DOCSLIB.ORG

Alireza Soleymanzadeh the Achaemenid Economic System and the Armenian-Georgian Situation

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Alireza Soleymanzadeh the Achaemenid Economic System and the Armenian-Georgian Situation ivane javaxiSvilis saxelobis Tbilisis saxelmwifo universitetis saqarTvelos istoriis institutis Sromebi. XIII Tbilisi. 2018 Alireza Soleymanzadeh Assistant Professor, University of Sistan and Baluchestan, Iran The Achaemenid Economic System and the Armenian-Georgian Situation Introduction From time immemorial, the economy of the Armenia and Georgia has been based on agriculture, and commerce. The South Caucasus (except western Georgia) and other parts of the region are territories that correspond to the spread of the Kura-Araxes culture. The economy of the Kura-Araxes culture 1 was based on agriculture and cattle-breeding.0F Grain growing, understanding the make of flour and livestock-raising especially cattle, sheep, goats, and domestication of horses about 3300 BC happened in this culture. It is at the beginning of the 3rd millennium В.С. that the diffusion of the Kura–Araxes culture over a fairly wide area in the Transcaucasia is to be dated. Growth of agriculture, cattle-breeding and the general advance in economic conditions, contributing as they did to the growth of population, necessitated the bringing of 2 new land under cultivation.1F Scholars who have examined the economic issues of the Achaemenid Empire, have presented different ideas in this regard: some of them believe that the economic policies of the empire put deadly blows on the structures of wealthy satrapies such as Babylonia and brought them into recession. In their view, the main reason for this downturn was factors such as despotism, sovereignty, and the unreasonable involvement of the government in the economic system including the tax system and imposing heavy taxes or dues, 1 A. Jaimoukha. The Chechens: A Handbook (Caucasus World: Peoples of the Caucasus), Routledge Curzon Taylor and Francis Group. 2005, p. 26. 2 S. Tolstov. VII Congrès international des sciences anthropologiques et ethnologiques. Наука. 1964, p. 226. 70 Alireza Soleymanzadeh. The Achaemenid Economic System and the Armenian-Georgian Situation also, the political turmoil in the territory of some satrapies at certain Achaemenid times. For example, the Achaemenid Empire introduced significant changes in the agrarian relations of the lands under its rule. Accurately measured lands were redistributed, and the best portions were taken by the king, the temples, business houses, the military elite, and the civil servants of the 3 royal and temple administration.2F Other scholars of the ancient history of Iran believe that the Achaemenid Empire has the same economic structure as its political structure, and that flexibility has been its prominent feature. In other words, the Iranians did not interfere in the economic and social life of their satrapies. At the same time, the Achaemenid Empire provided security-military support of the satrapies. The commuting and crossing on the highways was under the strict supervision of the king’s agents, because the kingdom was responsible for establishing security and order on and around the highways. The high volume of traffic on the roads represented a high level of security. This provided new and useful opportunities for the development of economic relations and the exchange of goods in satrapies. This trend accelerated the steady economic growth of territories such as Babylonia, Armenia, and other satrapies. The attachment of these satrapies to the Achaemenid Empire caused them to enjoy a security guarantee. This peace and calm increased the production. As a result of the establishment of security under the rule of the Achaemenid kingdom, the passage of caravans on land and the navigation of ships in the sea expanded. The present research seeks to answer a general question: which factors influenced Armenian and Georgian economic situation during the Achaemenid period? In response to this question, the hypothesis is as follows: the Georgian economic ties with Achaemenid Empire and the special geographical location of the Armenian satrapy made it possible and led to contacts with Babylonians, Lydians and etc. Their high-yielding years because of surplus production is another important factor. This provided the rapid economic growth of subjugated peoples in Achaemenid Empire. But Armenia was unable to play an important role in regional commerce due to its social and demographic status. About literature review, it should be noted that many scholars have spoken about economic issues related to the Achaemenid Empire or the ancient world. For example, we can mention the following works: the works of Muhammad A. Dandamayev such as “Economy iii. In the Achaemenid 3 M. A. Dandamayev. Economy iii. In the Achaemenid period. Vol. VIII. Fasc. 1. 