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Review of Control Methods Against the Palm Borers Rhynchophorus

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Review of Control Methods Against the Palm Borers Rhynchophorus Review of control methods against the palm borers Rhynchophorus ferrugineus (Olivier) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) and Paysandisia archon (Burmeister) (Lepidoptera: Castniidae) This review was written with support from the European Community’s Seventh Framework Programme under grant agreement No. FP7 KBBE 2011-5-289566 (PALM PROTECT): Eradication and containment strategies and tools for the implementation of EU legislation against the red palm weevil Rhynchophorus ferrugineus (Olivier) and Paysandisia archon (Burmeister). AUTHORS O. Dembilio1, N. Audsley2, Y. Cohen3, S. Colazza4, N. Isidoro5, F. Karamaouna6, D. Kontodimas6, V. Navarro-Llopis7, E. Peri4, E. Quesada-Moraga8, P. Riolo5, D. Rochat9, V. Soroker3 and JA Jacas1 1Universitat Jaume I; Unitat Associada d’Entomologia Agrícola UJI-IVIA; Campus del Riu Sec; E-12071-Castelló de la Plana (Spain) 2The Food and Environmental Research Agency; Sand Hutton; York; YO41 1LZ (United Kingdom) 3Agricultural Research Organization; The Volcani Centre; POB 6; Bet Dagan; 50250 (Israel) 4Università degli Studi di Palermo; Dipartimento DEMETRA; Palermo (Italy) 5Università Politecnica delle Marche; Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie, Alimentari ed Ambientali, Facoltà di Agraria; via Brecce Bianche; 60131 Ancona (Italy) 6Benaki Phytopathological Institute; Laboratory of Agricultural Entomology; Department of Entomology and Agricultural Zoology; 8 St. Delta Str.; GR-145 61; Kifissia (Greece) 7Universidad Politécnica de Valencia; CEQA-IAM; Camino de Vera s/n; Edificio 6C-5ª; 46022- Valencia, Spain 8Universidad de Córdoba; Departamento de Ciencias y Recursos Agrícolas y Forestales; Edificio C4; Campus de Rabanales; 14071 Córdoba (Spain) 9Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique; UMR 1272; RD 10; 78026 Versailles (France) Date of review: September 2012 1. INTRODUCTION The red palm weevil, Rhynchophorus ferrugineus (Olivier) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), and the moth Paysandisia archon (Burmeister) (Lepidoptera: Castniidae) are currently considered as the most damaging invasive palm pests worldwide. Both spread extensively from their origin by trading of palm trees and offshoots from infested areas. The larvae of both R. ferrugineus and P. archon are the main damaging stage, boring into palm trees and feeding on the succulent plant material of stipes and/or leaves, remaining hidden through most of their life cycles. The first symptoms are often only visible long after infestation. At that stage damage is severe, generally resulting in the death of the palm (Ferry & Gomez, 2002; Faleiro, 2006; EPPO, 2008a; b; Faleiro et al., 2012). 1.1 The Red Palm Weevil, Rhynchophorus ferrugineus Rhynchophorus ferrugineus is native to southern Asia and Melanesia, and is reported to attack more than 20 species of palms worldwide (Wattanapongsiri, 1966; Sarto i Monteys & Aguilar, 2005; Faleiro, 2006; EPPO, 2008a; b; Dembilio et al., 2009; Malumphy & Moran,2009; Dembilio & Jacas, 2010; Dembilio & Jacas, 2012), including date (Phoenix dactylifera L.), and coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) palms, as well as the Mediterranean fan palm (Chamaerops humilis L.), the native Cretan date palm (Phoenix theophrasti Greuter) [Kontodimas et al., 2006; Dembilio et al., 2011] and Canary Islands date palm (Phoenix canariensis hort. ex. Chabaud) (Dembilio et al., 2009). Currently, this pest has spread to many areas worldwide; its range now includes much of Asia, regions of Oceania, the Middle-East and North Africa, southern Europe, the Caribbean, and in October 2010, five specimens belonging to the genus Rhynchophorus sp., were found in southern California (EPPO 2008; 2009; 2011). The high rate of spread of R. ferrugineus is most likely due to a combination of factors, including the lack of effective early detection methods. The transportation of infested date palm trees and offshoots from contaminated to uninfested areas has had a major impact. In Europe, many preventative and curative procedures have been implemented with variable degrees of success to eradicate and contain R. ferrugineus (Buyukozturk et al., 2011; Dembilio & Jacas, 2011; Jacas et al., 2011; Nardi et al., 2011; Tapia et al., 2011), but these have been hampered by environmental concerns related to the use of pesticides and legislation restricting their use such as EU Directives 91/414 and 2009/128/EC establishing a framework for Community action to achieve the sustainable use of pesticides. Many cities also tend to develop a ‘zero pesticides’ policy, which complicates the management of the palm weevil. This is compounded by the fact that most of the pest life cycle is endophytic, concealed deep within the palm stipe and leaf bases, thereby limiting effective delivery of pesticides, (Llácer et al., 2010). 