Armenia Became Independent in Late 1991, One of the Newly-Autonomous Nations Formed by the Dissolution of the Soviet Union

A r m e n i a

History and Overview

Potato was introduced to Eurasia from its Andean American center of origin via Western Europe, probably in the late sixteenth or early seventeenth century by mariners from Portugal, and subsequently other European countries. The diffusion of potato into the Caucasus region is not well documented, but probably occurred at various times via various routes. One possibility is via Persia (contemporary Iran), where documents refer to a presentation of potato to the Persian court by the British consul in the early nineteenth century (Laufer 1938), but this formal introduction does not preclude the likelihood of less formal migrations, a process probably still ongoing.

Armenia became independent in late 1991, one of the newly-autonomous nations formed by the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Armenia is small (slightly less than 30,000 square kilometers) and landlocked. However, the modern state occupies only part of historical Armenia, whose ancient centers were located in the valley of the Aras River and the region around Lake Van in Turkey (LOC: Society and Environment).

Independence initially brought arduous challenges, as the new nation had to adapt to a "stand alone" economy. Under the Soviet system, Armenia had developed an industrial sector, supplying manufactured goods to other Soviet territories in exchange for raw materials and energy. The agricultural system, characterized by specialized agro-industrial state holdings under the Soviet system, is being converted to smaller-scale private operations, initially in need of additional investment and updated technology (CIA Factbook).

The transition to independence of former Soviet territories also incited a latent conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan over Nagorno-Karabakh, a predominately Armenian-populated region assigned to Soviet Azerbaijan by Moscow in the 1920s (faintly visible on the map, page 5). Tension escalated as Soviet authority was weakening in the late 1980s, and Armenians in Karabakh demanded that their territory be transferred from Soviet Azerbaijan to Soviet Armenia. The dispute developed into a military conflict as both nations attained independence. By May 1994, when a cease-fire had been achieved, 20,000 people had been killed, and more than a million were displaced (de Waal 2019, p. 99). Both nations have suffered serious setbacks, and the conflict has not been resolved. Armenia has endured further isolation, as Turkey maintains an economic blockade in protest of Armenian occupation of what it regards as areas of Azerbaijan (CIA Factbook: Armenia, Transnational Issues). Armenia's only surface access to the world is via Georgia to the Black Sea, but even this route has been interrupted by Georgia's own traumas.

In October 2020, the dispute again escalated, resolved (in terms of immediate military conflict) as of March 2021.

• From Wikipedia: Nagorno- Karabakh Conflict.

• Chapter four of Thomas de Waal’s The Caucasus (2019) provides a concise history (20th and 21st centuries) of the conflict.

Through these events, Armenian agriculture (both crops and livestock) has faced enormous challenges. Wheat is essential, but domestic production is not nearly sufficient. Even in normal years, Armenia has to cover the shortfall by importing most of its wheat, roughly 500,000 tons, or 165 kilograms annually per capita (UNDP p. 33). The production of wheat remained fairly stable for several years, but the harvest in 2017 declined by almost half from the previous year. Harvests of grapes and other fruit, important as cash crops, declined sharply in the early years of independence absent assured markets and more expensive water via irrigation. (Armenia has long been renowned for the cognac produced by its grapes.)

• Hunger in Armenia (September 2018) is published by Borgen Magazine, citing data from several sources.

1 Agriculture as a share of the Armenian economy has been in overall decline, accounting for 37 per cent of gross domestic product (GDP) in 1994, but only 12 per cent in 2020 (Word Bank 2020: Armenia). Agriculture nonetheless remains a major source of employment, as of 2020 accounting for approximately 30 per cent of the labor force (World Bank: Employment in Agriculture, Armenia). Much of that employment, especially for potato cultivation, is of women. Perhaps it is no coincidence that many potato varieties cultivated in Armenia bear female names, as reported by JAMNews: Armenia’s Potato Queendom.