1997, pp. 101- 104. 71 saqarTvelos istoriis institutis Sromebi. XIII 4 5 period”,3F “Commerce ii. In the Achaemenid period”,4F “The Economy of Late 6 Achaemenid and Seleucid Babylonia” written by Pirngruber,5F M. I. Finley’s 7 work titled “The Ancient Economy”6F and “The Ancient Economy: Evidence 8 and Models“ written by Joseph Gilbert Manning and Ian Morris7F . In all the aforementioned works, issues such as trade, slavery, taxation, agriculture, and commerce in the Achaemenid period are discussed. Despite numerous works written, it can be said that an independent research that analyzes the overall economic situation of Armenian satrapy during the Achaemenid period has not been done so far. The significant work in this regard is the research of Iakov Manandian entitled: “The trade and cities of Armenia in relation to Ancient 9 world trade”.8F However, in this book, the Armenian satrapy trade in the Achaemenid period has been reviewed very briefly and from another point of view, and some critics have been made on this book. So, the purpose of this research is to present a new historical perspective about the economy of Armenian satrapy and some parts of Georgian territory. Armenian Trade during the Achaemenid Period The royal sector, the religious temples sector and the private sector these were three essential economic spheres that co-existed in the Achaemenid 10 th th period.9F In the 6 -4 centuries B.C. the tendency for the development of 11 private activities and initiative was encouraged by the growth of production.10F There were various reasons for trade to flourish: relative political calm that set in throughout the Near East, economic prosperity, expanding the usage of money, construction of new and good roads, and exemplary maintenance of old 12 trade roads.11F It is true that the growth of trade in the Persian Empire was quite slow in comparison with the Helen period, but it did not mean a complete recession. 4 Dandamayev. 1997, pp. 101-104. 5 M. A. Dandamayev. “Commerce ii. In the Achaemenid period“. Encyclopædia Iranica, Vol. VI, Fasc. 1. 1992, pp. 59-61. 6 Pirngruber. The Economy of Late Achaemenid and Seleucid Babylonia. Cambridge. 2017 7 M. Finley. The Ancient Economy. London. 1973. 8 J. G. Manning, I. Morris. The Ancient Economy: Evidence and Models. Stanford. 2007. 9 H. A. Manandian. The trade and cities of Armenia in relation to Ancient world trade. trans. Nina Garsoian. Lisbon. 1965. 10 Dandamayev. 1997, p. 101. 11 J. Weinberg. The Citizen-Temple Community. trans. Daniel L. Smith-Christopher. Sheffield. 1992, p. 26. 12 M. A. Dandamaev, V. G. Lukonin. The Culture and Social Institutions of Ancient Iran, Cambridge. 2004, pp. 209-210. 72 Alireza Soleymanzadeh. The Achaemenid Economic System and the Armenian-Georgian Situation The Achaemenid Empire flourished due to the effective use of local elites and pre-existing institutions in each satrapy. Such was the case in Armenia, where the Achaemenid rulers used the former structures inherited from the kings of Urartu to serve Achaemenid imperial purpose.13 Various sources suggest that the Achaemenid economic policy was based on encouraging more production, providing the necessary arrangements for the distribution and exchange of various goods and products among the satrapies and the economic freedom of these nations. The Achaemenid Empire did a lot of work among the satrapies to thrive in agriculture. Public works, especially the creation of irrigation canals, and so on, were used to flourish agriculture, and all this led to a rise in production in some countries and it brought about commercial prosperity in parts of Georgia and satrapies like Armenia. During the Achaemenid rule, favorable and good conditions for the 14 expansion of international trade were provided.13F In general, the Persians used coins for commercial exchange with the Greeks along the borders of the state, 15 especially in Asia Minor.14F The local aspect