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The Altered Gut Virome Community in Rhesus Monkeys Is Correlated With Li et al. Virology Journal (2019) 16:105 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12985-019-1211-z RESEARCH Open Access The altered gut virome community in rhesus monkeys is correlated with the gut bacterial microbiome and associated metabolites Heng Li1,2†, Hongzhe Li1,2†, Jingjing Wang1,2, Lei Guo1,2, Haitao Fan1,2, Huiwen Zheng1,2, Zening Yang1,2, Xing Huang1,2, Manman Chu1,2, Fengmei Yang1, Zhanlong He1, Nan Li1,2, Jinxi Yang1,2, Qiongwen Wu1,2, Haijing Shi1,2* and Longding Liu1,2* Abstract Background: The gut microbiome is closely associated with the health of the host; although the interaction between the bacterial microbiome and the whole virome has rarely been studied, it is likely of medical importance. Examination of the interactions between the gut bacterial microbiome and virome of rhesus monkey would significantly contribute to revealing the gut microbiome composition. Methods: Here, we conducted a metagenomic analysis of the gut microbiome of rhesus monkeys in a longitudinal cohort treated with an antibiotic cocktail, and we documented the interactions between the bacterial microbiome and virome. The depletion of viral populations was confirmed at the species level by real-time PCR. We also detected changes in the gut metabolome by GC-MS and LC-MS. Results: A majority of bacteria were depleted after treatment with antibiotics, and the Shannon diversity index decreased from 2.95 to 0.22. Furthermore, the abundance-based coverage estimator (ACE) decreased from 104.47 to 33.84, and the abundance of eukaryotic viruses also changed substantially. In the annotation, 6 families of DNA viruses and 1 bacteriophage family were present in the normal monkeys but absent after gut bacterial microbiome depletion. Intriguingly, we discovered that changes in the gut bacterial microbiome composition may promote changes in the gut virome composition, and tryptophan, arginine, and quinone may play roles in the interaction between the bacterial microbiome and virome. Conclusion: Our results indicated that the clearly altered composition of the virome was correlated with depletion in the bacterial community and that metabolites produced by bacteria possibly play important roles in the interaction. Keywords: Gut viral community, Rhesus monkeys, Metagenomic analysis, Bacterial microbiome, Metabolite analysis, Correlation * Correspondence: [email protected]; [email protected] †Heng Li and Hongzhe Li contributed equally to this work. 1Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Kunming 650118, China Full list of author information is available at the end of the article © The Author(s). 2019 Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated. Li et al. Virology Journal (2019) 16:105 Page 2 of 14 Background virome composition of these animals was seen to be af- The gut microbiome of an animal consists of bacteria, vi- fected by simian immunodeficiency virus infection [20]. ruses, fungi and so on. This intricate ecosystem interacts We hypothesized that there is a close relationship be- with the adjacent epithelial layer, and the microbes perform tween the whole gut virome and bacterial microbiome, metabolic functions, protect against pathogens, and condi- and the bacterial microbiome could be depleted by treat- tion the immune system, and through these basic functions, ment with an antibiotic cocktail in rhesus monkeys. We these microbes directly or indirectly affect most of the then examined the virome composition to detect the dir- physiological functions of the host [1, 2]. In recent years, ect effects of the bacterial microbiota on the virome. We variations in the bacterial community composition have performed 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing of the fecal been shown to correlate with infection outcome, inflamma- bacteria and metagenomic analysis of fecal viromes from tory bowel disease [3], diabetes [4], obesity [5], and depres- rhesus monkeys treated with an antibiotic cocktail. Our sion [6], and fecal microbiome transplantation has become results suggest that a majority of bacteria were depleted an effective treatment for refractory Clostridium difficile in- after the monkeys were treated with antibiotics and that fections and other diseases [7, 8]. The mechanisms of inter- the composition of the whole virome changed drastic- action between the gut bacterial microbiome and the host ally. Importantly, alteration of the virome along with are very complex, and other components also play crucial shifts in the