(Coffee break, from the JAMNews story)

Armenia's potato crop (the "second bread" of the Caucasus and Central Asia) has remained essential to its food security, by volume Armenia’s leading staple. From 1992 to 2014, per capita production increased from 90 to approximately 240 kilograms, very high by world standards (FAO). Production has since been in decline due mostly to factors affecting Armenia’s agriculture in general, including drought in some regions and shortages of production inputs. Potato yields have possibly suffered from the disruption of the formal seed system as a source of disease-free planting materials and new varieties, although it seems that potato (probably including seed potato) crosses borders even when they are officially blockaded. Potato retains a strong role in Armenia’s food security, as of October 2020 possibly more so if the conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan escalates further.

The challenges facing agriculture in Armenia are illustrated by the graph next page, based on data reported by FAOSTAT (accessed October 2020). Although harvested weight is a crude measure of nutritional or commercial value − a kilogram of walnuts is obviously far more valuable than a kilogram of watermelon − aggregated values nonetheless provide an indication of general trends.

Crops included in the graph (in addition to potato) are: • Cereals: wheat, barley, maize, oats, and rye. • Fruits, nuts, and tree crops: apples, apricots, figs, grapes, peaches and nectarines, pears, plums and sloes, walnuts, and watermelon. • Vegetables: beans, cabbage and other brassicas, carrots and turnips, cauliflower and broccoli, cucumbers and gherkins, garlic, mushrooms and truffles, onions, peas, and tomatoes.

Production Graphs

Production is displayed in metric tons, average yields in metric tons per hectare, and area harvested in hectares. All graphs indicate yields in tons per hectare, but the scale of other factors is adjusted for optimal display. Per capita production graphs display total production and population, with annual production per capita derived from those two values. Production per capita is displayed consistently by kilograms, but the scale of other factors is adjusted for display. Data are provided by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAOSTAT), accessed April 2021. (Potato production has apparently stabilized since the data reported through 2018, displayed above.)

Ge o g ra ph y and Areas of Cultivation

Physical Geography

Armenia is the most mountainous of the Caucasus republics, forming part of the Lesser Caucasus range extending also through parts of Georgia and Azerbaijan, a complex topography formed by geological upheavals beginning 25 million years ago. Roughly half the area of the country lies at altitudes over 2,000 meters above sea level (masl), and only about three percent below 650 masl. The highest point in Armenia, Mount Aragats, reaches 4,090 masl. Most of the population lives in the western and northwestern areas of the country, where the two major cities, Erevan and Gyumri, are located (LOC: Society and Environment).

In spite of the mountainous terrain of Armenia, agriculture remains so important to the country that land under agricultural production (including perennial pastures) accounts for 62 percent of the total area (USAID 2017). A study published by the World Bank estimated that land devoted to annual crops accounts for 11 percent of total area (World Bank 2012).

• Several Thematic Maps of Armenia and the Central Asia and Caucasus Region are available via the University of Texas.

Armenia’s mountainous terrain is a source of hazard, especially earthquakes and landslides. In December 1988, the second largest city, Gyumri (formerly Leninakan), was heavily damaged by a massive quake that killed more than 25,000 people. Heavy rains (becoming more common with climate change) can oversaturate unstable areas, resulting in landslides destroying hundreds of buildings and vital infrastructure, such as roads, railways, and reservoirs. Armenia’s topographic complexity is also reflected in a high level of biodiversity, especially relative to the small size of the country. However, more than 15 percent of Armenia’s plant species are in danger of local extinction, as more land is projected to degrade to desert or semi-desert over the next several decades (USAID 2017).

Climate and Precipitation

Armenia's climate is generally dependent on altitude and the local effects of the Lesser Caucasus range, which blocks the potentially moderating climatic influences of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. Local and seasonal variations are severe. Apart from these general factors, Armenian farmers must be very sensitive to local variations caused by strong vertical gradients and aspect (the direction in which land faces), which greatly affect local solar radiation, hence climate.