of commerce in the Achaemenid era was the exchange of goods between rural and nomadic people. Meanwhile, the business of ornamental objects as well as textiles and some agricultural products such as cereals and so on developed between various advanced states and neighboring countries. Babylon is one of the progressive regions of Iran during the Achaemenid period. Herodotus’ and Xenophon's books contain information on the trade relations between Armenia and Babylon, as well as the economic life of these two satrapies. Herodotus, after fully describing Babylon and giving information about its infinite wealth, writes: "But the greatest marvel of all the things in the land after the city itself, to my mind is this which I am about to tell: Their boats, those I mean which go down the river to Babylon, are round and all of leather: for they make ribs for them of willow which they cut in the land of the Armenians who dwell above the Assyrians, and round these they stretch hides which serve as a covering outside by way of hull, not making broad the stern nor gathering in the prow to a point, but making the boats round like a shield: and after that they stow the whole boat with straw and suffer it to be carried down the stream full of cargo; and for the most part these boats bring down casks of palm-wood filled with 13 S.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Agricultural Value-Chains Assessment Report April 2020.Pdf
    1 2 ABOUT THE EUROPEAN UNION The Member States of the European Union have decided to link together their know-how, resources and destinies. Together, they have built a zone of stability, democracy and sustainable development whilst maintaining cultural diversity, tolerance and individual freedoms. The European Union is committed to sharing its achievements and its values with countries and peoples beyond its borders. ABOUT THE PUBLICATION: This publication was produced within the framework of the EU Green Agriculture Initiative in Armenia (EU-GAIA) project, which is funded by the European Union (EU) and the Austrian Development Cooperation (ADC), and implemented by the Austrian Development Agency (ADA) and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in Armenia. In the framework of the European Union-funded EU-GAIA project, the Austrian Development Agency (ADA) hereby agrees that the reader uses this manual solely for non-commercial purposes. Prepared by: EV Consulting CJSC © 2020 Austrian Development Agency. All rights reserved. Licensed to the European Union under conditions. Yerevan, 2020 3 CONTENTS LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................................................ 5 1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND ..................................................................................................... 6 2. OVERVIEW OF DEVELOPMENT DYNAMICS OF AGRICULTURE IN ARMENIA AND GOVERNMENT PRIORITIES.....................................................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Gender, Agriculture and Rural Development in Armenia Country Gender Assessment Series Country Gender Assessment
    GENDER, AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN ARMENIA COUNTRY GENDER ASSESSMENT SERIES COUNTRY GENDER ASSESSMENT Gender, agriculture and rural development in Armenia Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Budapest, 2017 The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by FAO in preference to others of similar nature that are not mentioned. The views expressed in this information product are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of FAO. © FAO 2017 FAO encourages the use, reproduction and dissemination of material in this information product. Except where otherwise indicated, material may be copied, downloaded and copied for private study, research and teaching purposes, or for use in non-commercial products or services, provided that appropriate acknowledgement of FAO as the source and copyright holder is given and that FAO’s endorsement of users’ views, products or services is not implied in anyway. All requests for translation and adaptation rights, and for resale and other commercial use rights should be made via www.fao.org/contact-us/ licence-request or addressed to [email protected]. FAO information products are available on the FAO website (www.fao.org/ publications) and can be purchased through [email protected].
