Democratic Party. When asked to describe themselves using a range of politically descriptive terms, participant responses were more evenly distributed with liberal earning the highest degree of association among survey participants after garnering 9 self selections. Individuals who indicated their ballot-casting method of choice planned to utilize early-voting methods such as by-mail or in-person prior to November 3. These additional indicators of left-leaning tendencies (Parks, 2020) are present here and elsewhere in the collected data.

Category 2 – Political Engagement Level

A linear regression analysis was conducted to evaluate the prediction of the levels of political engagement from the number of years enrolled in the PACE program. The model, estimated from a sample of n = 14 subjects, was not statistically significant, F(1,14) =9.47, p > .001, therefore the number of years enrolled in the PACE program was not significantly related to the levels of political engagement. This confirmed that students enrolled in the PACE program are overall engaged politically through multiple areas, not dependent on the number of years spent in the program. Students who were enrolled in the PACE program for a longer period of time tended to be more politically engaged, with some outliers. In other words, for every additional (one) year in the PACE program, the predicted levels of political engagement increased by .934, on average; the unstandardized coefficient was b = .934 (SE = .781), t(14) = 1.197, p > .001. Accuracy in predicting the levels of political engagement was moderate. The correlation between the number of years enrolled in the PACE program and level of political engagement was .33. Approximately 11% of the variance of levels of political engagement was accounted for by its linear relationship with the number of years in the PACE program, adjusted R2 = .107.

Activities with Lowest Engagement Levels

Out of all engagement activities, PACE students have the lowest level of engagement with politically focused community organizations (6 students) or student organizations (8 students) - the most sustainable political engagement efforts. As grounded from premise 1 of Cabrera et al.’s (2017) engagement premises, true political engagement “involves intentional, sustained connection to a larger collective” (p. 5). While a larger number of participants (12) indicated engaging with others on political topics on social media, Cabrera et al. (2017) claimed that “the online...cannot be a substitute for the in person engagement” (p. 6). These 8 students engaging in a student organization are engaging in activism- like activities that likely have more depth of engagement compared to the 12 students engaging on social media.

Activities with the Highest Engagement Levels

The survey results provided some clear activities with higher engagement levels among the participants. All 14 participants indicated that they had a plan to exercise their power to vote in November 2020 and made an effort to build awareness on political issues with both friends and family. The timeliness of the survey being implemented during an election year played a significant role in these activities being heightened. As grounded from Premise 5 of Cabrera et al.’s (2017) engagement premises,

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“. . . risk (at varying levels) is core to anything under the umbrella ‘activism’” (p. 407) There can be a risk to having these conversations with loved ones that could have differing views from their own. An additional higher engagement activity was signing an online petition, an accessible and simple form of engagement. High engagement with online petitions aligns with the literature which tells us that “. . . signing petitions were not an end in and of themselves, but were the means to the end of gaining access to people in power.” (Cabrera et al., 2017, p. 404)

Category 3 – Motivation Alignment

When selecting from two pre-established survey statements, 57.14% of respondents (8 students) noted they “have a vision for a society in which it progresses from the current state” while 42.86% of respondents (6 individuals) registered they “seek to contribute to society’s social progress.” This data reveals that while PACE students are indeed guided by a “vision of what social progress looks like”— Cabrera et al.’s (2017) Premise 6—the group of respondents generally do not feel empowered to contribute to said progress. One respondent stated, “my belief in my ability to make an impact has decreased. Between COVID and having a clearly white supremacist president with a scary number of supporters, it sometimes just feels like this country is too far gone and I don't know what to do anymore,” showing a stronger alignment to the first response option to the above question. This student verbalized that they feel an inability to contribute due to not knowing how.

Category 4 – Political Engagement Motivations

Motivation for engaging in the pre-established political activities varied among participants, but the majority are motivated because of their hope for a better society (6 respondents) or a more socially just society (5 respondents). This aligns with the finding that 57.14% of respondents have a vision for society in which it progresses from the current state. Only 2 respondents designated being motivated to be politically engaged due to their identities/values being threatened and only 1 because of friends' identities/values being threatened.

Category 5 – Change in Political Engagement Motivation

Using a 5-point Likert scale, respondents rated the extent to which they agreed or disagreed if a current event/issue motivated or demotivated them from politically engaging. Our research team hypothesized that BLM and COVID-19 were both significant in motivating our sample to be politically engaged. This hypothesis seems to be true with over 80% of respondents strongly agreeing or agreeing that BLM has increased their motivation and over 70% of respondents strongly agreeing or agreeing that COVID-19 has increased their motivation (Chart 2). However, BLM and COVID-19 were not the strongest motivators among respondents. The highest are climate change (90% strongly agree or agree), Supreme Court Justice Appointments (100% strongly agree or agree), and the presidential election (100% strongly agree or agree). Regarding BLM’s impact on motivation, it is worth noting that not everyone was motivated by it (about 20% neither agreed nor disagreed, or strongly disagreed that it had increased their motivation), yet everyone disagreed or strongly disagreed BLM demotivated them. In other words, not everyone was motivated by BLM but no one was demotivated by it. This reveals some outliers were neutral toward the movement. The fact that 100% of respondents, regardless of political party affiliation were motivated by the 2020 presidential election is congruent with the fact 100% of respondents had a plan to vote and 91.67% had decided on their candidate at the time of the survey. The data also reveals that some current issues may have both a motivating element and a demotivating element, such as Supreme Court Justice Appointments. While 100% strongly agreed or agreed Supreme Court Justice Appointments increased their motivation, about 85% strongly disagreed or disagreed it decreased their

62 SPA Journal at IU Spring 2021 Edition motivation, leaving about 15% of respondents who both agree and disagree that Supreme Court Justice Appointments have motivated them to be politically engaged.

Chart 1

Political Motivators

Chart 2

Political Demotivators

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Qualitative Analysis In addition to the quantitative analysis of the motivations, qualitative data analysis was done based on the four slightly modified versions of Cabrera et al.’s (2017) ten student activism and engagement premises. In this framework, political engagement (1) embodies an intentional, sustained connection to a larger collective; (2) involves developing and exercising power; (3) considers the vision of what social progress looks like; and (4) is distinct from political governance, even though it seeks to change the political landscape. The survey asked a number of questions to gauge participants’ alignment with these premises using both multiple choice and open response questions. Open-response questions obtained a total of twenty-two responses across three questions. This analysis focused on the two questions (questions 2 & 3 below) which garnered the majority of the qualitative responses (19 out of 22): 1. In what ways are you engaged politically? (anything not previously mentioned) 2. We would like to learn more about what your motivations are to politically engage. How did you initially get involved in political engagement and what has kept you engaged? 3. How has your motivation changed in the last year? What are some factors that have caused this change (social movements, political events, events on campus etc.)? Through this qualitative analysis, a number of themes stood out including participants’ engagement which focused on intentional and sustained efforts through on-campus and off-campus activities (Cabrera et al., 2017). Premises 1 and 2 proved to be most prominent in participants’ responses on political engagement and motivation. Participants identified with being a part of something larger than themselves, and for many, this expanded well outside of the PACE program. In the open response questions, participants shared their motivations stemming from both negative and positively influenced family backgrounds, social media interactions, petition signing, and other means. One participant stated “I was always aware of the social injustices surrounding me and wanted to do something about it” which seems to highlight their recognition of the broader world and issues around them. Another student stated “I interned for a congressional campaign my first and second year at IU, and concern for the state of the country is what has kept me engaged” which highlights the sustained engagement highlighted by the premises. The common thread of these and other responses highlighted that respondents identified their political engagement in active engagement with political organizations or events that allowed for hands- on involvement and appeared to be motivated by engagement and activities that were sustained and allowed for practice and development. The least prominent premises were premises 3 and 4. Premise 4 likely showed up as the least visible theme by the design of the research, as it attempted to gauge participants’ ability to separate political governance from engagement but was not visible in participant responses. Premise 3 was directly gauged by one of the survey questions but did not appear as a common theme in open response questions except for a small handful which identified future aspirations for supporting future generations in political engagement and maintaining engagement because they feel a need to support and create change. In addition to this analysis, the quantitative analysis did not find a statistically significant connection between the number of years in the PACE program and the engagement level of students. This aligns with our qualitative analysis as there was no apparent distinction in the qualitative responses from students based on the number of years involved in the PACE program and the level of political engagement or motivations.

Discussion

As our research team analyzed PACE student political engagement and motivations, we asked how they see themselves fitting into the political realm of society. The majority of students were more likely to indicate that they have the ability to envision a better society than feel empowered to be the change to create a better society. While both responses are on the political engagement spectrum, the latter indicates a level of true activism. Contributing to societal change is closer to the high bar of activism Cabrera et al. (2017) defined in their premises and is the level at which politically interested

64 SPA Journal at IU Spring 2021 Edition students should strive to make a positive impact in their fields and in society. Because the group of students who indicated this display of activism are in the minority of our sample, the results give reason to assume the majority are lacking a feeling of empowerment to move past slacktivism towards activism. Recognizing that change needs to be made is not enough—society needs those who identify as politically engaged to move towards activism, and only 42.86% of PACE students indicated the mentality of a political activist. Amidst the analysis of PACE student engagement activities, it was revealed that being involved in a student or community organization that focuses on political issues was the activity that the least number of respondents have participated in in the past 60 days. As Cabrera et al. (2017) emphasized, true activism is when an individual commits to sustainable, consistent engagement. Because the fewest students were engaged in arguably the most sustainable activity in the list of options, something could be said to the limiting nature of the clause that a student should have engaged in an activity in the last 60 days during a pandemic where organizations likely meet less regularly. The increase and decrease in political and general motivation is an experience shared amongst the college student population, and this could have affected our results. However, this data point could also argue that while PACE seeks to encourage political engagement, the program could build out a component of the program to support student participation in student or community organizations; this component has the potential to strengthen the sustainability of PACE students’ political engagement (Cabrera et al., 2017).

Implications for Practice

While many of these implications are focused toward the PACE program, they can be directly translated to other, similar programs, and politically and civically focused programs or courses. As mentioned in the analysis, 90% of respondents strongly agreed or agreed that climate change was a motivating factor for their political engagement. These responses align with many reports and studies that highlight that Generation Z is extremely motivated and worried about the challenges presented by climate change. A 2019 survey conducted by Ipsos MORI on behalf of Amnesty International surveyed 10,000 respondents ranging in age from 18-25 on major human rights issues. One of the major results was that 40% of respondents identified climate change as the most important issue facing the world (Ipsos MORI, 2019). The PACE program currently includes a variety of class options relating to the environment, but it seems worthwhile to assess how if these offerings are enough or if additional course and internship options should be provided (PACE, 2020). If not already included, programs similar to PACE should consider how climate change may be included in their curriculum and how to provide students opportunities outside of the classroom for hands-on engagement around climate change. To the extent that PACE students engaged politically with BLM and COVID-19, engagement with other politicized topics received higher association levels among survey respondents. This may suggest that students working towards a certificate in the program have high levels of news media literacy and comprehension of current events, are exposed to a diverse range of news sources, and encouraged to remain current in their understanding of domestic and international affairs, or both. Our findings reveal that PACE students are very altruistic in their vision and hopes for society. However, according to the survey results, empathy, learning across differences, and motivation to act out of concern for marginalized groups’ are low among PACE students. Only 5 respondents were interested in PACE in order to gain listening and empathy skills as ways to get to know new people and cultures. Only 1 participant was motivated to be politically engaged because others’ identities/values are threatened. These various findings reveal that growing in cultural humility is not the most popular reason for joining PACE, and advocacy type political motivation is not primary for PACE students. More research is needed to determine if this lack of empathy is a potential gap in the PACE culture/environment, or if students are indeed empathetic but it is simply not their reason for joining PACE. If needed, the program could institute programmatic and curricular changes to educate on empathy, oppression, and marginalization.

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More research is needed in order to fully measure IU students’ political engagement and motivations. One way to further this research could be by sampling students in the College of Arts and Sciences political science major. Since IU is a PWI and 75% of respondents are white, this resulted in a homogeneous study environment, sample, and respondents. In order to gain a more robust understanding of U.S. college students’ political engagement levels and motivation at large, more research is needed at diverse institutions. Although our implications for practice are most relevant and generalizable to IU, we hope our assessment invites more scholar-practitioners interested in political engagement motivation to create their own studies.

Limitations

While researchers were excited about the partnership that was formed with the PACE program, faculty, staff, and students as well as the survey response rate, the research did not come without limitations. Foremost being the COVID-19 pandemic which inhibited researchers' abilities to advertise and directly connect with students in the PACE program. Since data was collected throughout the month of October before the November general election, some students may have felt greater salience in their political identity, however, some may have felt they needed to hide their authentic views. Another limitation is in the generalizability of our data. Data was collected from a small certificate program at a large R1 Midwest university which may not be reflective of other institutions, even with similar certificate programs. Additionally, data collection occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic which may have also altered our results and should be kept in mind when reviewing this information.

Conclusion

The PACE certificate program at Indiana University provides students a greater opportunity to explore and engage in a variety of ways with local and national politics. Researchers sought to understand two things: How are Political and Civic Engagement (PACE) students at Indiana University Bloomington (IU) engaged politically? And what motivates them to engage politically, and how are these motivations being shaped by the changing political landscape? Researchers started out by defining political engagement which was identified on a broad spectrum from slacktivism to activism with a broad array of activities contained between. This study utilized an online survey to understand how motivations and engagement may have changed in light of recent social and political events, specifically the COVID-19 pandemic and the Black Lives Matter Movement. Through both a quantitative and qualitative analysis, researchers found that there was not a strong connection between the years of involvement in the PACE program and the number of ways a student is politically engaged. Additionally, researchers found that there was a wide array of motivations for students joining the PACE program which could be leveraged by PACE administrators in programming or curriculum. Our findings reveal that PACE students are very altruistic in their vision and hopes for society. However, according to the survey results, empathy, learning across differences, and motivation to act out of concern for marginalized groups’ are low among PACE students. These results are important to further understanding how the PACE program can support and engage PACE students as well as the greater campus community.