On the Armenian Plateau, the mean midwinter temperature is 0° C, and the mean midsummer temperature exceeds 25° C. In the lowlands and foothills, the annual frost-free period is generally more than 220 days, but declines to about 150 days in mid- mountain areas, and can be as short as 60 days at the highest altitudes (USAID 2017). A strong warming trend appears to be accelerating. A study commissioned by the World Bank (2012) projects that over the next 50 years, the average increase in temperature across Armenia will be about 2.6°C, compared with the 0.85°C increase in temperature observed over the last 80 years. Temperature impacts are expected to be especially severe in the Ararat Valley, site of currently the highest-yielding potato cultivation in the country.

Average annual precipitation ranges from 250 millimeters in the lower Aras River valley to 800 millimeters at the highest altitudes (Tumanian 2006). The (Map via Mapsland) months of highest precipitation are generally May and June. The Lesser Caucasus range in general is vulnerable to drought, the most severe in Armenia over recent decades being 2000 – 2001, causing losses still apparent in 2003 (UNDP p. 28). The worst affected regions were in the north, areas lacking irrigation and most dependent on immediate rainfall. Potato production in 2000 was approximately thirty percent below the average of the previous five years. With international assistance to restore seed supplies, the harvest for 2001 partially recovered and continued to grow through 2016 (FAOSTAT).

Aside from occasional extreme drought, Armenia is experiencing increasing temperatures, diminishing glaciers and river flows, and more extreme weather events, including flooding as well as drought. General trends, however, are not uniform across the country. The northeastern and central (Ararat Valley) regions have become more arid, while the Lake Sevan basin is experiencing increased precipitation. All of these trends – increases in temperatures, erratic and more frequent extreme weather events, and decreasing water availability – are expected to become more severe over the next several decades (USAID 2012, pp. 8-9).

• A report issued by the World Bank in 2012, The Republic of Armenia: Climate Change and Agriculture, focuses on climate and crop projections, adaptation options, and institutional involvement.

• A more recent (2017) but very brief report, Climate Risk Profile for Armenia, is provided by USAID.

• A more complete (though a bit dated, 2006) description of Armenia's climate, soils, and ecological zones is provided by the FAO, Forage Resources Profile, with primary emphasis on pastoral systems, but some discussion of agriculture. (This site currently requires a subscription, but offers a free trial period.)

• The UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) sponsors Earth Observation, based on data from several sources, including historic drought frequency and indicators of vegetation and precipitation. Some indicators are updated every ten days. Link to Armenia.

5 So ils

Armenia is one of the world's earliest sites of agricultural activity, likely due to the initially fertile volcanic soil of the Armenian Plateau. However, given the country's strong topographic diversity, soils are likewise very diverse. (The Forage Resources Profile, cited above, contains more detailed discussion of this topic.) That diversity is described by Dr. Hunan Ghazaryan, cited below. But as pointed out in that work, management of soil over the past several decades has threatened future sustainability. The loss of soil carbon (humus) is estimated at 50 percent over three decades, while soil moisture is expected to be reduced by 10 t0 30 percent from a combination of higher temperatures (hence greater evapotranspiration) and reduced precipitation over much of the country (Ghazaryan 2013, p. 7). Soil dehydration is expected to become especially severe in the summer and early fall, at a time likely to affect cereal crops more than potato, which is usually planted in the spring.

Armenia's forest reserves, hence soil conservation, suffered from the effects of the energy crisis resulting from blockades during the conflict with Azerbaijan. From 1991 through 1994, many trees were felled for firewood to generate heat during the winter months. Even the trees within the capital, Yerevan, were being chopped down (de Waal 2019, p. 126). Since then, Armenia has relied on imported oil and natural gas, mostly from Russia, but domestic resources are being developed. The nuclear power facility at Metsamor, which had been closed in 1988 due to safety concerns − especially given its location in a seismically active area − was recommissioned in 1995 (LOC: Environmental Problems). Armenia also relies on eleven hydroelectric power plants and is planning a geothermal facility (Wikipedia: Energy in Armenia).

