Re Extrapolation For The Marshes Which Falling Within The World Heritage List (A Literature Review)

Kadhim J.L. Al- Zaidy 1, Giuliana Parisi 2 1 Department of Agri-Food Production and Environmental Sciences, Animal Sciences Section, Università di Firenze, Via delle Cascine 5, Florence 50144, Italy; 2 Department of Agri-Food Production and Environmental Sciences, Animal Sciences Section, Università di Firenze, Via delle Cascine 5, Florence 50144, Italy;

Submission Track Abstract Received : 9/7/2017 The Mesopotamian Marshlands or The Garden of Eden, lies in the 2 Final Revision :19/7/2017 southern part of Iraq with estimated area of 15000-20000 km . Keywords Historically, the area had pioneering role in the human civilization Iraq, , Cultural for over 5000 years. The indigenous people of the area are called ―‖ or ―Ma‘dan‖ who are the descendants of the Heritage, Biological Diversity, Sumerians and Semitic people. The former Iraqi regime (Saddam Invasive Species. Hussein) had violently led an aggressive campaign to drain the Corresponding marshes in 1991. Only %7 of the total area survived this campaign, giuliana.parisi@unifi.it which caused a mass destruction of the and dwellers‘ [email protected] displacement. In 2003, water started to flow back to the area. Yet, the reflooding did not restore the whole former area of the . Moreover, the new ecosystem influenced the diversity and characteristics of the co-existing species in the area. In 2016, due to the importance of the Mesopotamian Marshlands, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) listed three marshes from the area as World Heritage Sites requiring conservation, namely: Hammar, Hwezeh and . The aim of this study is to re-evaluate the ecosystem of those three sites from a biological perspective by examining some challenges that should be dealt with to restore stability to this multi-thousand-year- old system.

Introduction from and which are originated Iraq lies in the Middle East with a total area of from . The wrong water policy adopted 438320 km2 (1). It is surrounded by six by the former Iraqi regime has led to water countries, namely: Turkey to the north, to scarcity, which affected the marsh area and the east, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia to the south rendered most of the area dry during the 1990s. and southwest, and Jordan and to the The dried marshes transformed into barren west; besides its outlet on the Arabian Gulf to lands covered with salt. The destruction the southeast. The marsh area lies in the reached human, animal and plant lives in the southern part of the country on the juncture of marshes (4). This loss was not limited to only Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. The marsh area species lost, but also the genetic diversity, the has unique properties that are hard to be found functional communities and the interactions in any other spot on the planet, which makes it among the living organisms in the area (5). one of the most important wetlands on the Such catastrophic results provoked the global level (2). The dominant environment of environmental experts and Human Rights the area varies depending on several factors activists all over the world (6) along with the among which water temperature, water UNEP. The issue was brought up in the salinity, water availability and nutrients European Parliament in several occasions (7). availability (3). The marshes are mainly fed Upon governmental and non-governmental 56 efforts for over a decade, three sites in the (11). The third era took place in the end of the marshes were chosen (Hammar, Hwezeh, and Pleistocene Age about 10000 years ago. Here, Central Marshes) for the World Heritage List another significant marine swift happening (8). The UNESCO had adopted in November took place, which formed the coastal line of 1972 a convention to protect the cultural and the Arabian Gulf with the spread of river-based natural heritage to aid the efforts of the freshwater marshes. This continued until 9000 international community for the conservation years ago. The coastal line of the Arabian Gulf of sites of global value as they belong to the and the southern part of Mesopotamia formed future generations. Signatories to this in the Post-Ice Age. (12) has identified four convention were 192 countries. The list climatic stages of the marshes in the last 10000 attached to the convention included many years: unique sites from all over the world. The 1. The last 7000 years: semi-dry area inclusion to the list means that the site is characterized by saline lake belongs to many unique other sites. The formations. southern marshes of Iraq were included in July 2. The last 6000 to 7000 years: wet area 17th 2016. This represents an international characterized by heavy rain and high recognition of their global value according to sea level (floods). United Nations Environment Program (4). As 3. The last 4000 to 6000 years: semi-dry one of the largest inland systems in the globe area characterized by water level under such sever heat and dryness (9), its retreat and the reshape of the recognition from the IUCN is a kind of fairness marshlands. which could represent a new stage for a 4. The last 3000 years: dry area with civilization that lived for over 5000 years. This characteristics as seen today. requires preserving the area as a joint The precipitation of the organic materials in responsibility that is accomplished by the Mesopotamian Marshlands through the international cooperation (9). ages helped the human settlement as there is a significant connection between the The Evolution of the Mesopotamian environmental factors that formed the marshes Marshlands and the use of these marshes by man as a Many studies have discussed the origin and means of living (13), especially with the evolution of the Mesopotamian Marshlands, existence of the desert formation surrounding and perhaps the most acceptable theories the marshes (14). relevant to the subject are those which indicate that the marshlands formed at the end of the Cultural Heritage Pleistocene Age (20000-37000 years ago). The use of the term Mesopotamia is related to During that age, some kind of a Tsunami the concept of the marshlands. Mesopotamia, a stroke due to an elevation of sea level (10). Greek word indicating to the land between two The area faced a second era represented by rivers (15). Hence, the term points out to all climate changes in the northern polar regions the lands between the two rivers including the of Europe, Asia and North America some southern marshlands. The inhabitants of 12000 to 17000 years ago. Such changes led to Mesopotamia are habituated to living next to a decrease in oceanic level of about 130 water, therefore the marshlands represent ideal meters. This resulted in a severe decline in the environment of living on and benefit from its levels of coastal basins to become dry lands, natural resources (16). Thus, the discussion of like the transformation of the area the normally implies into an almost dry land and the ancient rivers the cultural heritage of the marshlands, which at that time (Tigris, Euphrates and Karon) are historically known as Garden of Eden (in became directly pouring out in Oman Gulf. the Holy Scriptures) or the land of Abraham or This helped form fresh water ecologies. the land of . Pottery relics found in Tel Accordingly, wetlands formed in the Ubaid- Eridu indicate the Sumerians settled in depressions about 11000 to 13000 years ago the marshlands 5000 years ago (17). There is 55 an indication to the marshlands in the environment and conserved their original (18), which is the first lifestyle through the centuries (14). The written literature in the history of mankind present marsh dwellers (Marsh Arabs or (19). The Sumerians had their own language, Ma‘dan) are the descendants of the Sumerians which is not connected to any other linguistic and they are the living connection between the family and is considered one of the most of today and the ancient Sumerians (20). ancient languages on earth (20). Besides, the Ma‘dan (Shiite Muslims) live on the edges of Sumerians were founders of the urban the marshes or in small artificial isles made of civilization along with their precedence in reed within the marshes (4). Their lifestyle breedinganimals and agriculture and first of the significantly resembles that of the ancient invention of writing , also, they have the Sumerians (35) as they depend on world‘s oldest examples of water engineering hunting/fishing, buffalo milk products and the for agriculture purposes (21; 22; 23; 24; 10; use of reed for building houses. The famous 25; 26; 27; 28, 29; 30; 31; 31; 32; 33, 34). reed guesthouse (Mudheef) represents the peak Their remains are still land marking their great of the social and cultural system of the Ma‘dan civilization and cities on the edges of the (4). It is built in the same Sumerian layout marshlands like Lagash, Ur and Uruk (13). surviving 5000 years (Picture 1). Marsh dwellers lived and a somehow buffered