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References Altbach, P. G. & Peterson, P. (1971). Before Berkeley: Historical perspectives on american student activism. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 395, 1-14. Cabrera, N. L., Matias, C. E., & Montoya, R. (2017). Activism or slacktivism? The potential and pitfalls of social media in contemporary student activism. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 10(4), 400–415. https://doi.org/10.1037/dhe0000061 Cohn, N., & Quealy, K. (2020, June 10). How public opinion has moved on Black Lives Matter. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/06/10/upshot/black-lives-matter- attitudes.html Elliott, T., & Earl, J. (2018). Organizing the next generation: Youth engagement with activism inside and outside of organizations. Social Media+ Society, 4(1), 1-14. Frey, W. H., (2020, July 30). Now, more than half of Americans are millennials or younger. Will their size and activism impact the 2020 election? Brookings. https://www.brookings.edu/blog/the- avenue/2020/07/30/now-more-than-half-of-americans-are-millennials-or-younger/ Greene II, R. (2016). Campus protests. American Book Review, 37(3), 1-4. Ince, J., Finlay, B. M., & Rojas, F. ( 2018). College campus activism: Distinguishing between liberal reformers and conservative crusaders. Sociology Compass, 12(9), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1111/soc4.12603 Ingraham, C. (2020, July 5). Coronavirus will undermine trust in government, ‘scarring body and mind’ for decades, research finds. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2020/07/05/coronavirus-pandemic-trust-government Ipsos MORI. (2019, December 9). Climate change ranks highest as vital issue of our time - Generation Z survey. Amnesty International. https://www.amnestyusa.org/press-releases/generation-z-ranks- climate-change-highest-as-vital-issue-of-our-time-in-amnesty-international-survey/ Jackson, C. (2020, September 14). Americans' trust in establishment is low across party lines. Ipsos. https://www.ipsos.com/en-us/news-polls/trust-establishment-low Jonathan M. Tisch College of Civic Life. (2020, June 30). Poll: Young people believe they can lead change in unprecedented election cycle. Tufts University. https://circle.tufts.edu/latest- research/poll-young-people-believe-they-can-lead-change-unprecedented-election-cycle PACE. (2020). Political and civic engagement (PACE). Indiana University. https://pace.indiana.edu/. Parks, M., (2020, October 18). Early voting analysis: Huge turnout by democrats. NPR. https://www.npr.org/2020/10/18/924182086/early-voting-analysis-historic-turnout-drives-long- lines-administrative-errors Patton, L. D., Renn, K. A., Guido, F. M., & Quaye, S. J. (Eds.) (2016). Student Development in College: Theory, Research, and Practice (3rd ed.). Jossey-Bass. Sprunt, B., (2020, September 12). Will 2020 be the year of the young voter? NPR. https://www.npr.org/2020/09/12/909131065/will-2020-be-the-year-of-the-young-voter Solórzano, D. G., & Delgado Bernal, D. (2001). Examining transformational resistance through a Critical Race and LatCrit theory framework: Chicana and Chicano students in an urban context. Urban Education, 36, 308 –342. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0042085901363002 Zhou, M., Zhang, X., & Qu, J. (2020). Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): A Clinical Update. Frontiers of Medicine, 14(2), 126-135. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11684-020-0767-8

67 SPA Journal at IU Spring 2021 Edition

Sophomore Leadership and Identity Development in Men’s Fraternities

Elliott Beach

Abstract

Largely based on Baxter-Magolda’s (2001) self-authorship theory and model as well as Komives et al. (2005) Leadership Identity Development (LID) theory and Komives et al. (2006) LID model, this theory focuses on the time frame of initiation into the chapter through an individual’s time in a formal leadership position during their sophomore year. The theory follows the cycle of holding a position for an academic year and is a sub-layer in the larger holistic development model of external formulas and may or may not promote a broader movement to crossroads. This theory argues that there are three distinct phases: pre- leadership, in-leadership, and post-leadership. The term phase is used consciously to indicate the cyclical nature of leadership, especially for students, and the fact that students are likely to return to these phases again as they take additional leadership roles. Furthermore, as indicated in the model above, the theory proposes that there are two tasks to each phase of development that an individual must complete before moving into the next phase. Failing to complete these steps will further inhibit development or create a regression in one or both areas.

Keywords

Sophomore, Leadership, Leadership Development, Fraternity, Greek Life

Elliott Beach hails from Springfield, Ohio. He received a B.A. in history from Thiel College and his M.S.Ed. in Higher Education & Student Affairs and a Certificate in Institutional Research in spring 2021 from Indiana University-Bloomington. His primary interests center around student conduct, sorority and fraternity life, and student leadership. As a strong believer in the positive potential of the fraternity experience, Elliott works to support a more accountable fraternity and sorority experience. After IU, Elliott will work for Delta Sigma Phi Fraternity as the Senior Associate Director of Accountability working with chapters to support a safer fraternity experience.

Suggested citation: Beach, E. (2021). Sophomore leadership and identity development in men’s fraternities. Journal of the Student Personnel Association at Indiana University, 68-77.

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Background

The American fraternity and sorority experience began out of the founding of Phi Beta Kappa literary society which served as a means for students, predominantly if not entirely white males, to come together outside of the classroom to further their studies in areas they deemed lacking (Torbenson, 2009). The fraternity experience took off throughout the late 19th century and early 20th century. However, these organizations saw a decline during the World Wars due to the draw on the typical membership base. Fortunately, fraternities expanded rapidly in the aftermath of World War II as soldiers coming back from the war were seeking to recreate the brotherhood they found on the battlefield (Torbenson, 2009). Since its inception, the fraternity experience has faced many challenges, especially relating to hazing, drinking, and drug use that has, in modern days, seen significant public backlash due to several deaths, including five during the 2019-2020 school year alone (Collman, 2019). Despite these challenges, the allure of the fraternity and sorority experience persists and while there is no single reason individuals may choose to join, leadership opportunities remain one of the most visible. While a relatively abstract idea, leadership is practiced on a regular basis in the daily life of a fraternity man, but it is something that support must be given to provide a developmental structure to ensure these practices are built on a solid foundation.

Sophomore Leadership Phenomenon Explained

At many large public institutions, a phenomenon that has been observed is that of a trend toward younger executive board leadership in fraternal organizations (Adams & Keim, 2000). Specifically, sophomore and junior members serving in some of the pinnacle positions including chapter president (or equivalent), new member/pledge educator, and risk manager. These positions play a critical role in the direction the organization may take, how new members are educated and enculturated, and the accountability (or lack of) that is directed at members. This trend is important to note because we must look at how (un)prepared student leaders are and what conditions need to be put in place for student leaders to be successful if this trend continues. While time serving in a formal leadership role in fraternal organizations has been shown to provide development in various areas (Cory, 2011), if it is not positively supported, this development may turn into a regression or continued focus on external support that limits individual growth. The focus of this theory, the Sophomore Leadership Development Theory, will be directed at historically white Greek letter organizations (GLOs) specifically looking at the members that comprise their freshmen and sophomore membership. The Sophomore Leadership Development Theory attempts to address the developmental gap that occurs due to the limited leader and leadership development support.

Literature Review

Literature focusing on sophomore student leadership and the impact of development during this time is severely limited. However, there are several theories and studies that can be used to help better frame understanding of this topic and the developmental issues that may arise. The four thematic areas that best frame the literature used to understand this theory are the sophomore experience, leadership identity, transition, gender, and peer support.

The Sophomore Experience

In recent research, it is noted that studying college sophomores is made more difficult as of late due to a wide variety of definitions and a greater prevalence of students starting college with credits taken during high school. This is made even more difficult because of the general lack of focus on sophomores by institutions as many keep their primary focus on freshmen (Gahagan & Hunter, 2006). Though no uniform definition of sophomores exists, this theory will utilize the definition posed by Gahagan &

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Hunter (2006) which defines sophomores as “first-time, full-time students who have persisted into their second year of academic work” (p. 18). The sophomore year is also notorious for the ill-defined sophomore slump which sees students in an awkward stage of expected growth but lacking in support to achieve it. Furthermore, they are faced with many decisions that they feel ill-equipped to make such as their choice in major, relationships, and leadership decisions (Gahagan & Hunter, 2006; Schaller, 2005).

Leadership Identity Development

Baxter-Magolda (2001) provides a firm foundation in most identity development theories through the self-authorship theory model. This model depicts the path that individuals take as they develop through life. In the first stage, individuals remain reliant on external influences in most aspects of their life. In the second stage, individuals are in a state of transition as they begin to understand and make meaning of these external influences and interpret them based on their own values and beliefs. The third stage marks a greater development in their internal voice and a stronger development of their own values. The final stage reflects the individual’s solidified belief in their internal values and an understanding of how these beliefs impact their decisions and actions. Ideally, leaders would make it through to the final self-authorship stage but, due to the lack of support, the developmental setting does not exist for this to occur in the demographic focused on in this theory. Baxter-Magolda helped lay a foundation for the work of Komives et al. (2005) and Komives et al. (2006). These studies took significant strides in reframing common thought on leadership through the Leadership Identity Development (LID) theory and model. In this theory, the authors posit that leadership development occurs over six stages with each ending in a transition into the next. These stages start with individuals recognizing figures in leadership positions, but this is limited to a belief in external leadership with little to no understanding of internal abilities. The second stage is highlighted by involvement in groups and organizations that help better understand and identify internal and external leadership qualities and capabilities. The third stage involves a dualistic view of leadership where individuals believe in a rigid form of leaders and followers and strategically work to be in one of these positions. The fourth stage is a break from dualistic thinking and involves an understanding of a greater variety of leadership, including the belief that leadership is not dependent upon a position. The fifth stage is highlighted by a commitment of individuals to support future generations in their path to leadership. The final stage is the peak of the leadership summit in which individuals bring these leadership ideas into every aspect of their life. Additionally, the Komives et al. (2006) study further developed the LID theory by creating a model to further illustrate the theory. Though not fully identified in these works, it is important to note the difference in leadership and leader development as leadership development is a central piece of the fraternity experience but lacks the foundation of leader development necessary for proper development. Dugan (2017) helps establish the distinction by framing leader development as a process grounded in building a knowledge base whereas leadership is more experience-based and helps put the leader development into practice. In the case of sophomore fraternity leaders, they are inundated with leadership development but are provided limited opportunity for leader development. When they are provided leader development, the opportunity is lost as they are not afforded an opportunity to bridge the gap between the two or they are not in a developmental state to make the connection.

Transition

Transitions play a vital role in every person’s life. One of the leaders in analyzing the impact of transition is Nancy Schlossberg. Schlossberg’s research focuses on transition in the lives of adults. Schlossberg posited that it was the meaning associated with a transition rather than the transition that truly mattered (as cited in Schlossberg, 1984). Arthur and Hiebert (1996), utilizing the research of Schlossberg and others, took a focused look at the impact of transition on students going into post-

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Beach secondary education. This research further highlighted the massive transition that occurs as students enter higher education and continue to work to make meaning of these new and varied experiences. They also note the difference in coping with transition based on age showing that younger students have fewer strategies to handle transition than older students. (Arthur and Herbert also note sex differences discussed in the next section). Another influential work that analyses student transition within higher education is that of Schaller (2005) who analyzed the transition that occurs for students going into their sophomore year. Schaller (2005) notes sophomore year as a time of potential indecision and notes the need for self- reflection to occur to help work through this and allow the students to better understand the responsibility they have in developing their own path. Paired with potential indecision in a leadership position, it is important to consider these experiences together.

Gender Identity Development

In any theory, one must consider the difference in gender development. However, when considering the massive influence that gender norms play within the fraternity experience, it may be even more important than other considerations within this theory. Bussey and Bandura (2001) identify the massive role that peer influence has, specifically with male students. When considering the collegiate environment, peer influence is a critical factor to consider as students are largely housed in single-sex residence halls or involved in single-sex organizations such as fraternities. They also build on the four sub-processes governing observational learning (as cited in Bandura, 1986) which further our understanding of how students understand their societally influenced gender roles. Peer influence compounded with reinforcing gender roles has a massive impact on student leadership and provides a strong understanding of how students lead. As referenced in the transition section, Arthur and Herbert (1996) built on the work of Nancy Schlossberg and helped provide an understanding of student transition in higher education. One of the key takeaways from their research was in the noted differences in how males and females cope with transition noting that this may come down to societal expectations that allow this variance (as cited in Miller & Kirsch, 1987). Lastly, Edwards and Jones’ (2009) help further the understanding of the socialization of gender roles, especially in men. Their qualitative research helps provide a better understanding of how individuals perceive their place in society as a male and what they should and should not be and can and cannot be.

Peer Support

Cory’s (2011) work reviewed the influence of the fraternity and sorority experience on leadership development. One of the big takeaways from this research was that peer influence plays a dramatic role in if the student leads and the roles they take. The extreme focus on peer influence within fraternities (and sororities) is important to recognize in looking at the influence on leadership style for younger members. Renn and Arnold (2003) further the understanding of peer influence as they connect it to Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model (as cited in Bronfenbrenner, 1993). Within their work, they pay special attention to the microsystems and mesosystems due to the choice students have in these groups which is especially prevalent within fraternities. Another key factor in peer support within fraternities is the idea of stewardship. Hernandez (2008) took a strong look at how stewardship is affected by the relationships built in an organization. As defined in this research, stewardship is “the attitudes and behaviors that place the long-term best interests of a group ahead of personal goals that serve an individual’s self-interests” (Hernandez, 2008, p. 122). Within the context of fraternities, stewardship plays a key role in how a leader will complete their time in their leadership role. If the attitude of stewardship is strong within the individual or the culture of the chapter, the leaders to follow will likely receive the support they need to be competent and successful. However, too often and especially within the scope of this work, fraternity leadership becomes burnt out

71 SPA Journal at IU Spring 2021 Edition due to the cycle of succession that does not provide adequate support or mentorship, leaving incoming leadership nearly helpless and missing the peer support that is needed.

Sophomore Fraternity Leadership Identity Development

As defined by Schlossberg, a transition is “any event, or non-event which results in changed relationships, routines, assumptions, and roles” (as cited in Goodman et al., 2006, p. 33). By this definition, it can be argued that the presumption of a new role, such as becoming a leader of a fraternity, constitutes a transition. Furthermore, these students are also in an additional transition in college going into their sophomore year as well as learning the norms of an organization they just joined. All these transitions come together to throw off the status quo of normal student and leadership development. Because of this chaos, a new theory is needed to better understand how students develop during this time. Largely based on Baxter-Magolda’s (2001) self-authorship theory and model as well as Komives et al. (2005) LID theory and Komives et al. (2006) LID model, this theory focuses on the time frame of initiation into the chapter through an individual’s time in a formal leadership position during their sophomore year (described in Table 1). The theory follows the cycle of holding a position for an academic year and is a sub-layer in the larger holistic development model of external formulas and may or may not promote a broader movement to crossroads. This theory argues that there are three distinct phases: pre-leadership, in-leadership, and post-leadership. The term phase is used consciously to indicate the cyclical nature of leadership, especially for students, and the fact that students are likely to return to these phases again as they take additional leadership roles. Furthermore, as indicated in the Table 1 above, the theory proposes that there are two tasks to each phase of development that an individual must complete before moving into the next phase. Each phase is broken down to identify how the stage is achieved for an individual to move into the next. Failing to complete these steps will further inhibit development or create a regression in one or both areas.

Table 1. Phases of Sophomore Leadership Identity Development Pre-leadership Phase In-leadership Phase Post-leadership Phase External formulas Faux self-authorship Crossroads Exploration/engagement Leadership exploration Leadership identified

Pre-leadership Phase

The pre-leadership phase takes place during the time leading up to officially taking on a leadership role. This is a time in which the member begins to learn the norms of the organization and learns more about the leadership roles available to them (Bussey & Bandura 1999; Cory, 2011; Komives et al., 2006). Typically, students are not given a significant leadership role during the first year of membership, so it is truly a time of learning and enculturation as they take in their new environment.

External formulas

Within the pre-leadership phase, the student has been identified by current chapter leaders and is provided minor levels of support, largely targeted at building leadership efficacy (Murphy & Johnson, 2016), as well as continuing to strengthen cultural and gender norms found within the chapter (Bussey & Bandura 1999; Cory, 2011; Komives et al., 2006). During this time, the student continues to rely on external formulas (Baxter-Magolda, 2001) and is still exploring their leadership capacity and capabilities through minor roles within the chapter. At this time, the student’s reliance upon their peers limits further

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Beach developmental gains as they attempt to remain within the norm of the new organization (Bussey & Bandura, 1999; Cory, 2011; Komives et al., 2006).