• Soil maps of Armenia are not readily available. One of a few (hand-drawn!) is included on page 4 of the “Brief Outline of Soils in Armenia” (2013) by Dr. Hunan Ghazaryan.

Potato Cultivation Areas and Average Yields

The Gegharkunik Marz (Marz is the Armenian designation for district), in the eastern region adjacent to Azerbaijan, is a major supplier of potato, accounting for nearly half of the estimated national production in 2004 (CIP Armenia; BISNIS 2001). More generally, potato cultivation is often associated with "steppe meadow" environments ranging from 1,500 to 1,800 masl, in some areas as high as 2,300 meters above sea level (masl), especially in areas of damper climates (Tumanian 2001). Overall, potato cultivation is concentrated from about 800 to 2,200 masl.

The map at left indicates potato cultivation and average yields by marz, or district (11 total), as reported in Sep- tember 2005 by Aghvan Sahakyan, Director of the Scientific Center of Agrobiotechnology, Ministry of Agri- culture. Placement of dots estimating areas of cultivation was concentrated within a range of altitude from 800 to 1,800 meters masl. The highest yields coincide with lower altitudes. Production values have changed, but the map still provides a reasonable approximation of relative distribution and average yields. (Map by Kelly Theisen at CIP, Lima, Peru. 2006)

Production Systems and Constraints

L a nd Tenure and Us e

Following the transition from the Soviet era, a rapid land privatization program resulted in the creation of about 1.3 million privately held parcels, generally of very small farms averaging 1.3 hectares. As estimated in 2002, over eighty percent of all arable land was held by roughly 320,000 private farmers, with the remainder still held by state agencies. (Pastures, forests, and

6 unused land also remained under state ownership.) That average size subsequently increased over roughly the next decade to 2.2 hectares, indicating some consolidation via sales and leases. Some farmers were leasing land (possible for up to 25 years), in some cases from village councils (USAID 2002). The study cited by Hunan Ghazaryan (2013) estimated that Armenia contains 340,000 farms, but over 1.2 million separate plots of land, and that arable land per capita is only 0.14 hectare. A more recent study published by the World Bank (2020) estimates “almost half a million hectares of cropland divided over 250,000 small farms…” The World Bank study clearly advocates further consolidation, but also notes what it regards as the challenge: “There is an annual turnover of land ownership of 1.6 percent, which is lower than in countries like the United Kingdom but higher than in countries with a traditionally high percentage of leases like Germany and France. With specific measures in place, land transfer or turnover may further increase to up to three percent. But even in that case Armenian farms would need at least fifty years to double the current farm size.” Potato, and most other crops, is still cultivated mainly on small, often non-contiguous holdings.

Armenia is one of a very few countries not experiencing population-driven pressure on land, due in part to a high number of emigrants – roughly a million, most living in Russia – compared to Armenia’s current population of nearly three million (KNOMAD 2020). Remittances from expatriates working in Russia are estimated to account for about 12 to 14 percent of Armenia’s Gross Domestic Product (IndexMundi). Investments made by Armenian expatriates (or people of Armenian descent, the “Armenian Diaspora” around the world) seem to be a significant factor in agricultural developments (personal communica- tion, S. Kumagai), but specific data on this topic are not readily available.

• Further demographic information, including a very unusual population pyramid, is included in World Population Review: Armenia.

(Potato farm, location within Armenia unknown. Photo by Eduard Minasyan.)

Cropping Calendar

At relatively lower altitudes, potato planting is generally underway within the first ten days of March. In more mountainous areas, planting usually occurs from late April to the end of May, for a main harvest in the autumn. However, early maturing varieties allow for a complementary season in the relatively low altitude Ararat Valley, an area estimated to be ten percent of the entire potato crop, where a planting at the end of February can be harvested in June (FAO 2002).