composition and function of the gut bacter- roles in this process. In addition to bacteria, viruses are also ial community and metabolites from gut bacteria may abundant in the gut [9] and have been hypothesized to have played an important role in the interaction. markedly alter the structure and function of the bacterial community [10–12]. Additionally, chronic viral infection Materials and methods can confer increased resistance against pathogenic chal- Animals lenges [13]. Gut virome alteration has been observed in in- The rhesus monkey cohort described in this study was flammatory diseases such as inflammatory bowel disease housed at the Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy and Crohn’s disease [14]. The recent advent of high- of Medical Sciences (IMBCAMS). An antibiotic cocktail con- throughput sequencing methods has made it possible to taining ampicillin, streptomycin, kanamycin, metronidazole, study these communities and their relationships with health and vancomycin was administered orally at a dose of 15 mg/ and disease in detail [15]. kg 3 times per day for 2 weeks. Three healthy one-year-old Bacterial communities play an essential role in host rhesus monkeys were treated with antibiotics, and fresh fecal health, but further research is still warranted to obtain an samples were collected one day before treatment with antibi- in-depth understanding of the mechanisms underlying otics and 5, 8, and 9 days after treatment with antibiotics and this role. Transfer of whole virome communities between stored at − 80 °C for subsequent analysis. Fresh fecal samples humans was documented in fecal microbiome transplant- from an additional three normal monkeys were collected ation [16], and the difference varied more widely between after the monkeys were treated with antibiotics for 9 days. gut viromes than between gut bacterial microbiomes in The bacterial community of each sample was detected by humans [17]. However, the relationship between the bac- 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing, and the virome communi- terial microbiome and the virome has rarely been studied, ties in the samples collected before treatment with antibiotics despite its likely medical importance. Previous research and in those collected after treatment with antibiotics for 9 has shown close relationships between single viral species days were detected by deep sequencing. Because metabo- and single bacterial species [18, 19], and single viral spe- lome analysis requires 6 biological duplications, the metabo- cies could trigger shifts in the bacterial microbiome and lomes of samples collected before treatment with antibiotics the virome [20, 21]. At the same time, enteric bacteria and of those collected after treatment with antibiotics for 8 were seen to be required for efficient infection by [22, 23] and 9 days were detected by GC-MS and LC-MS. In our or suppression of [24] viruses, and the richness of the gut analysis, samples collected before treatment with antibiotics bacterial microbiome had an obvious effect on bacterio- were used as the control group, and samples collected after phage composition [25]; moreover, the gut virome com- treatment with antibiotics were used as the experimental position in humans was examined, and bacteriophage group. diversity was found to be inversely correlated with natur- ally occurring bacterial diversity in human infants during Bacterial 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing healthy development [26]. However, few studies have fo- DNA was extracted from fecal samples, and PCR was per- cused on how the whole virome, a diverse community formed with the barcode primers 338F/806R to obtain consisting of eukaryotic RNA and DNA viruses and bacte- amplicons of hypervariable regions V3 and V4 for phylo- riophages, interacts with the bacterial microbiome. genetic discrimination analysis [27]. Libraries were pooled Rhesus monkeys are good mammalian research by using a TruSeqTM DNA Sample Prep Kit and se- models that are closely related to humans, and the quenced using an Illumina MiSeq sequencer. Sequences Li et al. Virology Journal (2019) 16:105 Page 3 of 14 were assigned to closed-reference operational taxonomic Strand Synthesis Module (NEB) and the NEBNext units (OTUs) at a 97% identity threshold using bacterial mRNA Second Strand Synthesis Module (NEB). The 16S rRNA amplicon sequences from the Silva 128/16S- DNA and double-stranded cDNA were amplified by bacteria database. The OTU data were rarefied to the whole-genome amplification (REPLI-g Mini Kit, Qiagen) smallest
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