Exploration/Engagement

In terms of their leadership identity, due to the limits of leader development aimed at non-position holding members, freshmen and sophomore students without a formal role are further hampered from developing. Because of this, they are seeing leadership practices that reinforce the socially normed leadership which may or may not be based on effective theory (Bussey & Bandura, 1999; Dipaolo, 2010; Dugan, 2017). Despite this and because of the limited training offered to chapters and individual students in assessing leader and leadership capabilities, students may be elected or selected for leadership positions for which they are not capable. It is at this point that development slows as the student is forced to take on a position for which they are not receiving adequate support. Furthermore, student leaders are not provided enough opportunities to connect their leadership development to the leader development through self-reflection, guided practice, or other means which is a critical piece in development. On top of these limitations, the student’s preoccupation with the transitions they are facing creates another hurdle to development (Patton et al., 2016). This leaves the student focused on external formulas (Baxter-Magolda, 2001) and dependent upon the peer support which limits their development of an individualized leadership identity (Komives et al., 2006; Schaller, 2005).

Achievement

To successfully pass through this phase, the student will have continued acceptance of external formulas (Baxter-Magolda, 2001) but, in this case, it will be accepting external formulas from a new environment in that of their fraternity peers (as defined by the individual) and will also be at the exploration/engagement stage (Komives et al., 2005; Komives et al., 2006) which is highlighted by their commitment to the fraternity and their move toward taking on a new leadership role.

In-leadership Phase

It is in this phase that the potential for development is greatest as the student has access to a wide array of support systems including higher education professionals on campus, headquarters staff, programs from both groups, and potentially support from chapter members and alumni. This is also the stage in which student leaders are most likely to regress as some of this support could be misplaced or not given which can leave the student leader to remain dependent on external formulas without beginning to develop an internal voice.

Faux self-authorship

Students entering this phase face another transition as they enter their second year of undergraduate education and taking on a formal position of leadership. Due to gender norms as well as the lack of leader development, the student remains reliant upon the external formulas provided by his peers. Furthermore, a sense of overconfidence is built by social and gender cues as well as support gained from their peers, which further limits the individual’s growth potential as they blindly rely on these inputs without questioning how these inputs may apply to them (Bussey & Bandura, 1999; Cory, 2011; Komives et al., 2006). This overconfidence causes a temporary hold from the normal transition to the crossroads stage and instead leads to a false sense of self-authorship as the individual attempts to lead based on the leadership identity of previous leaders they have encountered (Baxter-Magolda, 2001; Edwards & Jones, 2009; Bussey & Bandura, 1999). To compound this phase, sophomore year is a time in which students are facing numerous transitions and choices. As freshmen, individuals are in a time of random exploration but, by sophomore year, should be able to move to more focused exploration (Schaller, 2005). Within this

73 SPA Journal at IU Spring 2021 Edition context though, individuals are preoccupied with their transition and remain in this stage of random exploration that limits their development or ability to make significant strides forward.

Leadership Exploration

The jump to faux self-authorship has an impact on the student’s leadership identity development, which is temporarily slowed, keeping the student within this stage of random exploration which slows or halts their leadership identity development. The student leader also remains in a fixed position as their changing view of self with others remains dependent as noted within the LID model (Komives et al., 2006). Without the want or ability for the student to gain a more independent view, they remain in a state of exploration rather than building a stronger identity. This delay in the LID model then limits the potential developmental impact that would normally be supported and used to build their leadership capabilities. This theory posits that this development does not occur until the post-leadership phase in which they are afforded more time to reflect on their time in their leadership position.

Leadership Exploration

The jump to faux self-authorship has an impact on the student’s leadership identity development, which is temporarily slowed, keeping the student within this stage of random exploration which slows or halts their leadership identity development. The student leader also remains in a fixed position as their changing view of self with others remains dependent as noted within the LID model (Komives et al., 2006). Without the want or ability for the student to gain a more independent view, they remain in a state of exploration rather than building a stronger identity. This delay in the LID model then limits the potential developmental impact that would normally be supported and used to build their leadership capabilities. This theory posits that this development does not occur until the post-leadership phase in which they are afforded more time to reflect on their time in their leadership position.

Achievement

To move forward from this stage, the student leader must recognize their lack of control and reliance upon others before they can truly move forward. Usually, this is inspired by some sort of event that leads them to question their external formulas such as a lack of trust in someone they previously counted on, a planned event failing, or something else not going as planned that would fall under their purview. Once this event has occurred or they are nearing the end of their time in leadership, they are then able to move into the next phase and may see developmental gains.

Post-Leadership Phase

The final phase does not occur until the student is beginning to move out of their formal leadership position. It usually is not until this time that they, by choice, crisis, or opportunity, can reflect on their time in their leadership role. This reflection is critical in making connections between what they have been taught about leadership and what they have implemented or acted upon. Though limited to the general experience, studies show that membership in a fraternity increases one’s social capital especially upon graduation. This is largely shown in job acceptance and increased salary potential but can also manifest in other positive ways (Mara et al., 2016). It can be extrapolated that this only increases when a student has held a leadership position versus just being a general member. However, since these leaders are seeing this social capital at a younger age, we also see an increased reliance by chapter members, especially new and younger members, relying upon these individuals for their social and gender cues which can reinforce a negative cycle (Bussey & Bandura, 1999; Cory, 2011; Komives et al., 2006).

Crossroads

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After the initial faux jump to self-authorship in which the student leader believes they have a high level of control, they are brought back to the reality that they are still reliant upon others for support. However, through their leadership experience, they are now more capable and willing to use their internal voice to guide them and to question others as described in the crossroads stage (Baxter-Magolda, 2001). Though they still use others for support in the decision making and identity building process, this will be less prominent in their identity than in the previous phases.

Leader Identified

This time of reflection is critical in helping these leaders make sense of and assess this time (Dugan, 2017; Schaller, 2005). Furthermore, this time is critical in helping the student connect the practical leadership development that occurred to the leader development skills that did not (Dipaolo, 2010; Dugan, 2017). Time in the previous phase will remain impactful as it leaves a lasting mark on their leadership identity and helps create an additional frame of reference for future leadership experiences.

Achievement

To achieve both tasks, a student must receive support to make connections between their practical experience (leadership) and theoretical (leader). Once these connections have been made, the student will be able to use this experience and the development that occurred to continue to move forward in the larger holistic development model of self-authorship and leadership identity development (Baxter-Magolda, 2001; Komives et al., 2005; Komives et al., 2006).

Recommendations

The fraternity experience can be a rich proving ground for undergraduate students to gain leadership experience and knowledge that can support them in their future endeavors inside and outside of higher education. However, it is critical that higher education professionals provide support to help fraternity leaders make explicit connections between leadership and leader development, give time to think about actions, both before and after, and make connections to leadership practice outside of their organization. These types of support can ensure the heavily application-based leadership experience is connected to leader development that will ensure a more holistic experience. Dugan (2017) notes an important difference in leader and leadership development that higher education professionals would do well to remember. Fraternity members, especially those in leadership positions, gain plenty of leadership development, but their leader development opportunities are much more limited. As professionals, we must look for opportunities to provide support in helping students reflect on their leadership practices and ground these practices in well-established theories. Along with leader development, professionals must also consider building in programming to develop self-efficacy in undergraduate fraternity leaders. Murphy and Johnson (2016) suggest having more realistic conversations with current and future leaders about what “real” leadership looks like including the idea of failures. Furthermore, their research emphasizes the importance of holistic feedback that not only focuses on results but also the effort that a student puts into their leadership experience. Another suggestion that can help in leader and leadership development in younger fraternity members is an emphasis on a true lifetime experience. It is a well-documented phenomenon, especially in White male GLOs, that members tend to remain involved for two to three years and then either disaffiliate or stop participating in the organization. If chapters can improve retention of older members, they are more likely to have a more cognitively developed leader which allows younger members an opportunity to take a low-risk leadership position to practice their leadership development. Furthermore, these

75 SPA Journal at IU Spring 2021 Edition younger members would then have a greater number of mentor-like figures available to support their leader development. When considering the time frame being referenced within this work, institutions should consider the role that transition plays in the life of sophomore members. Students, especially in their sophomore year, are in a time of exploration, either random or focused. It is important that professionals help students productively explore their environments and options to make sense of the major transitions taking place around them and within them. It is critical that “sophomores can be taught to engage in self-reflection and then be required to do so in curricular and co-curricular activities” (Schaller, 2005, p. 21). It is also important that institutions place a greater emphasis on sophomores as they are largely under-supported in comparison to freshman, though they face many of the same challenges as well as very new challenges (Gahagan & Hunter, 2006). The more professionals can provide opportunities for this self-reflection to take place, the more students will make meaning of their leadership experiences and make connections to further develop. The final suggestion for higher education practitioners surrounds the idea of partnership. Across nearly every institution in the field, departments are understaffed and underfunded and fraternity and sorority offices are no exception. One of the positives that can greatly benefit these offices that are unique to fraternity and sorority life is the partnership with national headquarters, alumni boards, and other advisory boards connected to fraternity chapters. Though also largely understaffed and underfunded, partnership with the national headquarters can help increase available resources for the institution and headquarters, which then allows for better support to individual organizations and potentially entire communities. Furthermore, we have seen a growing need for this partnership as the 2019-2020 school year has already seen five young men pass away in connection to fraternity events (Collman, 2019). While it cannot prevent deaths, a strong partnership that includes providing holistic support for chapter members, especially chapter leaders, can help students feel more comfortable making the right decision in potentially dangerous situations (such as calling 9-1-1) or more willing to have difficult conversations.

Conclusion

While not a holistic look at the fraternity experience, this theory proposes a new way to perceive the developmental delay that may occur in students who take on critical leadership positions without an adequate support system in place. The fraternity experience has always had the potential to provide students with numerous leadership development opportunities. However, at some institutions, this can be made more difficult due to the lack of chapters that provide a full four-year experience which forces younger members to take on important leadership roles early and less of an opportunity to practice and learn leadership. Professionals should look to build out programs that help support freshmen and sophomore members to develop leadership skills and provide opportunities to develop self-reflection skills needed for leader development and not just leadership development. This is important because these young men are potentially making life changing and life-saving decisions but without critical support, these may be misguided decisions. Furthermore, a greater emphasis must be placed on training members before they are in a leadership position to provide a knowledge base from which young members can work. While there is no exact solution to this problem, higher education professionals should seek opportunities to provide support to these leaders to ensure fraternities can continue to provide a meaningful experience to members which supports holistic development.

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References Adams, T. C., & Keim, M. C. (2000). Leadership practices and effectiveness among Greek student leaders. College Student Journal, 34(2), 259-270. Baxter-Magolda, M. (2001). Making their own way: Narratives for transforming higher education to promote self-development. Stylus. Bussey, K. & Bandura, A. (1999). Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation. Psychological Review, 106(4), 676-713. Collman, A. (2019). There have been 5 fraternity deaths this school year alone, but little is being done to curb dangerous frat behavior. Business Insider. https://www.insider.com/why-young-men- connected-to-fraternities-keep-dying-2019-11 Cory, A. J. (2011). The influence of fraternity or sorority membership on the leadership identity development of college student leaders (Doctoral dissertation). Semantic Scholars. (3460368). Dipaolo, D. G. (2010). Research revisited: When student leaders don’t. Oracle: The Research Journal of the Association of Fraternity/Sorority Advisors, 5(2), 64-70. Dugan, J. P. (2017). Leadership theory: Cultivating critical perspectives. Jossey Bass, A Wiley Brand. Edwards, K. E. & Jones, S. R. (2009). “Putting my man face on”: A grounded theory of college men’s gender identity development. Journal of College Student Development 50(2), 210-228. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.0.0063 Gahagan, J. & Hunter, M.S. (2006). The second year experience: Turning attention to the academy’s middle children. About Campus 11(3), 17-22. https://doi.org/10.1002/abc.168 Hernandez, M. (2008). Promoting stewardship behavior in organizations: A leadership model. Journal of Business Ethics 80,121–128. 10.1007/s10551-007-9440-2 Komives, S. R., Owen, J. E., Longerbeam, S. D., & Mainella, F. C., & Osteen, L. (2005). Developing a leadership identity: A grounded theory. Journal of College Student Development, 46(6), 593-611. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2005.0061 Komives, S. R., Longerbeam, S. D., Owen, J.E., Mainella, F. C., & Osteen, L. (2006). A leadership identity development model: Applications from a grounded theory. Journal of College Student Development, 47(4), 401-418. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2006.0048 Mara, J., Davis, L. & Schmidt, S. (2016). Social animal house: The economic and academic consequences of fraternity membership. Contemporary Economic Policy, 36(2), 263-267. Murphy, S. E. & Johnson, S. K. (2016). Leadership and leader developmental self-efficacy: Their role in enhancing leader development efforts. New Directions for Student Leadership, 149, 73-84. 10.1002/yd.20163 Patton, L. D., Renn, K. A., Guido, F. M., & Quaye, S. J. (2016). Student development in college: Theory, research, and practice (3rd ed.). Jossey Bass, A Wiley Brand. Renn, K. A. & Arnold, K. D. (2003). Reconceptualizing research on college student peer culture. The Journal of Higher Education, 74(3), 261-291. Schaller, M. A. (2005). Wandering and wondering: Traversing the uneven terrain of the second college year. About Campus, 10(3), 17–24. https://doi-org.proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/10.1002/abc.131 Torbenson, C. L. (2009). From the beginning: A history of college fraternities and sororities. In C. L. Torbenson & G. Parks (Eds.). Brothers and sisters: Diversity in college fraternities and sororities (pp. 15-46). Fairleigh Dickinson University Press.

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Former Foster Youth Application of College Transition Theory

Tyra Voget

Abstract

Past research on the process of transitioning to college has focused on the factors that contribute to a students ability to cope with transition (Goodman, Schlossberg, and Anderson; 2006). However, this past research does not take into account the unique challenges faced by students who have transitioned out of the foster care system. Former foster youth (FFY) have experienced large disruptions in their adolescence that can sometimes include a break in familial relationships, changing schools, and even a loss of independence and freedom when being thrust into government care (Courtney, Teraro, & Bost, 2004; National Conference of State Legislators, 2019; Wolanin, 2015). This paper proposes an application of college transition theory through the lens of the experience of former foster youth. Based on extensive literature review of FFY’s mental health challenges, preparedness for higher education, and relational support, this paper uses the four factors of Schlossberg’s Transition Theory as a theoretical framework to view the college transition process for FFY, while posing a fifth factor that is unique to this student population.

Keywords foster youth; college transition; theory

Tyra Voget is an emerging student affairs professional who will be graduating from the Indiana University Bloomington Higher Education & Student Affairs M.S.Ed program in May of 2021. She has worked as a paraprofessional in Residence Life, Diversity & Inclusion, and Civic Engagement for the last two years. Her favorite part of her graduate experience has been seeing the connection between her research and her practice and being able to apply what she has learned in real time. She has a passion for innovation & advancement in higher education, especially in regard to underrepresented student populations like low-income students, first generation college students and students of color. In her free time, you can see her recreating recipe videos, guiltlessly watching reality television shows, and attempting to DIY new home decor.