7 Cropping Patterns and Fertility Management

With disruptions of the agricultural system caused by events surrounding national independence, Armenian farmers are adapting to new challenges. For example, land rotational patterns have been disrupted by rapid changes in land use, often leading to fragmented non-adjacent holdings, as noted above. In some areas where potato is a major crop − e.g. the marzes of Gegharkunik, Lori, and Shirak − farmers have had to practice cereal and potato monocropping on smaller plots, with the consequence of increased infections by some soil-borne diseases, such as cyst nematodes (FAO 2002, p. 5).

Agricultural Inputs

Irrigation. Irrigation is essential to agriculture in Armenia, but maintaining a system adequate to sustain future production is challenged by at least two constraints: fragmented land holdings and decreasing water supplies.

The system in place at independence was designed to irrigate about 286,000 hectares annually. Although the availability of irrigation water varies significantly across regions, about sixty percent of all farmers at that time had some access to irrigation for an average of about 0.7 hectares. However, the transition from large state-owned operations to much smaller private holdings was complicated, as the system was not designed for small plots, based on pumping rather than gravity conveyance. Ten years later, much of the pumping equipment was breaking down (USAID 2002., pp. 8-9). The distribution of irrigation water by crops (e.g. how much to potato?) is not documented.

A study commissioned by the World Bank (Ahouissoussi et. al. 2014) provided several hypothetical benefit-cost (B-C) analyses of various agricultural interventions by crop in Armenia, projected to the decade of the 2040s under varying scenarios, e.g. climate conditions, whether rainfed or irrigated, and market prices. Crops included (in addition to potato) wheat, alfalfa, tomato, grape, watermelon, and several other fruits. Tomato and watermelon − two crops potentially very profitable, but especially vulnerable to market forces, especially given Armenia’s isolation − were ranked as highest for B-C returns to investment in irrigation. Potato was otherwise the highest-rated crop, well above both wheat and alfalfa.

Irrigation most basically depends on the availability of water, for which in Armenia the essential source is the spring runoff from the winter snowpack, as well as more permanent glaciers. Aggregate river flow is projected to decrease by almost 12 percent by 2030 and almost 38 percent by 2100 (compared to a baseline period of 1961 to 1990), due to higher temperatures and reduced precipitation throughout most of the country, especially in areas of greatest current agricultural production (USAID 2017). The volume of water in glaciers has been reduced by approxi- (Harvesters in Saramedj Village, Lori Region. mately 50 percent over the last century Photo by Jake Lyell, from Armenia, Stuck in the Middle.) (Stokes 2006).

Chemical Inputs. Although data pertaining to agricultural inputs are tentative, it seems very likely that the low availability of inputs limited agricultural production for the first decade or so after independence. A 2002 study commissioned by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) reported drastic reductions in chemical inputs (although such inputs during Soviet times could have been excessive). Fertilizer use had been reduced to about twenty percent of late 1980s levels with very little, if any, application of phosphorous or potassium fertilizers. Pesticide importation by the year 2000 was estimated at about ten percent of the 1990 level (USAID Armenia 2002, p. 10).

8 Since the USAID study of 2002, Armenia’s imports of fertilizer have substantially increased. In 2018, the import of NPK (Nitrogen, Phosphorous, Potassium) fertilizers was reported at just over 1,600 tons. By comparison, annual imports from 2005 through 2010 averaged below 200 t0ns. The trend fluctuated over several years, but has been consistently upward since 2015. The allocation of fertilizer by crop is not reported.

The World Bank study noted above (Ahouissoussi et. al. 2014) projected that crops with the highest B-C results for optimized fertilizer application under most scenarios were tomato and grape; fruit cash crops in general were high, though obviously the most dependent on international markets (in very uncertain times, probably more than anticipated by the authors of the study). Among subsistence crops, potato (whether irrigated or rainfed) was projected to realize the highest B-C value for fertilizer, again well above wheat and alfalfa.