Picture 1:In the left, The mudheef in southern Iraq. In the right, A Sumerian reed hut or mudheef before 3,000 year ago. (4).

Additionally, there is remarkable resemblance one of the greatest crimes in Iraq‘s modern between the traditional clothing style of the history. The UNEP launched the project of Ma‘dan with the fashion style of the ancient ―Support of the Environmental Management of Sumerians indicated in their relics (Picture 2). the Iraqi Marshlands‖ in 2004 funded by the This unique social texture suffered greatly USA, Italy and Japan, with the aim of upon Saddam‘s campaign to drain the marshes supporting the restoration of the marshlands as in 1991 and the consequential aggressive a glimpse of hope for those who were displacement and genocide of thousands of the displaced to regain their lives and marshes. Ma‘dan (36). This campaign was considered

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Picture 1:In the left, Sumerian statuette of a female covering her head in a headdress in the southern Iraq style. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. In the right, female of southern Iraq. http://tammuz.tumblr.com/post/19178715516/statuette-of-a-female-wearing-a-headdress-in-the

Geographical Location the marshes (38). Water level of the marshes The marshes of southern Iraq form an aquatic varies from 1 to 2 meters above sea level and triangle with its head in Amara city and its about 22 meters above sea level near the base extending between and borders with Iran. Water depth in the marshes cities, and expanding northward to Kut city does not exceed 2 meters in most marsh sites, including marshes like Shwecheh, Delmaj and but it sometimes reaches 7 meters as in Afaq (37). Hammar and Hwezeh marshes and Hwezeh (39).The marsh area is a depression as the Central Marshes lie in the Lower is apparent in (Figure 2) for 3D graphic of the Mesopotamian Basin in southern Iraq (1) as area . Hammar marsh lies to the south of shown in (Figure 1) and (Table 1). Tigris and Euphrates and extends from Nasiriyah city to Euphrates represent the main sources feeding the west to the outskirts of Basra

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city to the east.