    [Show full text]
  • Ministerial Report 2007 - 2011
    REPUBLIC OF ARMENIA MINISTRY OF NATURE PROTECTION MINISTERIAL REPORT 2007 - 2011 YEREVAN 2011 2 REPUBLIC OF ARMENIA The 2007-2011 Ministerial Report was developed by the working group of the Ministry of Nature Protection of the Republic of Armenia. The 2007-2011 Ministerial Report was translated and published with financial assistance of the United Nations Development Programme in Armenia MINISTERIAL REPORT 2007-2011 3 CONTENTS Foreword of Mr. Aram Harutyunyan, Minister of Nature Protection of the Republic of Armenia ............................................................................ 4 Introduction ................................................................................................. 7 1. State Governance of the Environment. Mechanisms for Nature Protection ............................................................................................ 8 1.1 Legislation Regulating the Environmental Sector and Institutional Issues .......................................................................... 8 1.2 Economic Mechanisms ................................................................. 10 1.3 Awareness, Participation and Environmental Education .............. 22 1.3.1 Participation and Public Awareness .................................... 22 1.3.2 Environmental Education .................................................... 24 1.4 Environmental Monitoring ............................................................. 25 1.5 Inspection Control .........................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Agriculture and Food Processing in Armenia
    SAMVEL AVETISYAN AGRICULTURE AND FOOD PROCESSING IN ARMENIA YEREVAN 2010 Dedicated to the memory of the author’s son, Sergey Avetisyan Approved for publication by the Scientifi c and Technical Council of the RA Ministry of Agriculture Peer Reviewers: Doctor of Economics, Prof. Ashot Bayadyan Candidate Doctor of Economics, Docent Sergey Meloyan Technical Editor: Doctor of Economics Hrachya Tspnetsyan Samvel S. Avetisyan Agriculture and Food Processing in Armenia – Limush Publishing House, Yerevan 2010 - 138 pages Photos courtesy CARD, Zaven Khachikyan, Hambardzum Hovhannisyan This book presents the current state and development opportunities of the Armenian agriculture. Special importance has been attached to the potential of agriculture, the agricultural reform process, accomplishments and problems. The author brings up particular facts in combination with historic data. Brief information is offered on leading agricultural and processing enterprises. The book can be a useful source for people interested in the agrarian sector of Armenia, specialists, and students. Publication of this book is made possible by the generous fi nancial support of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) and assistance of the “Center for Agribusiness and Rural Development” Foundation. The contents do not necessarily represent the views of USDA, the U.S. Government or “Center for Agribusiness and Rural Development” Foundation. INTRODUCTION Food and Agriculture sector is one of the most important industries in Armenia’s economy. The role of the agrarian sector has been critical from the perspectives of the country’s economic development, food safety, and overcoming rural poverty. It is remarkable that still prior to the collapse of the Soviet Union, Armenia made unprecedented steps towards agrarian reforms.
    [Show full text]
  • The World of Organic Agriculture 2011: Summary 26 Helga Willer
    Forschungsinstitut für biologischen Landbau Institut de recherche de l’agriculture biologique Research Institute of Organic Agriculture EXCELLENCE F O R SUST AINABILIT Y FiBL AND IFOAM the World of organic agriculture statistics & emerging trends 2011 oceania 12.2 million ha europe 9.3 million ha latin america 8.6 million ha asia 3.6 million ha north america 2.7 million ha africa 1.0 million ha Supported by Training Manuals for Organic Agriculture for Organic Agriculture in the Arid and Semiarid Tropics E DIT E D B Y Gilles Weidmann, Lukas Kilcher, Salvador Garibay C OM P IL E D B Y The training manuals produced by IFOAM, Training Manual for Organic Agriculture in the FiBL, and partners from the organic movement Humid Tropics (242 pages and 199 slides) from tropical countries in Asia, Latin America, Training Manual for Organic Agriculture in the and Africa address both arid and semi-arid Arid and Semi-Arid Tropics (222 pages and 136 tropics and humid tropical climatic zones. slides) They contain case studies of successful organic farming systems and organic marketing initiatives and offer guidelines for the main subsistence and cash crops of the The International Federation of Organic tropics. Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) Charles-de-Gaulle-Str. 5 With informative text, transparencies, and 53113 Bonn didactic recommendations, the training Germany manuals provide an ideal resource for trainers www.ifoam.org that encourage individual adaptation and further development of need based material. The training manuals can be downloaded from Research Institute of Organic Agriculture the IFOAM and FiBL bookstores at (FiBL) (www.ifoam.org and shop.fibl.org).