• A summary graph of Armenia – NPK Fertilizers is reported by Knoema, based on World Bank data. The report also includes more specific data by types of fertilizer through 2018.

Mechanization. The availability of mechanized equipment was considered by the USAID study (2002) to be roughly adequate (considering that it likewise could well have been excessive in Soviet times), although the scale of many implements was intended for much larger operations, not the typically smaller holdings becoming more common since independence. A more serious problem was the age of most machinery and the difficulty of obtaining spare parts (ibid.). In some areas, potato cultivation was undertaken manually with very high planting densities that would not permit mechanization (FAO 2002, p. 5). More current information on this topic is not readily available.

Occurrence and Control of Potato Diseases and Pests

Armenia, with its high altitudes, low humidity, and still abundant soil resources in some areas, presents an overall healthy environment for potato. (There is remarkably little coverage of this topic in the literature compared to other countries included in the atlas.) However, the rapid introduction of new seed from several sources seems to have also introduced some pathogens, as well as varieties not perfectly suited to Armenia's environment. Elite class cultivars supplied by Belarus, as well as the variety Spunta supplied by Syria, are reported to have introduced several viruses, including Potato Virus Y (PVY) and Potato Leafroll Virus (PLRV). Some varieties introduced by Germany (Sandra and Palma) have been reported as sensitive to Rhizoctonia solani, while symptoms of PLRV were reported in the variety Marfona (FAO 2002, p. 5). There are also brief reports from around 2013 of infestations of the potato moth, Phthorimaea operculella, but little in the way of specific information.

Varieties and Seed Syste ms

Va rie t ie s

Some information pertaining to varieties of many crops, including potato, remains with the previously centralized research institutes in Russia, such as the N.I. Vavilov Institute of Plant Industry (in St. Petersburg) and Krasnador Lukyanenko Research Institute. An inventory of varieties currently grown in Armenia is not yet available, but among recently introduced varieties, those reported to be popular include several early maturing varieties: Impala, Marfona, Asonia, Mona Lisa, Arinda, Cosmos, Draga, Isabel, Palma, Sandra, and Nevskiy. In-kind donations from Belarus and Syria have introduced Orbita, Belarusky Ramni, Belarus 3, Yawor, and Spunta (CIP Armenia, citation no longer available). In general, white-skinned varieties are reported to be more popular in Armenia (FAO 2002, p. 5).

• Country Report on the State of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture was produced by the Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Armenia in 2008, describing measures being taken to conserve and promote the diversity of crop varieties via on-farm management and in situ and ex situ conservation. The report covers many crops of major and minor economic importance, noting that “potato is considered the second crop in terms of importance to Armenia” (page 9).

9 Seed Systems

A "seed system" is broadly defined as "an interrelated set of components including breeding, management, replacement and distribution of seed." (Thiele 1998, p. 84). Most tuber seed used in Armenia, as in most countries, has been produced and distributed by farmers themselves (the informal system). The formal system refers to seed tubers produced and distributed by state-sponsored institutions (possibly with some involvement of the private sector and/or non-government organizations). Seed from the formal sector has generally been subject to an inspection process intended to assure that the seed is of the variety claimed, with low incidence of disease or pest infestation, and otherwise viable. Such seed is often referred to as "certified seed," although the precise definition of this term is locally variable. This distinction between “formal” and “informal” might not tell the whole story for Armenia, which can perhaps be best described as “mostly informal, but well organized.”

One of the challenges facing agricultural production in independent Armenia has been to establish a new distribution system for inputs, including seed potato. Under the Soviet system, seed potato was produced in Armenia to meet local needs until 1978, when production was transferred to other Soviet territories, such as Latvia, Belarus, and Kyrgyzstan. The newly independent government attempted to meet local needs via commercial channels with the Netherlands in 1990, and more recently with German firms, starting in 1998 (FAO 2002, p. 6).