Suggested citation: Voget, T. (2021). Former foster youth application of college transition theory. Journal of the Student Personnel Association at Indiana University, 78-88.

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Foster youth are at a significant disadvantage when it comes to achieving a higher education, where 70% aspire to obtain a higher education, yet only 20% actually enroll (Wolanin, 2005). Their disadvantages are further seen through their degree attainment, where only 2.5% of foster youth obtain a four-year college degree versus 23.5% of their peers (Fernandez-Alcantara, 2014). Though college degree attainment for foster youth continues to remain proportionally low, there is little research that offers insight on the experience of this student population. Foster youth have not received the level of recognition or attention that other underrepresented groups like, low-income and racial/ethnic minorities have when it comes to focused efforts to increase their success in college and therefore, the majority of student affairs professionals are ill-equipped to support these students (Wolanin, 2005). In regard to former foster youth’s (FFY) transition to college, there are many different factors that contribute to their lack of success in higher education. A few of these factors include a lack of academic preparation that is the product of disruption from their previous school networks, increased levels of mental health issues that stem from trauma from their experiences that led them into the foster care system and their experiences within the system, and a lack of ability to manage both their day to day struggles and their academic pursuits (Gross, 2019; Fernandes-Alcantara, 2014; Wolanin, 2005). FFY also tend to face challenges in regard to their family dynamics after leaving the foster care system, regarding the relationships with their biological parents, siblings, and their former foster families, which is likely to affect their transition to college (Courtney, 2009). This paper will focus on analyzing the experience of former foster youth to present an application of existing theories that focuses on the development of this specific student population during their transition to college. It is important to look at the ways that their psychological and relational struggles affect their transition into college using existing theories as a framework to understand the development of these students. The lack of focused efforts to increase the success of this population in college makes it necessary to propose an alternate application of transition theory for FFY to give student affairs practitioners the tools needed to help create space and support for these students that will ease their transition into college. The definition of terms will be presented, followed by the literature review, then the application of existing theories, concluding with recommendations for student affairs practice and further research. Definition of Terms

In order to understand the experience of former foster youth transitioning to college, it is important to understand what their experience going into and transitioning out of the foster care system may have looked like. To give further insight into that experience, a list of relevant terms will be defined in this section. Foster care is a process of providing temporary living to children “intended to ensure a child’s safety and well-being until a permanent home can be re-established or newly established” (Fernandez- Alcantara, 2019, p. 2). Children are appointed into foster care through the judicial system when a determination is made that it is unsafe for a child to remain at home with a parent or guardian (Bethany Christian Services, 2019). In 2017, an estimated 442,995 children were in foster care and the average length of stay is around twelve months, however, over twelve percent of children remain in foster care for three or more years (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2019). Foster parents are trained caregivers, licensed by the state and are there to provide stability and normalcy to the child, while also preparing them for permanent placement, either through reunification or adoption (The Annie E. Casey Foundation, 2019). Foster parents are different from adoptive parents because in the case of foster care, the state holds all of the legal rights of guardianship over the child (Nguyen, 2012). The large majority of foster youth are placed in homes with foster parents (lead by nonrelatives at 45% and relatives at 32%), but a small percentage of foster youth will be placed in what is called a “group home” (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2019).

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Group homes, sometimes referred to as “congregate care,” are live in group settings where groups of foster children “live together with staff members who work in shifts; shelters; residential treatment centers and other non-family living situations” (The Annie E. Casey Foundation, 2019, para. 8). Group homes are typically reserved for children who need more restrictive housing, such as those who have mental illness diagnoses or heightened behavioral problems; however, overuse of group homes has resulted in 40% of children placed in group homes having no documented problems that would warrant a group home placement (The Annie E. Casey Foundation, 2015). Reunification is one way that foster youth transition out of the foster care system. It is a process of reuniting foster youth with their parent/legal guardian, through supervised, unsupervised, overnight, and weekend visits (Bethany Christian Services, 2019). Statistics from 2017, report that 49% of children leaving foster care are reunited with their parent or legal guardian and 24% are adopted (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2019). Aging Out is a term used to describe foster youth who exit the foster care system as a result of them turning either 18 or 21, depending on the laws of their state (Aging Out, n.d.). This is a small percentage of foster youth, however, this way of exiting the system can be the most detrimental for youth as they lose funding from the state in the form of housing, living expenses, and health services (Aging Out, n.d.; Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2019). Literature Review

In order to specifically apply transition theory to former foster youth’s transition into college, a literature review of the challenges that they face in regard to their mental health, preparedness for higher education/adulthood, and familial/close relationships was necessary to provide a basis for understanding the population. A review of their challenges will then be followed by a review of existing student development theories that will provide a framework for the application of college transition theory to former foster youth.

Mental Health Challenges

Former foster youth face many hurdles that are far greater than the general population of students entering college. One large one is their battle with mental health that is largely caused by trauma from “maltreatment, frequent changes in situations and transitions, broken family relationships, inconsistent and inadequate access to mental health services, repeated exposure to traumatic events, and the stigma of being in care” (Bullock et al., 2019). A study shows that as many as 80 percent of foster youth have mental health issues in comparison to around 20 percent of the general population (National Conference of State Legislatures, 2016). Although these issues continue to exist after a youth leaves foster care, they are less likely to utilize mental health services than their non-foster youth peers (Bullock et al., 2019). One study found that the reasoning for this lack of utilization is that foster youth feel as though they have no control over their options for treatment, a feeling they already feel through their lack of control over their life situation in foster care (Sakai et al., 2014). Foster youth may also feel uneasy about disclosing their mental health struggles because of their fear of “being singled out for special treatment, which exacerbates a feeling of difference and alienation and fear of others’ low expectations” (Bullock et al., 2019, p. 24). This feeling of being “singled out” and alienated by their peers might have also manifested early on in their life as they entered the foster care system. In some cases, foster youth who enter the system do so quite swiftly and may be uprooted, not only from their home, but from their school (Mabrey, 2014). Feeling unfamiliar with their new school and the new people surrounding them, oftentimes, causes them to feel “unstable” and they, therefore might lose confidence in themselves and their ability to succeed in this new environment (Mabrey, 2014).

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Preparedness for higher education/adulthood

Former foster youth lag well behind in educational attainment as well as in their transition to adulthood compared to their non-foster youth peers (Wolanin, 2015). A study in Illinois, Iowa, & Wisconsin from 2004, reported that about 80 percent of foster youth moved schools at least once, 1 in 3 moved more than five times, and 18 percent had missed close to a month of school due to disruptions of foster care placements (Courtney et al., 2004). These disruptions can lead to many challenges for foster youth academically such as; a disconnection from school friendships, a shift in what the student is now learning in the classroom, and a loss of class credits (Gross, 2019). Moreover, though a study showed that, when relevant services are provided, foster youth who participated in a college preparatory program were just as likely to enroll and succeed in college as their non-foster youth peers; foster youth were far “less likely to have taken college preparatory curriculum” (Burley & Lemon, 2012; Gross, 2019, p.26). College, for the majority of students entering in, is also the first step into adulthood. Not only are they tasked with keeping up with the academic rigor of earning a higher education, but they are also expected to have “basic adult competencies” (Wolanin, 2015, p.11). However, for most FFY, especially those who “age out” of the foster care system, they grow up in a system that has impeded on their opportunity to practice living independently under the watchful eye of a caregiver (Wolanin, 2015). Youth in foster care typically are restricted from participating in all sorts of activities that might help them develop self-sufficiency in their teen years; such as getting a job, going on dates, or even changing their hairstyles (National Conference of State Legislators, 2019). Those placed in group homes have even less self-sufficiency as they are put on strict curfews and have “lengthy approval processes” that “further contribute to [their] loss of independence and decision-making” (National Conference of State Legislators, 2019, para.6).

Familial/close relationships

The social transition to college is likely to be difficult for former foster youth from the very beginning, especially when thinking about their relationship experiences. As mentioned previously, when entering the foster care system, foster youth experience a disruption of their relationships with their friends, parents, and sometimes even siblings (Wolanin, 2015). Their relationship with their foster families can also see strain through strict policies that prohibit foster children from being treated in the same manner as a biological child; like being able to vacation with their families or being able to spend the night at an extended relative’s home (National Conference of State Legislators, 2019). Foster youth might also experience frequent moves during their time in foster care, bouncing from home to home, which leaves them with a feeling of rejection or loss (Hallas, 2002). For those in group homes who lack family structures, they lose the ability to “experience regular family life, develop practical skills and build bonds with adults who will care for them” (The Annie E. Casey Foundation, 2019, para.21). When thinking through college opportunities, foster youth often lack the familial support of navigating the higher education system; having to turn to school counselors who “may not understand the unique and complex needs and issues of young people in foster care who are transitioning to college” or their caseworker who “may not have the time nor expertise to help students navigate the college admission and financial aid process” (National Conference of State Legislators, 2019, para.8). Even those who go through a reunification process and return to their parent or guardian often feel unable to rely on their support given the history of their relationship, and may even feel as though their parent or guardian is relying on them for support, which can add extra stress to foster youth who are transitioning to college (Courtney, 2009).

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Schlossberg’s Transition Theory

Transitions, according to Goodman et al. (2006), is defined as “any event, or non-event, that results in changed relationships, routines, assumptions, and roles” (p.33). Youth transitioning into foster care experience what is referred to as an unanticipated transition, being removed from their parent or guardian’s care and placed into the system. All transitions move through phases identified as “moving in”, “moving through”, and “moving out” (Schlossberg, 1984). Though FFY transitioning into college is an anticipated transition, the ways in which they might cope with this transition can be directly affected by their experiences “moving in”, “moving through”, and “moving out” of the foster care system. According to Schlossberg (1984), there are four factors that influence an individual’s ability to cope with transition: situation, self, social support, & strategies. Situation refers to multiple factors such as concurrent stress, trigger, and role change. Self refers to personal and demographic characteristics like socioeconomic status or ethnicity, but also psychological characteristics like self-efficacy and ego development. Social support includes family, friends, and institutions, and strategies refers to the way one copes with transition, whether that be by controlling the meaning or modifying the situation. These four factors will serve as a framework for understanding the challenge of transitioning to a collegiate environment for former foster youth.

External Formulas

External formula is the first phase of Baxter Magolda’s Theory of Self Authorship. It argues that students entering college start out with a dependency on their formed relationships, such as their relationships with their family and friends, to help make meaning of their identity and values (Baxter Magolda, 2004). Students in this phase do not have authorship of their own lives as they rely on their external formulas, yet they believe that they are operating independently. Former foster youth transitioning into college experience the concept of external formulas much differently than the average student, because of their strained familial relationships and their experience moving both in and out of the foster care system. For example, FFY who were brought up in the system and aged out, may only be able to see themselves as wards of the state in which they must abide by certain curfews or restrict themselves from activities that their peers might be participating in, as was the norm for them while they were in the system (National Conference of State Legislators, 2019). This is an example in which FFY may be defined by their external formulas, but they are not naive to believe that that way of thinking was formed independently by their own choosing. Another example would be FFY who are reunified with their parent before entering college. The parents of these youth may not be a source of external formula at all for them as the relationship that they have with their parent, oftentimes, has shifted because of their inability to rely on them for support and therefore, the parent has little to no authority in their life.

Sanford’s Challenge and Support

Sanford’s theory of Challenge and Support shows the ways in which the level of challenge and support a student receives affects their success in college. Sanford argues that in order for growth to occur, the level of challenge and support a student experiences must be balanced; too much support and the student will not face challenges that will help them learn and too much challenge and the student might find the task unbearable and decide to quit (Sanford, 1962). Quite simply, this theory will be used as a framework to paint a picture of where FFY are in regards to the level of challenge and support they receive from external factors and how this knowledge can be used to determine the level of challenge and support these students might need from student affairs practitioners as a result. In short, FFY receive very low challenge and support from external factors which brings them at a level of “disengagement” on the Challenge/Support scale that results in a lack of determination and optimism (Sanford, 1962).

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Former Foster Youth Application of Transition Theory

The application of transition theory to former foster youth focuses on the ways in which former foster youth’s past experiences transitioning in and out of the foster care system affect their transition into higher education. This application of theory will focus on the 4 factors that affect student’s ability to cope with transition as a framework to better understand former foster youth’s challenges. Because the experience of former foster youth is so complex, the concept of External Formulas will be used within Schlossberg’s transition theory under the factor of social support to help better understand the ways in which external formulas influence former foster youth differently than their peers and therefore the degree to which they may rely on their family units, for example, will look differently as well. Sanford’s theory of Challenge and Support will then be explored as a concluding framework to see how their transition is affected by the amount of external challenge and support they receive, and to what degree colleges and universities must create conditions to find a positive balance between them. An additional factor, sustainability, will be presented as a fifth factor in the former foster youth college transition to explain the additional tasks that FFY must complete in order to be successful in their college transition, because of the differing challenges that they face in relation to the general student population.

Situation

Factor number one in Schlossberg’s Theory, situation, has many different items identified under its umbrella. The application of this theory for FFY focuses in on control and concurrent stress as factors that contribute to this population's ability to cope with transition to college. Control, according to Schlossberg (1984), refers to the aspects of the situation in which the student might feel is in their control. For former foster youth, especially those who have aged out of the foster care system, they have experienced a transition in which they had little to no control over the change that was happening in their life. These restrictions for former foster youth who experienced foster care towards the end of their adolescence, may continue to be felt as they transition into college. In these cases, former foster youth may feel less in control of their transition to college because of those experienced restrictions. Concurrent stress is another factor under the umbrella of situation. Former foster youth are much more likely to experience concurrent stress, or stress that is a result of issues outside of college, than their peers. Their family dynamics or their lack of support within the foster care system can cause more stress to their college transition than is normal for the average student. For example, former foster youth who are reunified with their families prior to attending college, are likely to experience heightened and consistent family discourse that may add extra stress to the college transition (Courtney et al., 2001). Former foster youth, especially those who have aged out of the system, are likely to feel concurrent stress when it comes to figuring out accommodations for housing during school breaks as well if they do not have families to go home to or friends to stay with (National Conference of State Legislators, 2019). These added stressors may cause these students to feel weighed down or unable to cope with the stress that transitioning to college brings as well.

Self

Self is the second factor of Schlossberg’s factors that contribute to a student’s ability to cope. The application of this theory for former foster youth will focus on the aspects of personal characteristics in regard to FFY’s state of health, as well as their level of self-confidence. As was discussed in the literature review, FFY often experience serious mental health issues as a result of trauma from their experiences before, during, and after their stay in foster care (Bullock et al., 2019). This trauma can lead to heightened levels of depression and anxiety and presents a level of mental health issues that often surpass the average college student (Bullock et al., 2019). This, layered on top of FFY’s loss of self-confidence as a result of

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Social Support

Social support is the factor in which former foster youth might feel the most lacking in when it comes to their ability to lean on the people or resources in their lives for support during their transition to college, even though it may be the most imperative considering where students are in their identity development when entering college. Baxter Magolda’s Theory of Self-Authorship argues that students start out in phase 1 where they follow the plans that are concocted for them by external formulas, which include their parents, peers, and other authority (Baxter Magolda, 2004). External formulas for former foster youth, however, differ from the majority of their peers, because they often do not have the support of their parents or guardians behind them as they are transitioning to college and they also may not have previous school friends that hold their influence either because of frequent moves that have disrupted relationships (Courtney, 2009; Wolanin, 2015). Those who have aged out of the system and are no longer receiving support from the state, are also forced to turn away from that as a source of influence and support. Because of this, former foster youth might be more likely to need to lean on the support and influence of friendships they make in college and resources provided by the university to help guide them in their transition as well as their identity development.