Figure (2): Major Iraqi Marshlands

The total area of this water body is about 2800 to the Hammar Marsh by Euphrates with less to 4500 km2 in the flood season. Water depth is water quantities from Tigris (40). about 1.8 to 5 meters (6). the supply of water

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Table (1): Geographical subdivision and terminology used for the three marshes with the subdivisions by various authors. Centre The approximate The marshes affiliated the main marsh The Governora point ( area 43) location te coordinate Buffer Propert (45) (44) (45) (41) (8) (9) s zone y (ha) ( 42) (ha) Haur Al- The Hawizeh N 31 33 44 Hawizeh Huwaizah Maysan 48131 42561 Hawizeh Hawizeh E 47 39 28 Majnoon Haur om am Marshes Al-Sanaaf Nyjah Chibayish Haur Uwainah Central Al-Islah The Haut Al Maysan, N 31 05 07 Central 62435 83958 Dawaya Rayon & Um Dhi Qar E 47 03 15 Osbah Marshes Prosperit Abu- y River Zirig Glory Haur Auda River Al Basrah East N 30 44 21 East (East 20342 12721 Hamma E47 26 19 Hammar Hammar) r Haur Hammar The Dhi Qar N30 50 Hammar West Suq Hammar (West 30E46 41 79991 68403 Hammar Shuyukh Marshes Hammar) 03 Haur

Chubaisah

The Central Marshes (Qurna) are the heart of The Draining of the Marshes the southern marshes and are located in the Saddam regime conducted the draining of the juncture of Tigris-Euphrates. The water flows marshes in 1991 via separating and blocking to the Central Marshes through a number of Tigris tributaries flowing Hwezeh Marshes in tributaries of the Tigris. The total area of the Amara city (48). Two embankments were built Central Marshes is about 3000 square to form an artificial of 1200-2000 meter kilometers reaching up to 4000 km2 in flood width and 90 km length (49) beginning from season. Water depth is about 3 meters inside Al-Salam Sub-district in Amara city and the Central Marshes (46). Hwezeh Marsh lies southward to Qurna city to drain in Euphrates to the east of Tigris and is divided by the Iraq- (50). Another embankment was built to divide Iranian borders. Its main supplies by the marshes into smaller areas for practicality freshwater are Msharrah and Kahla rivers and reasons in terms of gaining less evaporation Sannaf Marsh, while Kassarah and Sweb rivers times or water draining. This method was used are the main drainage. Hwezeh Marshes cover in all marsh areas (51). Also, Euphrates was about 3000 km2 reaching up to 5000 km2 in diverted to the MOD (Main Outfall Drain) flood season, with depth of about 7 meters course some 5 kilometers to the east of (47). Nasiriyah city. This operation made change to the historical and natural course of Euphrates with the purpose of eliminating of the river‘s feed to Hammar Marsh (33). Hammar Marsh

67 was completely disappeared between 1992 and endogenous marsh dwellers in thousands. By 1994 with all its former length of about 120 throwing napalm bombs in different parts of kilometers (52). Figure (3) shows the stages of the marshes (53). Addition to using a the marshes draining until 2010, when the total chemicals weapons, artillery and minefields area decreased to only %7 of the historical area (54).Over 75000 of the Ma‘dan population fled (7). The division of the marshes was to Iran and lived in refugee camps for more accomplished when water flow was eliminated. than a decade (36). The number of the Ma‘dan The draining project was accompanied by significantly decreased during the 1990s aggressive campaign of arrests, killings, besides other catastrophic changes that blew household burnings and displacements of the the area‘s ecosystem.

Figure (3) shows the stages of the marshes draining until 2010 The source: - (55). (56).

Table (2) shows some of the changes in the after the draining campaign. Soil salinity in the marshes population, total areas, plan drained areas elevated due to water over- populations, and fishing quantities before and evaporation which was originally saline (57).

Table (2): The changes in some traits of the marshes before and after the drying. Before drying the After drying the Trait studied marshes in 1991 marshes in 1991 300,000 -500,000 75,000 - 85,000 number of the Arab marsh (18,58) (59) Hwezeh 145 81 Water Discharge Hammar 231 21 (m3/s) (60) The Central 253 0.97 Marshes Total Wetlands km2 (4) 8,926 1,296.9