    [Show full text]
  • Armenia Became Independent in Late 1991, One of the Newly-Autonomous Nations Formed by the Dissolution of the Soviet Union
    A r m e n i a History and Overview Potato was introduced to Eurasia from its Andean American center of origin via Western Europe, probably in the late sixteenth or early seventeenth century by mariners from Portugal, and subsequently other European countries. The diffusion of potato into the Caucasus region is not well documented, but probably occurred at various times via various routes. One possibility is via Persia (contemporary Iran), where documents refer to a presentation of potato to the Persian court by the British consul in the early nineteenth century (Laufer 1938), but this formal introduction does not preclude the likelihood of less formal migrations, a process probably still ongoing. Armenia became independent in late 1991, one of the newly-autonomous nations formed by the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Armenia is small (slightly less than 30,000 square kilometers) and landlocked. However, the modern state occupies only part of historical Armenia, whose ancient centers were located in the valley of the Aras River and the region around Lake Van in Turkey (LOC: Society and Environment). Independence initially brought arduous challenges, as the new nation had to adapt to a "stand alone" economy. Under the Soviet system, Armenia had developed an industrial sector, supplying manufactured goods to other Soviet territories in exchange for raw materials and energy. The agricultural system, characterized by specialized agro-industrial state holdings under the Soviet system, is being converted to smaller-scale private operations, initially in need of additional investment and updated technology (CIA Factbook). The transition to independence of former Soviet territories also incited a latent conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan over Nagorno-Karabakh, a predominately Armenian-populated region assigned to Soviet Azerbaijan by Moscow in the 1920s (faintly visible on the map, page 5).
    [Show full text]
  • Organic Agriculture in Armenia
    ASIA: COUNTRY REPORT ARMENIA Organic Agriculture in Armenia 1 NUNE DARBINYAN Recent important developments Organic agriculture is part of Armenia’s sustainable development concept and is a priority area in the government’s agro-food policy. Organic farming is considered an excellent busi- ness opportunity for farmers and investors involved in agriculture and food production. History The discussion on organic agriculture among stakeholders started in 2002, coordinated at the time by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). These activities have continued under an FAO2 and USAID3/DAI ASME4 project. As a result, the Armenian Or- ganic Agriculture Foundation was established as a platform. Several farmer associations included organic agriculture on their agendas and some of their members started to pro- duce organically. Donors supported organic agriculture via projects and now the sector continues to develop largely independent of foreign funds. Production data and operators In Armenia the demand from processing companies for organic raw materials is the main factor for the development on a farm level, since there are no subsidies for organic farming by the state. In 2009, there were 1’100 hectares of certified areas, 600 hectares were agri- cultural land. The remaining areas are for wild collection and areas under conversion. There are about 1'000 beehives. The production of fruits, berries, alfalfa, some grains, vegetables, and collection of wild species as well as beekeeping are the main organic agricultural activities. Further processing is based on the above mentioned raw materials. The main final products are juices, nectars, concentrates, purees, quick frozen products, and bread. Organic animal husbandry is seen as having high potential and is therefore high on the list of priorities for Armenian agricul- ture in state policies.
    [Show full text]
  • Biodiversity Analysis Update for Armenia Final Report Prosperity, Livelihoods and Conserving Ecosystems (Place) Iqc Task Order #4
    BIODIVERSITY ANALYSIS UPDATE FOR ARMENIA FINAL REPORT PROSPERITY, LIVELIHOODS AND CONSERVING ECOSYSTEMS (PLACE) IQC TASK ORDER #4 February 2009 This publication was produced for review by the United States Agency for International Development. It was prepared by the Armenia Biodiversity Update Team of ECODIT. ECODIT Contract #EPP-I-04-06-00010-00; Task Order #04 AUTHORITY Prepared for USAID/Armenia under Prosperity, Livelihoods and Conserving Ecosystems (PLACE) Indefinite Quantity Contract number EPP-I-04-06-00010-00, Task Order #04 awarded 14 November 2008, entitled Biodiversity Analysis Update for Armenia (“Armenia Biodiversity Update”). This “Armenia Biodiversity Update” was completed in reference to the task order. The views expressed and opinions contained in this report are those of the Armenia Biodiversity Assessment Team and are not intended as