Strategies or Coping Responses

The final factor in student’s ability to cope with transition according to Schlossberg’s theory is strategies or coping responses. Since FFY experience lack of support in all of the other three factors, their ability to develop strategies to cope with their transition that are positive and productive are likely to come from the influence and support they receive from the institution itself. Sanford’s theory of challenge and support provides the framework for practitioners to see where FFY students are at in regard to their level of challenge and support from their external influences. FFY students receive a low level of challenge and support from external factors causing them to have a decreased sense of optimism and determination according to Sanford (1962), which in turn, can decrease their ability to obtain positive coping responses. Former foster youth lack challenge as they have experienced an inability to practice independence by being restricted from tasks within the foster care system that their peers have the ability to participate in, like getting a job (National Conference of State Legislators, 2019; Wolanin, 2015). They also lack challenge because they experience a lack of expectations from those around them to enroll in college, let alone graduate (National Conference of State Legislators, 2019). Their lack of support comes from their inability to rely on their families and sometimes even their former caseworkers and high school counselors who were often either busy with supporting the student in other areas of their life or ill- equipped to support the student in their unique position (National Conference of State Legislators, 2019).

Sustainability

Because of the developmental difficulties FFY face in every factor of Schlossberg’s Transition Theory, they are challenged to complete additional tasks in tandem with the 4 factors presented. Therefore, the analysis of former foster youth’s college transition presents a potential fifth factor that must be considered when thinking about FFY’s transition to college, and that is sustainability. As previously explained, FFY may have experienced many challenges during their previous transitions in an out of foster care (Gross, 2019; Fernandes-Alcantara, 2014; Wolanin, 2005). FFY, because of their previous experiences with transition, may feel a sense of instability and impermanence surrounding the transitional circumstances of their life (Mabrey, 2014).

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Sustainability is therefore a factor of transition that may need to be considered in FFY college transition in order to create persistence. FFY must feel as though the transition that they are experiencing is not a fleeting or unretainable circumstance, but something that can be managed and nurtured to have a positive, everlasting impact. This sustainability includes finding people and structures to rely on that will not, in a moment’s notice, disappear. It must also include having the ability to develop coping responses and self-efficacy that can withstand unexpected change. FFY students must feel that there is sustainable growth that occurs and will continue to occur, both during and after the transition that they experience, so that they will have a greater chance of persistence.

Recommendations for Practitioners

Student affairs practitioners should recognize their role in supporting these students by providing them with an environment that challenges them to live up to a potential that they may not have been encouraged to by their family or other forms of external authority, both academically and extracurricularly. They must also provide them with a higher level of support and stability than the general student population, as they are likely to need that as well. For example, within academic advising, advisors should be knowledgeable about the academic preparation of the student prior to entering college, as it is likely to be hindered by frequent school changes or a disruption in their schooling. Advisors should provide a higher level of individualized support for these students, but also set high and consistent expectations for them as well, giving them both a high level of support and challenge (Sanford, 1962). Practitioners in orientation and transition should work to develop programs or initiatives that further support FFY in finding involvement opportunities that will give them a sense of belonging as well as challenge them to see their autonomy in their college experience (Baxter Magolda, 2004; Schlossberg, 1984). One example of an initiative that has been put forth by an institution to support foster and former foster youth is the Bruin Guardian Scholars program at the University of California, Los Angeles, in which recipients receive “scholarships, year-round housing in the dorms, academic and therapeutic counseling, tutoring, health care coverage, and a campus job. Scholars also receive the basics that many of their non-foster care peers receive from their families, such as bedding, towels, and other necessities for personal care” (Mitchell, n.d.). Programs or offices from universities that include even a few of these initiatives are likely to have a positive impact on the success of this student population.

Conclusion

The application of transition theory to former foster youth’s college transition combines Schlossberg’s transition theory, Baxter Magolda’s concept of external formulas, and Sanford’s theory of challenge and support to create a framework for understanding the college transition process for former foster youth. An additional factor of sustainability must also be considered to recognize how the instability of their past transition experiences may affect their ability to persist in their college transition. Though former foster youth experience similar challenges as the general student population, their experience transitioning in and out of the foster care system provides them with an extra set of challenges that can affect their transition into college. In order to further support former foster youth in their transition to college as well as ensure continued success through their progression in college, researchers must investigate more in regard to this population’s feelings of self-efficacy and identity. Research should also be conducted to further investigate the role of foster parents in the lives of former foster youth in college and how these relationships affect their transition. Additionally, it is important to recognize that the application of these theories do not fully address the nuances of FFY’s experiences transitioning to college, specifically as it relates to differing social identities like race, gender, and sexual orientation. These identities also play a major role in college transition and practitioners must educate themselves on the varying issues this

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References

Aging Out. (n.d.). In Foster Club Glossary. https://www.fosterclub.com/glossary

Bethany Christian Services. (2019). Reunification: The goal of foster care. https://bethany.org/resources/reunification-the-goal-of-foster-care

Baxter Magolda, M. B. (2004). Self-authorship as the common goal of 21st century education. Learning partnerships: Theory and models of practice to educate for self-authorship (pp. 1-35). Sterling, VA: Stylus.

Bullock, A. N., Colvin, A. D., & Jackson, M. S. (2019). Strategies to address mental health challenges of foster youth transitioning to college. Best Practice in Mental Health, 15(1), 20–31. https://web-a- ebscohost-com.proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=3&sid=6eb3dd77-e940- 434c-9c37-0e19030a2017%40sdc-v-sessmgr03

Burley, M., & Lemon, M. (2012). Passport to college promise: College assistance and support for former foster youth. Washington State Institute for Public Policy.

Caseworker. (n.d.). In Foster Club Glossary. https://www.fosterclub.com/glossary

Child Welfare Information Gateway. (2019). Foster care statistics 2017. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Children’s Bureau.

Courtney, M. (2009). The difficult transition to adulthood for foster youth in the US: Implications for the state as corporate parent. Social policy report / Society for Research in Child Development. 23. 3- 18. 10.1002/j.2379-3988.2009.tb00058.x.

Courtney, M. E., Piliavin, I., Grogan-Kaylor, A. and Ne-smith, A. (2001). Foster youth transitions to adulthood: A longitudinal view of youth leaving care. National Library of Medicine 6:685-717.

Courtney, M., Terao, S., & Bost, N.S. (2004). Midwest evaluation of the adult functioning of former foster youth: Conditions of youth preparing to leave state care in illinois. Chaplin Hall Center for Children at the University of Chicago.

Fernandez-Alcantara, A. L. (2014). Youth transitioning from foster care: Issues in Congress. Congressional Research Service. https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R40218/20

Fernandez-Alcantara, A. L. (2019). Youth transitioning from foster care: Background and federal programs. Congressional Research Service. https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL34499.pdf

Goodman, J., Schlossberg, N. K., & Anderson, M. L. (2006). Counseling adults in transition: Linking practice with theory (3rd ed.). Springer Publishing Co.

Gross, J. P. (2019). Former foster youth in postsecondary education: Reaching higher. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Pivot. https://searchebscohost.com.proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=213625 5&site=edslive&scope=site

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Hallas, D. (2002). A model for successful foster child-foster parent relationships. Journal of Pediatric Health Care. 16(3). 112-118. doi.org/10.1067/mph.2002.117449.

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Mitchell, T. (n.d.). In support of successful foster youth transitions. U.S. Department of Education. https://sites.ed.gov/ous/2016/08/in-support-of-successful-foster-youth-transitions/

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Sakai, C., Mackie, T., Shetgiri, R., Franzen, S., Partap, A., Flores, G., & Leslie, L. K. (2014). Mental health beliefs and barriers to accessing mental health services in youth aging out of foster care. Academic Pediatrics, 14, 565–573. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acap.2014.07.003

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The Annie E. Casey Foundation. (2019). What is foster care? https://www.aecf.org/blog/what-is-foster-care/

Wolanin, T. R. (2005). Higher education opportunities for foster youth: A primer for policymakers. The Institute of Higher Education Policy. http://www.ihep.org/sites/default/files/uploads/docs/pubs/opportunitiesfosteryouth.pdf

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LGBTQ+ Ally Identity Development in Religiously Affiliated Institutions

Jaelyn Millon

Abstract

The focus of this research is based on the existing LGBTQ+ Ally Identity Development Theory as it relates to existing theory regarding students at religiously affiliated institutions. Through examination of the currently existing literature regarding allies, religious, and spiritual development, the focus of this research stems from the role that ally development plays during this developmental process at religiously- based institutions. The research concludes that there are four stages to LGBTQ+ Ally Development Theory at Religiously Affiliated Institutions: Introduction of Oppression, Individual Reflection, Uprooting of Views, and Conjunction of Values. The implications of this theory help to provide context to the developmental stages of individuals undergoing this particular development as it relates to a student’s institutional environment.

Keywords

LGBTQ+, ally development

Jaelyn Millon (she/her/hers) earned her Bachelor of Arts in Spanish with Chemistry and Biology minors at Hanover College. At Indiana University-Bloomington, Jaelyn earned her Master of Science in Education in Higher Education and Student Affairs with a certificate in College Pedagogy and served as

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Suggested citation: Millon, J. (2021). LGBTQ+ ally identity development in religiously affiliated institutions. Journal of the Student Personnel Association at Indiana University, 89-97.

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Purpose Individuals undergo a plethora of student development during their time as college students. Student development theory is defined as an explanation of the processes that students undergo throughout their complex journey through postsecondary experiences in colleges or other higher educational institutions (Patton et al., 2016). These theories cover many different aspects of a student’s life. Aspects that have an existing student development theory may range from theories explaining different identities that students hold all the way to their moral and psychosocial development. Chickering and Reisser (1993), for example, identify seven vectors of development that assess the growth that college students experience during this critical time. The common goal that many individuals in the Student Affairs profession aspire for is to find ways to best support our students so that we can help see them through graduation. In order to fulfill these aspirations, student affairs professionals use theory that results from observable phenomena. It is important to note that new theories emerge when multiple existing theories are analyzed to intentionally focus on the gaps to find connections to articulate existing phenomena. Just as theories are used to explain a certain phenomenon, theories can also be used to help make predictions about a process. For the purpose of this paper, the focus will be on utilizing existing theories to build and create a new theory. Specifically, the new theory will examine how external forces, such as family and environment, and an institution’s theologically centered academics affect a student’s development as an LGBTQ+ ally during their undergraduate career. Though higher education institutions are increasingly becoming more LGBTQ+ affirming through means such as gender-inclusive housing and having a greater investment of healthcare for their trans students, the number of these types of institutions are quite low. Additionally, students in this community still experience various levels of discrimination or hostile relationships with their peers (Nicolazzo, 2015). Students may experience very blatant or subtle forms of discrimination in their social experience in college. For example, Seelman (2016) established that transgender students will experience a larger amount of discrimination and hardships compared to their peers who are cisgender. Transgender students may be the target of microaggressions when these students are not given the opportunity to have accommodations for campus housing or bathrooms (Seelman, 2016). Students who identify as LGBTQ+ may also experience curricular hardships and discrimination based on institutional type. Catholic institutions, for example, often express the importance of Catholicism in the institution's mission (Love, 1998) which oftentimes excludes or harms individuals who are transgender or who have sexual orientations that are not heteronormative. Thus, members of the institution likely have traditional Catholic values in which “homosexuality” is abominable which creates an extremely hostile environment for students who identify in this community. Through examination of currently existing literature regarding allies within religious development, the focus will be on the role that ally development plays during this developmental process at religiously-based institutions. Religiously affiliated institutions can be extremely toxic and emotionally draining environments for anyone who identifies in the LGBTQ+ community due to the internal conflict that these individuals who may have been raised in a religious environment may feel. Adams (2014) explains the toll that these environments may have on someone in this community: “‘many of us [gay males] have rejected our inherent spiritual natures along with the religious traditions we felt forced to disavow in order to accept our sexual nature’ (p. 6). The conflict between the two concepts (religion, faith, and spirituality and gay male identity) presented a problem for gay males on multiple levels including society’s negative view of being gay, religious doctrine condemnation of gay males, and feeling of meaning” (p. 8). When an institution’s mission and values statement are grounded strongly in traditional Christian views, it becomes very difficult for anyone who identifies in this community to experience a sense of belonging at that institution. Adams (2014) also explains that undergraduate gay males perceived religiously affiliated campus environments “to be even less friendly” and they face an “oppressive, non-supportive, homophobic cultures in which they are made to feel invisible and isolated” (p. 8).

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Wentz and Wessel (2013) explore further experiences that gay and lesbian students had during their collegiate experience at a religiously affiliated institution. From the study that they presented, students expressed a general dissatisfaction or disapproval of individuals who attended the university and identified as LGBTQ+. Wentz and Wessel (2013) found that “each student expressed that extremely negative perceptions of homosexuality were perpetuated within the general campus culture”.

Relevant Terms There are many terms that are important to define in order to fully understand the various themes and ideas of the studies that have been proposed. Astin (2011) states that a limitation involved with assessing spirituality and religion is that there is not necessarily a distinction between spirituality and one’s theological views that an individual may have. Thus, this presents a challenge when analyzing this topic; though there are some similarities, there are quite a few differences between the two. Hill et al. (2000) explain that distinguishing the differences between spirituality and religion is imperative due to the “veritable flood of interest in spirituality . . . [which] has resulted in disagreements and perhaps even confusion about what is meant by such terms as religion and spirituality” (p. 52). Religion can be defined as a “social institution in which a group of people participate rather than an individual search for meaning” (Steiger & Lipson, 1985, p. 212). Many individuals typically use the terms spirituality and religion interchangeably. An alternative definition of religion is a collective group of doctrines that originate from and are in honor of a being that is beyond anything of earth (Love & Talbot, 2009). Spirituality can be defined as believing in a being or force that is greater than oneself, exploring life’s purpose, and having a relationship with God (Dirkx et al., 2002). Spiritual development can also be defined very broadly as “. . . how students make meaning of their education and their lives, how they develop a sense of purpose, the value and belief dilemmas they experience, as well as the role of religion, the sacred, and the mystical in their lives” (Astin, 2011). Another notable term for the purpose of this study is ally. An ally can be defined as “members of the dominant population who advocate for the oppressed, [who] offer a unique voice to any debate as their motives cannot be questioned by the dominant hierarchy as being self-interested or self-seeking” (Clark & O’Donnell, 1992). Lastly, religiously affiliated institutions are those that are classified as such under the Carnegie Classifications. These terms will be prominent throughout this paper, so one may refer to the definitions listed above in order to understand the context of the paper.