Local solutions have been initiated as well, including an association of seed producers ("Satsil") founded in 2000 to attempt to reestablish old ties by sending potato harvested in late summer and fall to Georgia and Azerbaijan, in exchange for spring seed potato. This scheme could take advantage not only of complementary calendars, but also of the higher altitudes of Armenia, hence potato less subject to viral infection than it faces on the lower altitude plains of Georgia and Azerbaijan. An initiative is being sponsored by the Eurasia Foundation, and seed systems have been noted as a priority by the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), but progress to date has not yet been reported (Eurasianet 2003).

In 1995, the Government of Armenia also undertook the construction of a laboratory for in-vitro micro-propagation and production of mini-tubers under greenhouse conditions, with some funding provided by the expatriate Armenian community. However, as of 2002, the technical standards and production levels of the facility were reported as still below potential, partly for lack of some physical facilities, such as a cold chamber to allow for the storage of disease-free planting material under proper physiological conditions for approximately seven months. Prices needed to recover costs would also exceed the paying capacity of all but a few rich farmers (FAO 2002, p. 6).

Another strategy to address the seed constraint has been attempted via a seed potato growers' association, founded with some assistance from the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). The project distributed approximately 535 tons of seed from the Netherlands and Germany, beginning in 2001, to association members in five marzes who are multiplying the seed for subsequent local distribution (FAO 2002, p. 6). This is, however, another example of a new kind of enterprise for Armenia, one which might require some experience to reach its goal of providing a secure channel of high-quality seed potato of a wide range of varieties.

However, this attention to the usual “formal” seed systems might be overlooking much that is happening less formally, but very well organized. To quote the JAMNews story, Armenia’s Potato Queendom, “Women’s names are used for most of the potato variants: Agatha, Madelya, Marfona and Arizona. Only the Austrian, Dutch and Scottish kinds of potatoes are able to survive in Armenia’s climatic conditions…Every year, they bring three to four new kinds of potatoes to Armenia to check whether they will grow successfully. The seed potatoes that ‘make it’ are sold to farmers in order to improve and diversify their assortment and increase the harvest volume.”

Further evidence of active cross-border trade (but from 2105, when the Armenian harvests were much greater), is provided by the commercial site Potato Pro, citing an Armenian news source, ARKA: Armenia Ready to Export 10,000 Tons of Seed Potato to Russia. According to the post, Armenian farmers were taking advantage of their higher altitude to produce potato seed of lower pest and disease infestation (though probably not “eliminated” as claimed) and at much less cost than potato seed provided by commercial sources in The Netherlands.

10 Consumption, Storage, and Marketing

Consumption

Since Armenia is essentially self-sufficient in potato and nearly all production is directly consumed, consumption can be estimated from per capita production, although that value has been in decline for the past several years. The Helgi Library reports annual per capita consumption averaging approximately 125 kilograms over several years, most recently 2017.

• Potato has been creatively adapted to Armenian cuisine, an example from The Daily Meal: Armenian Potatoes.

St o ra g e and Marketing

Most farmers use barns for the storage of seed potato, but losses have been estimated to range from twenty to thirty percent, possibly in part due to poor ventilation of most structures used for potato (FAO 2002, p. 5). Given Armenia's physical isolation, there is limited potential for international exports or imports of ware potato (intended for consumption) aside from a small export market to Georgia (Urutyan 2013, p. 14).

The potato supply chain has been described by Vardan Urutyan (2013) as fairly simple, with few participants. Post-harvest handling and storage are accomplished by farmers, rarely specialists. Potato processing is minor, consisting of a few producers of potato chips (or crisps). A few commercial storage facilities and wholesalers buy from farmers for supermarkets or traders who serve the fresh markets (ibid).

One indication (a bit dated) of the annual range of prices − from roughly 150 drahm ($0.25) immediately following the autumn harvest, to 220 drahm ($0.37) prior to spring planting − suggests that informal marketing channels operate efficiently, at least considering their recent constraints (CIP Armenia, citation no longer available).