statements of policy of either USAID or the contractor. PREPARED BY: ARMENIA BIODIVERSITY UPDATE TEAM ASSEMBLED BY ECODIT, INC. ECODIT, Inc. 1800 N. Kent Street, Suite 1260 Arlington, VA 22209 USA Tel: +1 703 841 1883 Fax: +1 703 841 1885 Web: www.ecodit.com BIODIVERSITY ANALYSIS UPDATE FOR ARMENIA – FINAL REPORT FEBRUARY 17, 2009 ECODIT Contract #EPP-I-04-06-00010-00; Task Order #04 BIODIVERSITY ANALYSIS UPDATE FOR ARMENIA FINAL REPORT PROSPERITY, LIVELIHOODS AND CONSERVING ECOSYSTEMS (PLACE) IQC TASK ORDER #4 DISCLAIMER The authors’ views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the United States Agency for International Development or the United States Government. BIODIVERSITY ANALYSIS UPDATE FOR ARMENIA – FINAL REPORT FEBRUARY 17, 2009 ECODIT Contract #EPP-I-04-06-00010-00; Task Order #04 [this page intentionally blank] BIODIVERSITY ANALYSIS UPDATE FOR ARMENIA – FINAL REPORT FEBRUARY 17, 2009 ECODIT Contract #EPP-I-04-06-00010-00; Task Order #04 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY his Biodiversity Analysis update responds to requirements of Section 119(d) of the FAA of 1961 (as T amended) and ADS 201.3.8.2 regarding biodiversity analysis for country strategic plans.
    [Show full text]
  • On the Agriculture and Vegetal Food Economy of Kura-Araxes Culture in the South Caucasus 71 PART À TIRÉS
    PART À ON thE AGRICULTURE AND VEGETAL FOOD TIRÉS - ECONOMY OF KURA-ARAXES CULTURE IN thE OUth AUCASUS S C ÉDITIONS CNRS R. HOVSEPYAN • PART À Abstract: Agriculture dependent almost exclusively on cereal cultivation was practiced in the South Caucasus, beginning with the Kura-Araxes culture and continued for more than two and a half millennia (from the Early Bronze Age to the Early Iron Age). Although TIRÉS several dozen Early Bronze Age sites were investigated, extremely few or no remains of cultivated pulses or oil-crops were found. Global - environmental changes at the beginning of the Early Bronze Age may have contribute in transforming the agriculture of the South Caucasus into cultivation of a few hardy cereals. But it seems more likely that anthropogenic factors played the decisive role, because pulses and oil-plants could have been grown along with cereals in the same conditions in foothills and plains, but they were not. Résumé L’agriculture de la culture Kura-Araxe constitua la première phase d’une période de plus de 2500 ans (du Bronze ancien au : ÉDITIONS Fer ancien) où les cultures étaient caractérisées par une prédominance et parfois même une présence exclusive de céréales. Bien que plusieurs douzaines de sites du Bronze ancien aient été étudiés, très peu de restes (et parfois aucun reste) de plantes oléagineuses et de CNRS légumineuses cultivées ont été retrouvés. Les changements environnementaux globaux qui se sont produits au début du Bronze ancien • ont sans doute joué un rôle majeur dans la transformation de l’agriculture dans le sud du Caucase vers une forme spécialisée dans la culture de quelques céréales résistantes.
    [Show full text]
  • Foreign Direct Investment Sector Scan
    Public Disclosure Authorized Foreign Direct Investment Sector Scan Public Disclosure Authorized Agribusiness in Armenia Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized IN PARTNERSHIP WITH Contents 1. INTRODUCTION 4 1.1. FDI motivation 5 1.2. FDI trends in Armenia 6 1.3. FDI in agriculture (agribusiness) 9 1.4. International trends and implications for Armenia’s investment prospects 10 2. INVESTOR TARGETING 14 2.1. Sector scan – a tool for identification of competitive agricultural subsectors for FDI 15 2.2. Identification of competitive agricultural subsectors 16 3. SECTOR SCAN RESULTS 19 3.1. Aquaculture sector 19 3.2. Dairy sector 26 3.3. Floriculture 31 3.4. Fruits & vegetables production 36 3.5. Animal sector inputs 45 3.6. Fruits & vegetables sector inputs 47 3.7. Overall sector scan results 51 3.8. Sector linked investment impediments 53 3.9. General investment climate impediments 53 4. CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS 55 4.1. Greenfield investment in niche subsectors and joint ventures most likely sources of FDI 55 4.2. Institutional arrangements and the role of DFA 56 4.3. Recommendations summary 57 5. ANNEX 60 a. Annex 1 / FDI Terminology and Principles 60 b. Annex 2 / Illustrative example of an action plan for a sector based investment outreach program: 62 c. Annex 3 / A full list of experts and private sector representatives interviewed 63 2 TABLE OF FIGURES Figure 1 FDI Flows (in mil US$) ............................................................................................................................ 6 Figure 2 FDI, net inflows (% of GDP) ................................................................................................................... 7 Figure 3 Number of announced new greenfield FDI projects ............................................................................. 7 Figure 4 Greenfield FDI by number of projects in Armenia (Jan 2003 to Nov 2016) .........................................