Theory and Literature Review

The primary focus of the new theory in question represents aspects of a combination of self- authorship, faith development, and ally development theory. The focus will be on these theories since collegiate institutions are called to creating this environment of academically stimulating their students. As a result of considering these theories, the new theory will address how colleges with a standardized set of expectations for religious development may not best support all students going through this developmental change when they begin to develop their own religious ideas and experience self- authorship and ally development.

Self-Authorship

The theory of self-authorship is defined by the capability of an individual to determine one’s social relations, beliefs, and identity (Baxter Magolda, 2008). Baxter Magolda discussed the three dimensions that students encounter through their path to self-authorship. The three dimensions are epistemological, intrapersonal, and interpersonal which, respectively, explore how an individual knows what they know, how they understand who they are, and how they develop relationships with others. The four phases of self-authorship include following external formulas, crossroads, becoming one’s own author of oneself, and internal foundation. Baxter Magolda (2001) discusses the self-authorship

92 SPA Journal at IU Spring 2021 Edition developmental theory as, “developmental tasks and challenges for young adults in their twenties, including values exploration, making sense of information gained about the world in previous years, determining the path one will take, and taking steps along that path” (Patton et. al, 2016). Baxter Magolda’s Self-Authorship theory at religiously affiliated institutions focuses on the interpersonal dimension.

Fowler’s Faith Development Theory

Fowler (1981) developed a theory that explains the six stages that individuals undergo as they mature in their faith. Stage 1, the intuitive-projective stage, explains the development that occurs when children are in preschool and tend to have trouble distinguishing between fantasy and reality. During this stage, children will tend to learn about the foundational and basic ideas about God from their guardians or society. The second stage, mythical-literal, is when school-aged children begin to understand how the world works a bit more logically and mostly accept the stories told to them about their faith. The synthetic-conventional stage comes next and typically occurs when an individual becomes a teenager. They have developed various social circles; however, individuals at this stage tend to have trouble seeing the world outside of their own perspective and do not realize that they are in a belief system. The next stage, individuative-reflective, is a difficult stage that occurs when individuals begin to recognize various other perspectives that exist outside of their own. The conjunctive faith stage is typically not reached before an individuals’ mid portion of their life. They begin to realize that there are limits of logic and start to see life as a mystery. Lastly, the universalizing faith is a stage that very few people reach. These individuals will live their lives in complete service of others, carefree and without doubts. Faith Development at religiously affiliated institutions focuses on the individuative-reflective as it connects to a student beginning to learn about and understand perspectives outside of their own as they are developing into their faith.

Ally Identity Development

Though the theme of ally identity development is quite new and under-researched, understanding the development is crucial to moving forward with issues involving social justice in our society. Bishop (2002) explains the six steps that are involved with the model of becoming an ally. It begins with a process of truly understanding what oppression entails and how it is currently impacting individuals. The next step involves more of an individual learning process that occurs. The third step involves engaging with one’s consciousness in order to begin a process of healing. The fourth step introduces the idea of uprooting the societal norms in one’s own experiences. The fifth step allows for a deep understanding of the historical context of oppression and how it correlates with current context. The final step of ally identity development occurs throughout the course of an individual’s life (Bishop, 2002). Ally Development at religiously affiliated institutions focuses on the third step and a student’s journey of reclaiming their life as it connects to their healing process and uprooting of their personal values that allies navigate as they develop into allies.

Literature Integration: LGBTQ+ Ally Identity Development Theory

LGBTQ+ Ally Identity Development at religiously affiliated Institutions Theory is aimed towards cisgender, heterosexual individuals. This new theory will introduce the relevant intersections between the Theory of Self-Authorship, Fowler’s Faith Development Theory, and Ally Identity Development Theory. This new theory will also examine how the intersection of self-authorship with religion correlates in order to present a theory including four developmental stages as it relates to LGBTQ+ Ally Identity Development at religiously affiliated institutions. Stages were selected to represent this theory in order to smoothly and clearly present the various aspects of the theory.

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Stage 1: Introduction of Oppression

As Bishop (2002) states in the first step of becoming an ally, one must first understand that the system of oppression exists and has an impact on people. Before students enter college, they rely on the values and teachings that they were exposed to through various external forces. These students may then enter a religiously affiliated institution. Fowler (1981) acknowledges that due to their external forces, these individuals have not seen the world from a perspective other than their own. During this first stage that introduces oppression, students begin to view the world from a different perspective while simultaneously relating it to their religious background and experiences and the general religious environment that they have just entered.

Stage 2: Individual Reflection

Once students have been introduced to the system of oppression, they begin to reflect internally in order to process the new information. Bishop later introduces the stage of ally development that allows for time to reflect so that personal healing can begin. Fowler’s (1981) individuative-reflective stage occurs once students have been introduced to the new religious perspective. During the Individual Reflection stage, students who attend religiously affiliated institutions spend time processing the new understanding of the world that they have. The students manage the new emotions that may arise as they take time to reflect on their own perspective in light of new information from the first stage.

Stage 3: Uprooting of Views

Next begins the process of these college students uprooting the values that they gained from external forces. Bishop explains that the fifth step of Ally Identity Development is diving deep into understanding the historical context of oppression. When a student enters a religiously centered environment and has begun to internally reflect, they will undergo the Uprooting of Views stage. Understanding that this student is in a religiously affiliated institution, they will begin to put the new perspective into context so that they can uproot the previous perspective they held. Once an individual reaches this stage, they will have accepted, rather than denied, the privileges they have which will lead to a new sense of self for the individual.

Stage 4: Conjunction of Values

The final stage of LGBTQ+ Ally Identity Development at religiously affiliated institutions involves the beginning of a life-long journey. Bishop’s final step of Ally Identity Development occurs when individuals begin their life-long path of having hope and fighting for justice. Fowler’s (1981) fifth stage of Faith Development involves the acknowledgment that logic has limitations. Students who reach the Conjunction of Values stage simultaneously fight for LGBTQ+ justice in our society and dive deeper into their own religious identity and understanding of the world. At this point, students may choose to reject the idea of becoming an ally, particularly for the LGBTQ+ community in religiously affiliated institutions.

Conclusions and Implications for the Future

As presented above, the three theories have been combined in order to articulate the new theory. The objective of creating this theory is to examine the influence that attending a religiously affiliated institution has on students as they develop into allies and navigate their own religious and spiritual

94 SPA Journal at IU Spring 2021 Edition development. The theory of self-authorship has been evaluated to show how religiously affiliated institutions may help to develop allies for the LGBTQ+ community. There are various ways to collect data on this topic. For example, it would be beneficial to implement a survey to students. Though the survey would not disclose characteristics to specifically identify them, it would require students to disclose identities that they hold. A potential limitation to gathering this data would be that some students may not feel comfortable disclosing the identities they hold. However, this could still serve as a wonderful starting point for the process of testing this theory if researchers do not collect personally identifiable information in an effort to make participants more comfortable sharing their identities. Information gathered from surveys can be quite helpful when it comes to gathering information about the student population, but it is also important to include a sort of matrix that will allow the researcher to analyze the institutions that will be considered. This matrix could be in the form of a survey as well that calls for the disclosure of institutional norms that exist. Another possible limitation may exist since the focus of this theory would most likely involve religiously affiliated institutions that are typically private. This type of institution may most likely be hesitant to share certain information about their institution that may be challenged by the theory that is being presented. Lastly, an additional limitation is that religiously affiliated institutions may not provide or be willing to provide the space or opportunities for the theory to be implemented. Along with student and administrational focused data about the institution, it may also be important to include some method of collecting data from the faculty and staff perspective of the institution. Pipelining data from all three of these different functional areas of an institution will help one to be able to further analyze the data necessary to test the theory. It is important to gather as many different perspectives as possible; thus, it may be helpful to reach out to these different areas of a campus. This will not only help to gauge the culture of a campus, but it will also help to provide the resources necessary to learn how to begin the process of creating the conditions in an educational setting for students to be most successful. It is important to recognize that students typically have a different, or at least a more unique, perspective on religion or spirituality after attending a collegiate institution, regardless of the religious affiliation, and interacting with students who hold different identities, beliefs, and values than they do at the time that they enter this new environment. However, the effect of an institution's religious focus and lack of support for individuals who identify in the LGBTQ+ community is an important aspect for religiously affiliated institutions to consider. It is important to further one’s own understanding on how a student’s developmental experience is influenced based on the religious representation an institution has, including the religious affiliation of the institution, the religious identities faculty and staff hold, and even religious holidays that are celebrated and recognized on a campus. Another important acknowledgement is that the development of LGBTQ+ allies is crucial in order for progress to be made for various social justice issues involving this community; thus, I urge religiously affiliated institutions to take this new theory into consideration and incorporate it into their practices. One method of incorporating this theory and fostering a sense of community in a collegiate institution would be by ensuring that a mentoring system would be in place. This would be a productive and engaging way of helping to provide support for the oppressed community, but this would also be important for ensuring that the individuals helping to advocate for this community are able to work together on these issues. It is also important to understand and recognize the existence of “otherness” that exists on college campuses, but in the United States in general. One must understand the implications of otherness in order to become an ally for any community. In order to better inform individuals of the future implications of this subject, it is urged that more research be completed on this subject. One method of applying this information to future practice is exploring methods of educating individuals on otherness so that they may be as best informed as possible about the climate of these oppressed communities. It is also important to consider the value of immersion trips that students can attend in order to further their knowledge on the theme of otherness. These trips

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References

Adams, M. D. (2014). The religious and spiritual experiences of undergraduate gay males attending a religiously affiliated institution of higher education [Doctoral dissertation, Northeastern University]. Noretheastern University Library. https://repository.library.northeastern.edu/files/neu:1125/fulltext.pdf Astin, A. W., Astin, H., & Lindholm, J. (2011). Assessing students’ spiritual and religious qualities. Journal of College Student Development 52(1), 39-61. https://doi.org//10.1353/csd.2011.0009 Baxter Magolda, M. V. (2008). Three elements of self-authorship. Journal of College Student Development 49(4), 269-284. https://doi.org/10.1353/cssd.0.0016 Bishop, A. (2002). Becoming an ally: Breaking the cycle of oppression in people (2nd ed.). Fernwood. Braskamp, L. A. (2007). Fostering religious and spiritual development of students during college. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Larry_Braskamp/publication/251296150_Fostering_Religio us_and_Spiritual_Development_of_Students_during_College/links/55febcb708ae07629e4bbe63. pdf Burrows, M. (1929). Religion in the college curriculum. The Journal of Religion, 9(3), 436-445. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1196978 Clark, C., & O'Donnell, J. (1999). Becoming and unbecoming White: Owning and disowning a racial identity. Bergin & Garvey. Chickering, A. W., & Reisser, L. (1993). Education and identity (2nd ed.). Jossey-Bass. Dirkx, J. M. (1997). Nurturing soul in adult learning. In P. Cranton (Ed.), Transformative learning in action: New directions for adult and continuing education, no. 74. Wiley InterScience. Fowler, J. (1981). Stages of faith. Harper and Row. Hill, P., Hood, K., McCullough, M., Swyers, J., Larson, J., & Zinnbauer, B. (2000). Conceptualizing religion and spirituality: Points of commonality, points of departure. Journal for the Theory of Social Behavior, 30(1), 51-77. Kegan, R. (1994). In over our heads: The mental demands of modern life. Harvard University Press. Kimbel, T., & Schellenberg, R. (2013). Meeting the holistic needs of students: A proposal for spiritual and religious competencies for school counselors. Professional School Counseling, 17(1), 76-85. www.jstor.org/stable/profschocoun.17.1.76 Love, P. G. (1998). Cultural barriers facing lesbian, gay, and bisexual students at a Catholic college. Journal of Higher Education, (69)3, 298-323. Love, P., & Talbot, D. (2009). Defining spiritual development: A missing consideration for student affairs. NASPA Journal, 46(4), 614-628. Munin, A. (2008). Ally identity development of college students at a religiously affiliated institution [Doctoral dissertation, Loyola University Chicago]. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing. https://search.proquest.com/docview/304556781?accountid=11620 Nicolazzo, Z. (2015). “Just go in looking good”: The resilience, resistance, and kinship-building of trans* college students [Doctoral dissertation, Miami University of Ohio]. https://etd.ohiolink.edu/apexprod/rws_olink/r/1501/10?clear=10&p10_accession_num=miami142 6251164 Seelman, K. L. (2016). Transgender adults’ access to college bathrooms and housing and the relationship to suicidality. Journal of Homosexuality, 63(10), 1378-1399. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2016.1157998 Steiger, N. & Lipson, J. (1985). Self-care nursing: Theory and practice. Brady Communications. Wentz, J., & Wesse, R. (2013). Experiences of gay and lesbian students attending faith-based colleges: Considerations for improving practice. The Journal of the Association for Christians in Student Development, 11(11), 40-58.

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Help Us, Help Students: Supporting Advisors During COVID-19

Ashley H. Burelison, Matthew M. Rust, Megan E. Chaille, Amber F. Huff, Madison Crist, & Grace Klosterman

Abstract

“Self-care” has become a buzz-word in the last few years, but there is extensive research supporting the need for individuals to dedicate time to engage in activities designed to increase individual well-being and reduce stress and symptoms of burnout. Seventy-seven academic advisors at Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) completed the “Help Us, Help Students” survey which examined advisors’ work and self-care activities during the COVID-19 global pandemic. As the COVID-19 pandemic emerged, advisors took their roles to the virtual platform and experienced many benefits and challenges associated with working from home. Through this survey, researchers collected information about advisors’ work-from-home experiences and analyzed the frequency and change of 13 self-care activities during three time periods in 2020: prior to, during, and just after the 100% remote work time period. Results indicated that advisors engaged in more self-care activities and that they engaged in those activities more frequently during the time they were working entirely from home as compared with when they were working on campus. Advisors also discussed their preferences and levels of comfort in returning to campus or requesting flexible work arrangements from their supervisors. This paper also considers limitations for future research.

Keywords academic advising, well-being, advising practices, advisor self-care, working remotely

Ashley H. Burelison serves as an academic advisor in the School of Health & Human Sciences. She advises current IUFW and IUPUI students in the Department of Health Sciences. She also supports orientation efforts, teaches a first-year seminar, and is a member of the Jaguar Academic Advising Association. Burelison graduated from IUPUI with a B.A. in Psychology in 2013 and received her M.S. in Higher Education and Student Affairs in 2016 at Indiana University. She also holds a certificate in Family Life Education from the IU School of Social Work, is a certified success coach through Inside Track, and is currently pursuing her Ph.D. in Higher Education through Indiana University.

Matthew M. Rust serves as Senior Executive Director for Campus Career and Advising Services at IUPUI leading training and professional development, technology implementation, outcomes assessment, and internship best practices coordination. He also oversees a portfolio of advising and career education units in University College. Rust earned a BA from Butler University, an MS in College Student Personnel from Miami University, and a JD cum laude from North Carolina Central University. Rust is a past member of the NACADA Journal editorial board and currently serves on the governance committee for the Institute for Workforce Excellence with the Indiana Chamber of Commerce.

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Burelison, Rust Chaille, Huff, Crist, & Klosterman

Megan E. Chaille earned her Bachelor of Arts in Psychology and Law and Society from Purdue University in 2002 and her Master of Science in Social Work from the University of Texas at Austin in 2005. She currently serves as a Student Success Advisor for Exploratory students in University College at IUPUI.