1.2 The Castniid Palm Borer, Paysandisia archon The moth P. archon inhabits extensive open areas where wild palms grow in its native regions of South America. It was first reported in Europe in France and Spain in 2001, but is believed to have been introduced before 1995 on palm trees imported from Argentina (Reid & Moran, 2009). It has since spread to other European countries (France, Italy, Spain, Greece and Cyprus) with isolated reports in the UK, Bulgaria, Denmark, Slovenia, Switzerland and Czech Republic, on palms imported from Spain and Italy (Vassarmidaki et al., 2006; Rochat et al., 2006b; EPPO 2008b; 2009; Longo et al., 2008; Buhl et al., 2009; Vassiliou et al., 2009; EPPO, 2010; CABI, 2012). This pest appears to have a large host range, including the native Mediterranean fan palm which is very susceptible to P. archon attack. Although P. archon has not been reported to be a significant pest in South America, with the exception of reports from Buenos Aires (Sarto i Monteys & Aguilar, 2005), and rarely kills date or Canary palms, it has been the cause of serious damage and plant mortalities, mainly in ornamental palm nurseries, in France, Italy and Spain (Riolo et al., 2004; EPPO, 2008; Reid & Moran, 2010; CABI, 2012). It may also increase the risk of R. ferrugineus spread by creating primary damage to palm trees, which will attract the weevil and facilitate oviposition (Dembilio et al., 2009). In the absence of suitable control methods, this insect presents a risk, particularly to nursery and amenity palms throughout the Mediterranean region. 1.3 Current situation of palm borers in the Mediterranean Basin The economic impact of R. ferrugineus and P. archon is completely different. R. ferrugineus is a pest of economic importance worldwide (Faleiro, 2006; EPPO, 2008a) mainly due to its impact on agricultural important crops including date, and coconut palms and ornamentally important palms such as P. canariensis. Once infested by R. ferrugineus, palms often collapse or die because of extensive damage to the meristematic tissue in the crown or to the vascular system of the palm stipe and/or offshoots. However, palms in the early stages of attack can recover if adequately managed. The amount of information available on control methods against R. ferrugineus has been increasing exponentially during recent years. These methods include physico-mechanical, biotechnological, biotechnical, chemical, and biological controls (Faleiro 2006; EPPO 2008a). Conversely, P. archon is not economically important in South America, hence there is little published information available about this pest and no specific control measures against it have been developed with the exception of a specific protective birdlime evaluated mostly in France (Bourquin, 1933; Drescher & Dufay, 2002; Sarto i Monteys & Aguilar, 2005; EPPO, 2008b; Chapin & André, 2010; Peltier et al., 2010; Pérez et al., 2010). The non-pest statuts of P. archon in its native habitat suggests the existence of effective natural mechanisms of regulation that remain unknown. Under European conditions, Sarto i Monteys & Aguilar (2005) found three wild P. archon eggs with near-circular holes that could be bitten by oophagous parasitoids during emergence. Besides, the fact that P. archon needs to leave the palm stipe and fly during the adult stage, makes the early detection of this pest easier than that of R. ferrugineus. Containment and eradication measures against R. ferrugineus have been implemented in several countries including the EU (OJEU, 2007; 2008; 2009; 2010). Generally, official Plant Protection Agencies face difficulties in implementing compulsory measures against R. ferrugineus promptly because citizens, municipalities, nurseries, and other involved stakeholders frequently strongly oppose the cut and destroy of infested palm trees because of their economic (nurseries), touristic (municipalities) and emotional value (citizens), and because of the high cost of this measure (Nardi et al., 2011). Below we will discuss the pros and cons of the available control methods, mainly for R. ferrugineus. 2. CONTROL METHODS AGAINST PALM BORERS 2.1. Plant quarantine treatments As both R. ferrugineus and P. archon are invasive but well hidden within their host, quarantine is of high importance in controlling their spread. Both species are nowadays included in EPPO quarantine A2 list (EPPO, 2012) and although the establishment of a quarantine protocol within the EPPO region is not compulsory, it would be highly advisable. Nowadays, the EU requires complete physical protection for palms imported from infested areas during one year depending on the origin of this palms subsequent to their arrival into the EU. Only when these palms prove healthy during this confinement period, palms receive a plant passport and their movement
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