    [Show full text]
  • The-Caucasus.Pdf
    THE CAUCASUS The Caucasus is one of the most complicated regions in the world: with many dif- ferent peoples and political units, differing religious allegiances, frequent conflicts, and where historically major world powers have clashed with each other on many occasions. Until now there has been no comprehensive introductory book for those wishing to learn about this complex region. This book fills the gap, providing a clear, comprehensive introduction to the Caucasus, which is suitable for all readers. It covers the geography; the historical development of the region; economics; poli- tics and government; population; religion and society; culture and traditions; along- side its conflicts and international relations. Written throughout in an accessible style, it requires no prior knowledge of the Caucasus. The book will be invaluable for those researching specific issues, as well as for readers needing a thorough introduction to the region. Frederik Coene is currently Attaché dealing with post-conflict assistance in the Delegation of the European Commission to Georgia. His research on the Caucasus began in 1999 during his internship in the Private Office of the Secretary-General at NATO Headquarters. Since then he has researched, worked and travelled in all parts of the Caucasus. ROUTLEDGE CONTEMPORARY RUSSIA AND EASTERN EUROPE SERIES 1 LIBERAL NATIONALISM IN CENTRAL EUROPE Stefan Auer 2 CIVIL–MILITARY RELATIONS IN RUSSIA AND EASTERN EUROPE David J. Betz 3 THE EXTREME NATIONALIST THREAT IN RUSSIA The growing influence of Western rightist
    [Show full text]
  • The Status and Potential of Organic Agriculture in Armenia
    The Status and Potential of Organic Agriculture in Armenia A background document for the Greening Economies in the Eastern Neighbourhood (EaP-GREEN) partnership programme Photo: Flickr/Creative Commons/ogannes Table of contents Foreword 3 Abbreviations 4 Executive Summary 5 Introduction 6 Armenia’s agricultural sector 6 Government policy for agriculture and rural development 9 Markets and trade 9 Sanitary and phytosanitary requirements for exports 12 The organic sector 13 Types of organic products 13 Education and training 15 Investment and support 16 Government involvement in the organic sector 16 Organic standards 17 Markets and trade in organic agriculture 18 Export market 18 Domestic market 19 Organic agriculture and the Green Economy 19 Challenges for organic farming 21 Barriers to production 21 Barriers to market development 21 Tariff and non-tariff barriers for exports of organic products 22 Conclusion 24 Bibliography 25 Further reading 26 The Status and Potential of Organic Agriculture in Armenia 2 Foreword This report was prepared by Nune Darbinyan and Gunnar Rundgren for the Greening Economies in the Eastern Neighbourhood Organic Agriculture (EaP-GREEN) project. It was revised and updated by Alex Leshchynskyy. Verena Balke from UN Environment reviewed and edited the final draft. The report was originally produced in 2011, as background material for the UN Environment publication “Organic Agriculture – A step towards the Green Economy in the Eastern Europe, Caucasus and Central Asia region”. In this edition, data and sections on marketing, standards and certification have been updated; new sections on trade barriers have been added; and the overall report has been condensed. The responsibility for the content of this report remains fully with the authors.
    [Show full text]