Amber Huff, a Michigan native, earned her bachelor’s degree in Psychology: Behavioral Sciences and Anthropology from Western Michigan University and M.Ed. in College Student Affairs Leadership from Grand Valley State University. Amber Huff has over five years of experience in transfer advising and transition programming at a community college and large, public four-year institution as well as transfer management for Indiana University system-wide. She is also the co-author of “Supporting Transitions from a Community College to a 4-year Institution” in Applying Student Development Theories Holistically and a “Passport to Successful Transfer Appreciative Advising”.

Madison Crist earned a Bachelor of Science in Nutrition, Bachelor of Arts in Sociology, and minors in Psychology and Women’s Studies from Indiana University of Pennsylvania. She then earned a Master of Arts in Student Affairs in Higher Education from Indiana University of Pennsylvania. Madison currently serves as a Student Success Advisor for Health and Life Science students in University College at IUPUI.

Grace Klosterman earned a Bachelor of Arts in Philosophy and minors in Anthropology and Political Science from Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI). She then earned a Master of Arts in Philosophy from IUPUI. Grace currently serves as a Student Success Advisor for Enterprise, Policy, and Planning students in University College at IUPUI.

Suggested citation: Burelison, A. H., Rust, M. M., Chaille, M. E., Huff, A. F., Crist, M, & Klosterman, G. (2021). Help us, help students: Supporting advisors during COVID-19. Journal of the Student Personnel Association at Indiana University, 98-107.

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SPA Journal at IU Spring 2021 Edition

Help Us, Help Students: Supporting Advisors During COVID-19

This paper presents findings from a survey developed by the Research and Assessment Committee of the Jaguar Academic Advising Association (JACADA) on the Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) campus. In Fall 2019, the last regular semester before the global COVID-19 pandemic, IUPUI enrolled 19,098 undergraduate students, 8,286 at the graduate level. The first-time, full time undergraduate student class consisted of 3,674 students with 39.8% Pell eligible, 28.2% being first in their family to attend college, 8.9% Black/African American, and 13.6% Hispanic/Latino. Only 2% of undergraduates were enrolled in online programs (defined as 75% or more of instruction being carried out remotely). Academic advising at IUPUI is typically carried out by professional or primary role advisors and—prior to the COVID-19 pandemic—work-from-home arrangements for advisors were extremely rare. Though there is some central coordination of campus- wide advising initiatives, advisors report organizationally to directors or assistant/associate deans within academic units including degree-granting schools, university college, and the honors college. To investigate the challenges, benefits, habits, and perceptions of academic advisors that were developing because of work-from-home conditions during the COVID-19 pandemic, the JACADA Research and Assessment Committee developed a mixed methods survey. The research team consisted of four full-time academic advisors across two units on campus, a Project Management Specialist with the University Transfer Office whose previous role was in academic advising, and the Senior Executive Director of Campus Career and Advising Services. All are members of JACADA and chose to participate on the Research and Assessment Committee for their own personal interest and professional development. The mixed methods survey created by the Research and Assessment Committee members represents a cross-sectional, exploratory study of how work conditions contribute to levels of satisfaction in the work of academic advising. Specifically, the study explored these three research questions: • What, if any, benefits and challenges did advisors experience during the 100% remote work time period related to their remote work environment, health issues, care-taking responsibilities, and basic needs? • How did advisors’ frequency of engagement in self-care activities change during the 100% remote work time period? • What would advisors like to see with their work arrangements (schedule and location) in the future, given what they experienced in the 100% remote work time period? The COVID-19 pandemic forced 91% of students in universities, colleges, and schools to continue their education online (Abumalloh et al., 2021). The entirety of IUPUI’s student population was included in this effort to slow the spread of the disease. In a survey by the International Association of Universities, “almost 80% of respondents believe that COVID-19 will have an impact on the enrollment numbers for the new academic year” (Marinoni et al., 2020). This widespread shift to an online and work- from-home environment was unprecedented and its impact not yet researched. Guiding our research questions, was the work of He et al. (2020) for assessing advisor beliefs, practices, and perceptions of well-being. They believe an, “advisors' self-evaluation of their beliefs, practices, and well-being is an integral part of the systematic assessment process of academic advising” (p. 1). Students expect “empathy, genuine care, and compassion” from their advisor(s) but academic advisors may begin to experience emotional, physical, and spiritual exhaustion from constantly witnessing and absorbing the difficulties of students” (Ali & Johns, 2018). The need for basic self-care is a “basic human element of well-being” and includes the “basic foundations of physical, spiritual, intellectual, psychological/emotional, social, familial, occupational, and financial well-being” (Goldberg, 2013). Further, research by Skovholt et al. (2001) focused on the importance of self-care for individuals in helping professions to prevent burnout. “Along with professional self-care, personal self-care is vital to professional stamina. Balancing the four personal dimensions of wellness—physical, spiritual, emotional,

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and social—is paramount. Counselors need to be assertive about their wellness” (Skovholt et al., 2001, p. 174). The JACADA Research and Assessment Committee analyzed the frequency and change of 13 self-care activities during three time periods in 2020 to see how habits have changed. In addition to contributing to the literature around advisors’ experiences in the profession, this study resulted in a report to advising leaders and campus administration to help inform future decisions around flexible work arrangements that might be considered as part of post-pandemic campus operations.

Methods

The Methods section summarizes the researchers design of the survey instrument, data collection and analysis, and the participants. You will see data collection began in the fall 2020 semester, but the inception of this research study started in the summer of 2020. The analyses of data concluded in January 2021.

Survey Instrument

We designed an online survey using Qualtrics software and included five sections: (a) demographic and other participant information including age, gender, race, personality (extraversion), living arrangements, and job responsibilities, (b) challenges of working remotely, (c) benefits of working remotely, (d) engagement in self-care activities, and (e) levels of satisfaction with work-life experiences. Each section contained both quantitative and qualitative items. Quantitative items included multiple selection (challenges/benefits), a frequency scale (self-care), and a 6-point Likert-style scale (satisfaction). Some of these sections were adapted from other existing instruments such as the Student COVID-19 Transition Needs Survey (Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, 2020) and the IUPUI Wellness Wheel (Toler & Briscoe, 2018). The Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (2020) Student COVID-19 Transition Needs Survey asked students about major disruptions and challenges experienced during the COVID-19 pandemic. They were given multiple selection options for potential challenges as well as an open-ended response item. The challenges and benefits sections of the survey instrument designed for this research was made similarly but tailored to challenges and benefits we thought would occur more frequently of staff. The self-care activity options were developed around the IUPUI Wellness Wheel and the eight (8) dimensions of wellness (Toler & Briscoe, 2018). To enhance the interpretation of quantitative data, each section included opportunities for additional, open comments. There were many times advisors were asked to reflect on time periods prior to the administration of the survey. We defined those time periods as (a) prior to, or pre-, COVID meaning before mid-March 2020, (b) during the 100% remote work time period for all advisors meaning mid-March through July 2020, and (c) after the 100% remote work time period ended for many advisors, or August and beyond.

Data Collection and Analysis

The committee used a convenience sample and administered this survey via the IUPUI advising listserv from September 24, 2020 through October 30, 2020. The data were analyzed in multiple phases: (a) quantitative data were analyzed using ANOVA for comparison of self-care habits in three time periods and independent t-tests were used for Likert scale questions and comparing to the varying demographic information, (b) qualitative data were analyzed by each committee member and then coded for themes, (c) mixed methods were used to combine quantitative data with supporting qualitative data, and (d) a second JACADA committee (Campus Affairs) reviewed the data for additional observations and questions for administrators to consider. For context, the JACADA Campus Affairs committee was included because

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SPA Journal at IU Spring 2021 Edition those members will use the report to inform the general advising membership and discuss programming around the common themes that were found and/or still need addressed.

Participants

In total, 77 advisors completed the survey representing a 50-60% response rate given the estimated total number of professional and faculty advisors across IUPUI’s campus. Of those respondents, 82% identified as female, almost half were Millennial or Gen Z (birth years of 1981-2012), and over 84% identified as white. Most respondents (84%) stated they worked zero days/week remotely pre-COVID. One-third (33%) reported 81-100% of their job duties were directly related to advising, closely followed by 23.4% with 62-80% of their responsibilities related to advising and 20.8% with 41- 60% of their work related to advising. Just over half stated their average advising caseload was 151-300 students with another 30% advising smaller caseloads. Advising caseloads primarily consisted of undergraduates, freshman through senior, but a quarter of respondents advised at least some graduate- level students. Almost 55% worked as a professional/advisor for more than 5 years, and 40% teach alongside their advising duties.

Results The Results section summarizes the main points of the research questions: challenges, benefits, frequency of engagement in self-care activities, and desired work arrangements. Tables are provided for viewing some of the raw quantitative data. Qualitative data are included in some sections to provide a rich connection of advisor comments to their expressed activities.

Challenges

Remote work challenges due to COVID-19 included items related to work environment, health, caretaking, and basic needs. When asked about challenges associated with their home work environment during the 100% remote work period (mid-March through July 2020), approximately 70% of respondents reported feeling disconnected from colleagues; followed by distractions at home (51%), feeling disconnected from students/advisees (50%) and needing to purchase additional equipment to complete job functions (47%). Only 65% of advisors used a university-issued computer/device while working remotely. When asked about challenges related to health, caretaking, and basic needs during the 100% remote work period: 33% of advisors noted they had dependents at home due to school/daycare closures, 22% experienced financial challenges, and over 20% cited the lack of a personal support system and other mental health issues, respectively. Over three-quarters of respondents indicated an increase in stress/anxiety between March and July.

Benefits and Self-Care Activities

Overall, advisors engaged in more self-care activities such as eating healthier, taking short breaks, and exercising during the work from home period of mid-March through July 2020 as compared to both before and after. That is, in general, advisors reported peaking in self-care activities during the 100% remote work period. Of the 13 activities measured, 10 of those healthy habits saw an increase between the “Prior” and “During” periods while the three areas of professional development, socializing/connecting with family and/or friends, and attending a place of worship decreased. More detailed data are presented in Table 1. In examining the quantities of self-care activities engaged in, there were two populations of advisors where these activities did not peak during the 100% remote work period. Advisors of color reported continued increases in self-care activities both during and after the remote work period. Additionally, advisors of color reported the single greatest increase (average of 6.08 activities per week

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Table 1 Means for Rates of Engagement in Individual Self-Care Activities from the time periods (1) Prior to mid- March (labeled Prior), (2) mid-March to July (labeled During), and (3) August and beyond (labeled After). Rate Prior to Rate During Rate After Remote Work Remote Work Remote Work Physical activity/Exercise 3.35 3.52 3.47 Meditation 1.14 1.39 1.27 Therapy 0.32 0.43 0.35 Artistic expression (e.g. journaling, 1.29 1.94 1.81 music, creating art) Healthy eating habits/hydration 3.94 4.04 3.88

Rate Prior to Rate During Rate After Remote Work Remote Work Remote Work Adequate sleep (at least 6-8 hours of 3.91 4.17 3.94 sleep/night) Taking short breaks during work hours 3.39 4.22 3.86 Brain stimulating activities (e.g. puzzle, 2.52 3.23 2.90 chess)/ Reading Professional development 1.51 1.49 1.39 Socializing/connecting with family 3.30 2.66 2.74 and/or friends Attending a place of worship 1.16 0.32 0.42 Spending time outdoors 3.12 4.09 3.68 Practical activities (e.g. setting out 3.66 3.82 3.62 clothes, meal prep…) Other 0.09 0.10 0.01

Note. To analyze how advisors changed the rates in which they engaged in self-care activities, their answers to the self-care items in all three time periods (prior, during, and after remote work) were recoded as follows: Blank and N/A choices = 0, Once a month = 1, 2-3 times a month = 2, Once a week = 3, 2-3 times a week = 4, Daily = 5 prior to remote work and 8.67 after the 100% remote work period) in total self-care activities engaged in weekly (Table 2). The second population to not report a peak in self-care during the remote work period was the 43% of participants with one or more minor dependents living at home during the remote working period, who averaged just over seven self-care activities per week, a decrease from pre-COVID results (Table 2). While we have included the data for “After” the return from remote work, it was not strongly analyzed and will be discussed in the limitations section. Instead, the use of qualitative data supported the advisor change from the first time period to the second. Two examples of connections made in the qualitative data were the advisor comments: • “I gained ten hours a week when we began working remotely… I have used that time for improving my diet and [exercising] more than I have in years.” • “Not [having] a commute has significantly improved my energy levels and mood. I now spend that time going for a walk.”

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Table 2 Total Number of Self-Care Activities (out of 13, excluding “Other”) Engaged in at Least Weekly by Demographic (Suppressing or aggregating groups with fewer than 5 respondents)

Total Prior to Total During Total After Remote Work Remote Work Remote Work Female (63) 6.97 7.73 7.41 Male (11) 7.09 7.27 7.27 Millennial or Gen Z – born 1981 6.76 7.84 7.47 or later (38) Gen X or Baby Boomer – born 7.38 7.46 7.36 prior to 1981 (39) White (65) 7.26 7.55 7.18 Person of Color (12) 6.08 8.17 8.67 Strongly extraverted (11) 7.73 6.55 6.73 Slightly more extraverted (11) 6.55 8.82 8.00 Ambivert (13) 6.85 7.85 8.08 Slightly more introverted (26) 7.45 7.42 7.65 Strongly introverted (16) 6.56 7.81 6.56 Has Minor Dependents Living at 7.39 7.15 7.39 Home (33) Does not Have Minor Dependents 6.84 8.02 7.43 at Home (44) TOTAL (77) 7.08 7.65 7.42

Note. To analyze how advisors changed the quantity of self-care activities they engaged in at least weekly, their answers to the self-care items in all three time periods (prior, during, and after remote work) were recoded as follows: Blank and N/A choices = 0, Once a month = 0, 2-3 times a month = 0, Once a week = 1, 2-3 times a week = 1, Daily = 1. Three calculated variables were then created to represent the sum of all activities engaged in at least weekly during each time period.

Desired Work Arrangements

In the future, advising leaders and campus administration will need to determine the protocol for advisors to return to campus safely in a more full-time capacity. Post-pandemic operations are likely to be different, and most survey respondents (66%) are hopeful for a hybrid work schedule in their new normal. In open-ended comments, these respondents identified their ideal work schedule to include working remotely 2-3 days a week. Advisors placed a high value on the option of continued flexible schedules and remote work to maintain increased work-life balance and productivity (17 comments), improved job satisfaction (29 comments) and mental health (20 comments), and flexible student meeting options (17 comments). It was made clear by qualitative data that an advisor’s personal life greatly intertwines with their professional role. The experiences they had and ways they were able to serve students during the 100% remote work period had perceived benefits to their students. For example, one advisor stated, “With an ideal schedule, I would be retained for the long term. If I can continue to adjust my schedule around my family's schedule, the flexibility would be the key to a happy, healthy, productive employee.” The option to continue flexible work schedules was of value to advisors personally and professionally. Because the IUPUI campus is decentralized, it may be the decision of individual units to implement and approve remote work options. This may pose challenges for some advisors, specifically

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those whose birth year puts them in the “Millennial” and “Gen Z” generations (as compared to those in Gen X and Baby Boomers) and those who identified as female. These groups reported significantly lower levels of comfort with approaching their supervisor to request remote work options and to modify their work schedule to continue healthy habits developed during COVID-19 remote work. Conversely, advisors who are caring for minor dependents at home felt more comfort in seeking accommodations to their schedule.