Further development of marketing depends on the commercial banking sector, which (as of 2002) was still of marginal relevance to the credit needs of farmers, most of whom still relied on informal credit systems, borrowing from friends and neighbors as needed.

An exception to this rule is the Agricultural Cooperative Bank of Armenia, ACBA with branches in ten marzes that serve about five hundred villages, with a total customer base of over 20,000 farm households. ACBA, like all other commercial banks in Armenia, relies on substantial collateral (A man selling potato on the street outside the main market in Yerevan. Photo via FAO.) to support loans, but pending further development of a land market, land is not yet used as collateral. Non-government organizations (NGOs) also sponsor several microcredit schemes, as do a few nascent village and producers' savings and credit associations. Finally, agribusinesses dependent on raw products have provided in-kind credit to some client farmers in the form of seed, fertilizer, and agrochemicals (USAID 2002, p. 11).

• Homepage of the Agricultural Cooperative Bank of Armenia: ACBA (site in English)

11 R e se a rch Facilities and Contacts

Agro Web Armenia includes links to many research centers and stations, including:

• Vegetables and Technical Crops;

• Stock-Breeding and Veterinary;

• Grape and Fruit Growing and Winemaking;

• Soil Science, Agro-Chemistry and Melioration;

• Agriculture and Plant Protection;

• Bee Keeping.

The Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) formed a consortium in 1997 to develop a CGIAR Collaborative Research Program for Sustainable Agricultural Development in Central Asia and the Caucasus (CAC). The program works in collaboration with each country's agricultural research facilities in a regional forum including the eight CAC countries (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan). The program partner in Armenia is the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA). Please see the CGIAR Consortium site for contact information.

The Armenian National Agrarian University, “the only higher education institute in the agrarian sphere in Armenia,” was founded in 1930. The current university includes both agricultural and veterinary faculties.

The Global Information and Early Warning System, sponsored by FAO, issues regularly updated country briefs for several countries, including Armenia.

Homepage of the Centro Internacional de la Papa / International Potato Center: CIP (Armenian National Agrarian University, photo from homepage)

Contributors

Kelly Theisen is the author of the initial (2006) Armenia chapter, further revision underway in 2020 - 21.

Meredith Bonierbale and Oscar Ortiz, both with CIP in 2006, provided information and advice.

Special thanks to Sueko Kumagai, among the first group of Peace Corps Volunteers who began service in Armenia in 1992, for her insider perspective on the 2020 revision.

Latest update: 16 April, 2021.

Questions? Comments? Suggestions for new material? Contact Us

R e fe re n ce s

Ahouissoussi, Nicholas; James E. Neumann; Jitendra P. Srivastava; Brent Boehlert; Steven Sharrow. 2014. Reducing the Vulnerability of Armenia’s Agricultural Systems to Climate Change: Impact Assessment and Adaptation Options. The World Bank.

CIA World Factbook: Armenia. (Accessed October 2020.)

De Waal, Thomas. 2019. The Caucasus. Oxford University Press.

Eurasianet: Armenia Daily Digest 2003. The Seeds of Cooperation are Sowed in Agribusiness. (Site not accessible as of 2015.)

FAO (United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization)

• 2001. Serious Feed and Seed Shortages Emerge in Armenia. (No longer accessible online as of February 2020.) • • 2002. Project Document: Republic of Armenia, Rehabilitation of Seed Potato Production. (No longer accessible online as of February 2020.) • • 2011. Food Security and Agricultural Highlights - Armenia. Food Security Information for Decision Making. (No longer accessible online as of February 2020.)

• FAOSTAT Data/Crops. (Accessed October 2020).

Ghazaryan, Hunan. 2013. Brief Outline of Soils in Armenia. Proceeding of the Economic Dimension of Land Degradation, Desertification, and Increasing the Resilience of Affected Areas in the Region of Central and Eastern Europe. Mendel University in Brno Press.

IndexMundi. Armenia Economy Profile (Accessed October 2020).

KNOMAD Migration data (Accessed October 2020).

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