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To Download the Case Study on Food Standards Sustainable Agri-food Value Chains FOOD STANDARDS IDCF-SSRP Grant | Agricultural Voices Syria | January-July 2021 1. Introduction The increasing globalisation of food production and consumption has posed significant challenges for national governments to oversee entire value chains, and to identify quality, safety and sustainability issues across borders (Garcia Martinez & Poole, 2004). As a result, global agri-food trade is governed by a range of standards and regulations which operate at different scales (Herzfeld et al., 2011). One group of food standards is formed by countries imposing regulations on imports: such regulations are subject to the Agreements on Sanitary and Phytosanitary barriers (SPS) and Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT). Another group of food standards has emerged from action by retailers and other private global value chain actors. Such standards pose requirements related to quality, safety and sustainability with which retailers, wholesalers and food service companies must comply (Herzfeld et al., 2011). Over the last 20 to 30 years, private standards have emerged as important modes of market governance (Jaffee & Henson, 2004). They have been considered to act as substitutes for inadequate public regulation, or responding to increasingly stringent regulation, or as a way of ‘going beyond’ public regulations to differentiate products in a credible way (Henson & Humphrey, 2010). At the same time, standards related to certain forms of food production such as organic agriculture, fair trade, origin- based and quality can be considered to be alternatives to productivist, industrial systems; a way of bringing to mainstream markets social, economic and ecological relations that are fair and just (Pugliese et al., 2013; Hatanaka, 2010). Producers may adopt standards as they imagine opportunities to add value to their products, while improving rural development livelihoods; while citizens rely on standards to address their concerns for food safety and quality, ecological sustainability, social justice, and cultural heritage (Pugliese et al., 2013). Food standards for governing agri-food systems are increasingly widespread and established, and given their power in global value chains and their governance, they bring important questions about the role of public and private institutions in ensuring food safety, food quality and the economic, environmental, social sustainability of the agri-food system (Henson & Humphrey, 2010). PAGE 1 2. Case studies GlobalGAP for fresh fruits and vegetables GlobalGAP is a private standard that promotes good agricultural practices (GAP) on imports of fresh fruits and vegetables. It was established by the European-Retail Working Group, originally an association of German, Dutch and British retailers. Since then, over 40 retailers from 15, mainly Western European, countries require their suppliers to be GlobalGAP-certified. Although the standard was originally established by European retailers, it developed a membership and governance structure that included significant producer representation (from within Europe and beyond) in both its technical committees and on its main board (Henson & Humphrey, 2010). The countries with the highest number of GlobalGAP certificates are Spain and Italy, both with more than 12,000, and Greece with more than 8,000 certified farms (Herzfeld et al., 2011). GlobalGAP is an “in-chain standard”, that is not intended to be communicated to the consumer via product labels (Herzfeld et al., 2011). Monteiro and Caswell (2009) examined the GlobalGAP adoption behaviour of Portuguese pear growers, which found that producers’ orientation towards exporting and their involvement in producer organisations increases the probability of GlobalGAP certification. Across countries, GDP per capita is shown to be positively correlated with the number of issued certificates. Smaller countries are less likely to have any farms certified. Certification is highly influenced by previous trade relationships, and farmers’ participation in organisational innovation has been found to be negatively affected by poor quality national institutions (for example in the case of poor rule of law) (Herzfeld et al., 2011). The environmental benefits from GAP have been considered rather modest (Fuchs et al., 2009). Fair Trade Palestinian Extra-Virgin Olive Oil “Fairtrade means fairer pay and more power in the hands of farmers, so that they can create change for us all, from investing in climate friendly farming techniques and clean water for their community, to nurturing women leaders and making sure children get an education” (Fairtrade UK, 2021). Even if Palestinian olive oil meets international chemical and organoleptic tests for export, it is difficult for this oil to flow into foreign markets without fair trade accreditation. Through this fair trade accreditation, consumers abroad are made aware of the harsh conditions faced by Palestinian farmers and how these are being tackled through fair trade (Meneley, 2014). In response to this challenge, there have been numerous initiatives to support the farmers. Standards have been used to grow and add value to the Palestinian olive PAGE 2 oil industry, and make new distinctions for olive oil, organoleptic tasting practices, organic certifications, Denomination of Protected Origin (DOP), and ethical consumerism through fair trade strategies seek to connect producer and consumer (Meneley, 2014). Meneley (2014) finds that these practices are aimed toward an international audience and consumers, who are encouraged to engage in the “taste of solidarity” with Palestinian farmers. Palestine’s biggest agricultural NGO, Palestinian Agricultural Relief Committee (PARC), founded in 1983, and Canaan Fair Trade LLC, founded in 2004, have made significant investments in supporting farmers to attain fair trade certifications from international accreditation bodies (Fairtrade Labelling Organization (FLO)) and from local bodies (such as the Palestinian Fair Trade Association (PFTA)) (Meneley, 2014). It has been important to connect the Palestinian farmers with fair trade networks internationally – for example, PARC is a member of IFAT (The International Fair Trade Association) and has partnerships with fair trade organizations and solidarity movements in Europe, the United States, Canada, and Japan. Another company, Zaytoun, connects Palestinian farmers with UK consumers through fair trade certification (achieved in 2009). It is a “Community Interest Company” whose profits are reinvested into furthering its mission of supporting Palestinian farmers through fair trade. Central-southern Italy: Consumers of protected designation of origin (PDO) and EU–organic certification Organic farming aims to produce food using natural substances and processes, encouraging the responsible use of energy and natural resources, biodiversity maintenance, enhancing soil fertility, maintaining water quality and preserving regional ecological balances (European Commission, 2021a). The EU sets out rules and regulations governing the production, distribution and marketing of organic products in the EU (ibid.). For trade of organic products with countries outside the EU, there are specific requirements depending on the countries of origin. Key principles in organic farming include the prohibited use of Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs), no use of ionising radiation, limited use of artificial fertilisers, herbicides and pesticides. According to EU rules, organic food and feed products must be processed separately from non-organic products, a minimum organic content of 95% of organic agricultural ingredients is required (with strict conditions for the remaining 5%), clear rules on labelling and on which products can use the EU organic logo, and specific limits to the substances, additives and processing aids for product processing (European Commission, 2021b). PAGE 3 Spognardi et al. (2020) investigated the behaviour and the habits of the consumers from central-southern Italy in relation to extra olive oil consumption, focusing on the impact of protected designation of origin (PDO) and EU–organic certification on purchase intention and quality perception. Through a comparison of three Italian samples: (1) an extra-virgin olive oil without certification, (2) an organic extra-virgin olive oil and (3) a PDO extra-virgin olive oil, the study found that people interviewed prefer local olive oils; they are positively influenced by PDO/organic certification, and price was not a decisive factor for purchasing choices. Implications of this study are that information campaigns could help consumers to distinguish products, correctly identify food attributes and overcome their scepticism towards quality of organic products (Spognardi et al., 2020). 3. Types of food standards In many agri-food value chains, public regulations and private standards operate simultaneously (Henson & Humphrey, 2010). For example, private standards may include criteria for producers and other value chain actors to demonstrate legal compliance, and public regulations may include requirements based on private standards and certification (for example the EU Timber Regulations refer to Forest Stewardship Council certification). This interaction between public and private standards can be beneficial, as industry and firms are highly knowledgeable regarding product quality, and public regulation can generate reputation-based incentives to monitor quality (Garcia Martinez & Poole, 2004). Henson and Humphrey (2010) distinguish
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