Additional Highlights

Other highlights that were presented to campus leadership included: • “Advising is teaching” is not just a slogan. 40% of advisors indicated a teaching component to their job duties. It is reasonable to extrapolate that, in addition to learning to advise remotely, advisors were also learning to teach effectively online during the March-August time period. • Technology to support remote work was inconsistent across advisors. 84% had reliable high-speed internet, but only 65% of advisors were using an IU-issued computer/device. It is also notable that only one-third of advisors had dual monitors to use during the remote work period. • Regarding what they need to feel more supported when working remotely, advisors desired: having office-equivalent technology (computer, dual monitors, improved internet) (29 comments); basing supervision on trust and support (10 comments); and communicating more regularly with colleagues (10 comments). 18 felt supported already. • To feel better supported when working on campus, advisors desired: Addressing health/safety concerns (12 comments); and flexing work schedule (7 comments). 11 felt supported already.

Limitations and Future Research

Advisors at IUPUI, for the most part, are still operating in the mindset and habits of the “During” remote work time period. As such, it may be of interest to reassess these measures when work-life truly returns to a semblance of pre-COVID. If further research is to be conducted, there are several limitations worth noting: • “After” period was not truly indicative of a return to campus. At the time of survey construction and administration, campus directives suggested a return to in-person work. This looked very different for each unit and varied from zero days in-office per week, to 1-2 days in office, to spending one week on campus and two weeks working remotely. The “After” data should be analyzed with caution knowing many advisor circumstances may not have changed while others may have been more impacted. • Rate of engagement on self-care activities should be rescaled to include a true zero. A N/A option was included but a true zero was not considered until after responses were received. An option of N/A could imply respondents were incapable of doing that activity, thus it did not apply to them. A true zero option would better distinguish between respondents who chose not to engage in activities from advisors who felt the activity simply was not applicable to their experience. • Likert scale question measuring “Level of Satisfaction” should indicate positive or negative. The wording of this option simply asked if the level had changed but did not indicate for the better or worse. A separate qualitative response item allowed advisors to describe how their work-life satisfaction changed. Although one can make inferences, it does not provide a definitive statistic for use in the report.

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• Results may not be generalizable due to sampling. A convenience sample was used for a group of advisors at one institution identified as a large, urban, research, public, and 4-year institution. One must note the campus is decentralized and units have the ability to make varying decisions when it comes to staffing. The results at IUPUI may not be generalizable to other campuses but could benefit those looking to survey their own staff members.

Conclusion

The results of this survey suggest the importance of self-care and more flexible advising services which benefit advisors. As such, it is important for there to be an ongoing conversation amongst advisors, advising supervisors, and campus leadership about continuing remote work options in the future. Many advisors noted improvements to mental health related to more flexible schedules, which could retain advisors in their positions and allow them to continue meaningful relationships with their students. It will be crucial for supervisors and advisors to have conversations around self-care and flexible advising opportunities proactively, to meet the needs of both students and staff in an evolving higher education landscape.

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References Abumalloh, R., Alghamdi, A., Azzam, N., & Abdulraheem, A. (2021). Management of academic advising in higher educational institutions during COVID-19 pandemic. Management Science Letters, 11(5), 1659-1666. 10.5267/j.msl.2020.12.006 Ali, M., & Johns, S. (2018). Compassion fatigue and self-care for academic advisors. Academic Advising Today, 41(4). Goldberg, S. (2013). Self-care toolkit. Social Work Manager. https://socialworkmanager.org/wp- content/uploads/2017/10/Selfcare-toolkit.pdf He, Y., Bryant, H. L., Bloom, J. L., & Propst Cuevas, A. (2020). Advisor beliefs, practices, and perceptions of well-being: Development of an advisor self-evaluation instrument. NACADA Journal, 40(1) 23-35. https://doi.org/10.12930/NACADA-18-02 Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis. (2020). IUPUI student COVID-19 transition needs survey. [Unpublished manuscript]. Institutional Research and Decision Support. Marinoni, G., Van’t Land, H., & Jensen, T. (2020). The impact of Covid-19 on higher education around the world. IAU Global Survey Report. Skovholt, T. M., Grier, T. L., & Hanson, M. R. (2001). Career counseling for longevity: Self-care and burnout prevention strategies for counselor resilience. Journal of Career Development, 27(3), 167-176. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007830908587 Toler, A., & Briscoe, B. (2018, January 17). Series: IU experts share tips on the 8 dimensions of wellness. News at IU. https://news.iu.edu/stories/2018/01/iu/inside/17-eight-dimensions-of-wellness.html

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Free Tuition in Higher Education

Jaelyn Millon

Abstract

Given the context of higher education institutions more consistently raising their tuition fees, this essay seeks to examine whether college tuition ought to be free or if making college tuition free is unfeasible. Though some individuals argue that it is impossible for society to relieve itself completely of the inequity of access to education, many others have sought various solutions that may help to resolve this issue. One solution to this problem is to increase the size of Pell Grants to give many more students the opportunity to attend and receive a degree from an institution of higher education.

Keywords

Free college tuition

Jaelyn Millon (she/her/hers) earned her Bachelor of Arts in Spanish with Chemistry and Biology minors at Hanover College. At Indiana University-Bloomington, Jaelyn earned her Master of Education in Higher Education and Student Affairs with a certificate in College Pedagogy and served as a Graduate Supervisor with Residential Programs and Services. Additionally, Jaelyn completed a practicum as the Bias Response Assistant and served as a Title IX Hearing Panelist.

Suggested citation: Millon, J. (2021). Insert title of the article. Journal of the Student Personnel Association at Indiana University,108-110.

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Over time, higher educational institutions have been exponentially raising their tuition prices. These institutions are becoming more dependent on college tuition income so that the budgets it takes to operate an institution can become more balanced (Rusk & Leslie, 1978). The controversy of making higher education at public institutions free is a prevalent topic of debate in the United States, especially in democratic debates. For example, Elizabeth Warren argues not only that public college tuition should be free, but also that student debt should be cancelled (Kreighbaum, 2019). Many opponents to free college tuition do not believe that making such a drastic change in the public education system would be fiscally feasible, while proponents charge administrational leaders to make their schools more equitable for students of all socioeconomic backgrounds. To fully understand this problem, one must recognize how the United States made it to the position that it is in now. Rosenberg (2019) very strongly believes that given the complexity of issues such as racism and policy, wealthy individuals are favored; thus, “there is no simple way to deal with the problem of inequality of access to education in the United States” (para. 13). Winograd & Staisloff (2016) also raise some concerns about making public higher education tuition free. They urge that although such a policy change would call for more “streamlined and efficient administrative services,” this change would result in a lack of small class settings, “fewer degree programs. . . [and] less research at non- research institutions” (p. 981). Davidson (2015) even proposes that a potential solution to these access difficulties, specifically at elite institutions, would be to raise tuition prices since the money that wealthy students provide from paying full tuition allows for more aid. Essentially, these individuals argue that free tuition would do an exceptionally larger amount of harm than good. Winograd and Staisloff (2016) suggest that there is no better time than now to make college tuition free, so that the United States can prepare to have competent individuals in the workforce. They express that such a change would require a major investment by the government; however, “America has always used government resources to provide sufficient funds to those willing and able to acquire the skills and knowledge they need to be successful” (Winograd & Staisloff, 2016, p. 981). They continue this point by stating that the United States would benefit from the expansion of state funds from primary and secondary to post-secondary education. Ultimately, this argument not only focuses on the positive outcome for students who were not previously afforded the opportunity to even consider attending college, but also preparing the future generation to be the leaders of the United States. Dynarski et al. (2018) also present a study that shows that the cost of tuition may explain the gap between high- achieving, low-income students compared to high-achieving, upper-income students. One way to close this tangible, extreme gap would be to alleviate the financial burden of college tuition. Access to a collegiate education should not be limited simply to students who have the financial means of paying for the increasingly high tuition rates. I believe that to make education a more equitable and attainable system for folks with financial difficulties, these financial boundaries should be alleviated. This would allow a wider variety of individuals to have the opportunity to attend college, should they choose to explore this option. While some individuals are concerned that making public higher education tuition free will harm students by creating worse learning environments, the United States education system is not equitable and does not give all students a fair chance at receiving a college education. Rosenberg (2019) mentions a proposal for a policy change that he believes is more feasible: increase the size of the federal Pell Grant (Rosenberg, 2019). Not only would increasing the Pell Grant make tuition much more affordable and feasible for students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds, but it would also be a cheaper solution compared to making college tuition free. The solution discussed, or solutions like it, will help the education system in the United States become more equitable, thus, alleviating some of the financial and emotional burdens of students who desire to complete post-secondary education.

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References Davidson, A. (2015). Is college tuition really too high? The New York Times Company. https://www.educationexchangeltd.org/documents/Is%20College%20Tuition%20Really%20Too %20High_%20NYT.pdf Dynarski, S., Michelmore, K., Libassi, C., & Owen, S. (2018). Closing the gap: The effect of a targeted, tuition-free promise on college choices of high-achieving, low-income students. National Bureau of Economic Research. https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w25349/w25349.pdf Kreighbaum, A. (2019). Democratic contenders draw contrasts on free college, student debt. Inside Higher Ed. https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2019/06/28/democratic-contenders-draw- contrasts-free-college-student-debt#.XaN2yPaPGG0.link. Rosenberg, B. (2019). Free public college is a terrible idea. The Chronicle of Higher Education. https://www.chronicle.com/article/Free-Public-College-Is-a/247134?cid=wcontentgrid_40_2 Rusk, J., & Leslie, L. (1978). The setting of tuition in public higher education. The Journal of Higher Education, 49(6), 531-547. doi:10.2307/1981138 Winograd, M., & Staisloff, R. (2016). Student debt. CQ Researcher, 26(41), 965-988. https://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/document.php?id=cqresrre2016111806

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Guns on College Campuses

Jaelyn Millon

Abstract

Given the context of the gun violence crisis in the United States, this essay seeks to examine whether colleges ought to allow guns on campus or if they should ban them across the country’s college institutions. Though some individuals argue that it is a violation of a student’s constitutional right to not allow a gun on the college campus they attend, many others have provided data regarding the increased risk of violence if guns are allowed on campus. Although individuals should be able to maintain their constitutional rights while they are students, college campuses must also weigh the risks versus benefits of allowing guns on campus and ultimately select the option that most proactively prevents violence on college campuses.

Keywords

Guns on College Campuses

Jaelyn Millon (she/her/hers) earned her Bachelor of Arts in Spanish with Chemistry and Biology minors at Hanover College. At Indiana University-Bloomington, Jaelyn earned her Master of Education in Higher Education and Student Affairs with a certificate in College Pedagogy and served as a Graduate Supervisor with Residential Programs and Services. Additionally, Jaelyn completed a practicum as the Bias Response Assistant and served as a Title IX Hearing Panelist.

Suggested citation: Millon, J., (2020). Guns on College Campuses. Journal of the Student Personnel Association at Indiana University, 111-113.

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The United States of America is in a crisis when it comes to gun violence. There have been several campus shootings that have occurred in quite a short amount of time (Defilippis & Hughes, 2015). Although it is a United States citizen’s federal right to carry a gun, many instances of gun violence and mass shootings have forced states to consider whether they will implement legislation that will make guns on college campuses prohibited (National Conference of State Legislatures, 2018). Opponents of banning guns on campuses believe that doing so will do more harm than good due to the inconsistency of campus versus federal laws (Russell, 2015). Contrastingly, proponents of banning guns on campuses argue that many negative outcomes will result from permitting guns on campus, including the increased risk of violence (Lyons, 2017). People who believe that guns should be permitted may argue that restricting students from this freedom only sets these students up for failure once they graduate college and enter the world as an educated adult (Newbern, 2017). They argue that a person would be less prepared to defend themselves using guns once they exit the higher education environment if they are banned from carrying during this phase of their lives. Currently, there is only one state in the United States that prevents individuals from carrying concealed weapons so long as these individuals meet certain qualifications. Proponents of guns on campuses also argue that the federal law is in place in order to allow folks to protect themselves and that college campuses should not be treated differently from the rest of the country’s laws. Thus, these individuals do not see the justness of banning guns on college campuses. Many opponents to gun bans stand behind their constitutional right to bear arms (U.S. Const. Amend. II). They do not find reasoning in excluding this right in a collegiate setting. Conversely, proponents of gun bans from college campuses argue that permitting guns on campus would result in multiple negative effects. For instance, Andy Pelosi argues that there would not only be an increased “risk of violence but [would] also impose an unfunded mandate on colleges” (Lyons, 2017, p. 6). These individuals argue that in addition to a student’s well-being and safety being inherently put into danger, there is also fiscal and emotional damage that can occur. For example, campuses would have to uphold constant training in the case of an active shooter on campus (Jarvis, 2019). An additional concern is that the normalization of mass shootings has negatively impacted the emotional health of students (Jarvis, 2019). Finally, proponents of gun bans may also argue that allowing guns on college campuses will cause for a dynamic change in the classroom (Nguyen, 2016). Allowing guns on campus may likely result in an increased power dynamic between folks who have guns and those who do not. This might make already potentially heightened class discussions lead to a dangerous outcome. Although it is the constitutional right for United States citizens to carry a gun, I argue that this law should not influence collegiate institutions due to the current climate in the United States and the negative risk factors. Allowing guns on college campuses will likely make for a more dangerous classroom and residential hall setting given the increased chance of accidental or impulsive campus shootings (Nguyen, 2016). I believe that college campuses should abide by students’ constitutional rights; however, the current state of the United States of America allows me to believe that the risks outweigh the positive aspects of allowing guns on campus. Banning guns on campuses would help to not only promote a healthy campus but may also help the United States move towards a safer country with a greater emphasis on regulation.

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References

Defilippis, E. & Hughes, D. (2015). The numbers on arming college students shows risks outweigh benefits. https://www.thetrace.org/2015/11/campus-carry-risk/

Jarvis, W. (2019). The new norm for back to school: active-shooter-response training. The Chronicle of Higher Education.

Lyons, C. (2017). Guns on campus. CQ researcher, 27, 73-96. http://library.cqpress.com/ National Conference of State Legislatures. (2018, August 14). Guns on Campus: Overview. http://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/document.php?id=cqresrre2017012700

Newbern, M. (2017). Would legalizing guns on campus make colleges safer? http://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/document.php?id=cqresrre2017012706

Nguyen, H. (2016). Campus carry: the debate of 2nd amendment rights vs. campus safety. Highereducationlaw.org - HigherEducationLaw - Campus Carry: The Debate of 2nd Amendment Rights vs. Campus Safety

Russell, J. (2015). Should guns be allowed on campus? The Washington Examiner. https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/should-guns-be-allowed-on-college- campuses

U.S. Const. Amend. II. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/United_States_of_America_1992

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To contact the editors, please email [email protected]