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the dominant plants (61) 18 7 Catch of fish by tonnes (62) 13200 in (1989) 2000 in (1993) Such sabotage included fisheries and fishing aquatic species of plants, birds, invertebrates, quantities, which deteriorated due to the in addition to the destruction of the biological draining of vast water bodies along with the diversity of the aquatic species like fisheries, oppression against people in that period (63). amphibians (4). The deliberate draining of the marshes resulted in almost total loss in species, populations and Biological Diversity habitats of birds, as the marshes are vital Life came back to the drained marshes in 2003 resting spots for migrant birds in the rout of yet in in the anisotropic form. Most plants, West Asia and East (63). As well as fisheries and waterfowls were restored but in this, the area was extremely polluted as a result less numbers that before the draining (65). of the use of army munitions and poison gas Numbers and species of insects reached 45 as (38; 64). Several mammal species were to 2006 (66), while they were about 104 before affected by the draining as (37) mentioned that the draining (67). Table 3 shows the biological the deliberate draining of the marshes led to diversity in the marshes in 2005-2012. More global extinction of Nesokia bunnii sp. and than 100 invertebrate species were found in the Lutrogale perspicillata maxwelli spp. The restored marshes along with fish, amphibians, UNEP described the draining project damaged birds, mammals, and reptiles (68). the biological diversity of the occurring non-

Table 3: The biological diversity in the Iraqi marshes. The The west The The The biogenic The east of Huwaizah of Central total References group Hammar Marshes Hammar Marshes number Bacteria 4 3 7 # 7 (69) Fungus 10 - 67 13 90 (70) Phytoplankto 92 89 64 74 132 (71) ns Aquatic 36 24 28 33.3o 51 (61); (72) plants Zooplanktons 49 43 42 - 87 (73) Oligochaete 20 2 10 8 26 (74) Fish 17 14 39 17 41 (75) Amphibians 2 2 2 # 2 (76) Reptiles 3 2 3 # 3 (76) Birds 62 53 77 # 159 (76) Mammals 10 2 16 9 18 (77)

Health and integrity of any environment is vulnerable (78). These numbers might be measured by the occurrence of resident rare, increasing with the improvement of the not common, species. Accordingly, as an environmental status in the restored marshes. optimistic indicator of the marshes recovery, Bird communities in the marshes consist of Euphrates Soft-shell Turtle (Rafetus Resident, Summer/winter visitor and passing euphraticus), among the rare amphibian marsh birds. In terms of populations, they are either species indicating the marshes health, was common or rare including region-restricted found in the restored marshes although species to the marshes. (79) recorded 151 bird registered as endangered species. Additionally, species in southern Iraq, 53 of which were nine resident or visiting marsh bird species breeding, 10 possibly breeding, 44 residents, were recorded though being marked globally 110 winter visitors from their breeding areas in 67

Europe and Asia. Pygmy Cormorant marine species, and most of fish species occur (Phalacrocorax pygmaeus) is dominant in in Hammar Marsh. Hwezeh Marshes include Hwezeh marshes as resident bird species, 17 freshwater fish species and no marine fish while Little Egret (Egretta garzetta) dominates species. The Central Marshes include 14 Hammar Marsh along with gulls and terns freshwater fish species. Figure 4 shows the (72). The importance of the marshes increases distribution of fish communities in the three due to the occurrence of the migrant and marshes. Fish community in East Hammar waders as they play an important Marsh, which is fed by Euphrates and Shat Al- environmental role via transporting nutrients Arab rivers, differ from other marshes and this from one place to another, and their faeces are explains the regular occurrence of marine and also nutrition sources for the plants besides mixed fish species along with the original and their role as primary and secondary consumers alien freshwater fish species (83). Therefore, of seeds, aquatic plants, tiny invertebrates, fish, Hammar Marsh is of vital importance for fish frogs, snakes (80). species due to the tidal dynamics between the marsh and the Gulf. This character supports Fish Communities fish movements between the marsh and the Conditions; like dissolved oxygen, water Gulf, which in turn provides environmental depth, pH, salinity, temperature, etc.; influence corridor to many marine species for hatching distribution and occurrence of fisheries in the periods, nutrition and shelter. Consequently, freshwater systems (81). (82) stated that there Hammar Marsh plays important role in the are 44 fish species recorded in the breeding fish coming from the Gulf, which Mesopotamian Marshlands, of which 14 are significantly contribute to the total fishing resident, 24 are freshwater species and 20 are quantities all over the Gulf area (84).

Figure 4: Distribution of Endemic Fish in the three marshes (78).

The Iraq Marshes include many economic fish Silurus triostegus, Alburnus mossulensis, species. (85) mentioned 18 fish species of Mugil dussumieri and Acanthopagrus economic importance in the marshes: Barbus latus.Fish species comprising the fish barbulus, Barbus esocinus, Arabibarbus community in the restored marshes can be grypus, Mesopotamichthys sharpeyi, described as ilmnophilic, that is, they come Luciobarbus xanthopterus, Carasobarbus from the lower parts of Tigris and Euphrates luteus, Leuciscus vorax, Carassius auratus, and they prefer the quiet environment with less Ctenopharyngodon idella, Cyprinus carpio water current. The restored fish species came Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, Tenualosa to the marshes from Tigris and Euphrates, that ilisha, Planiliza abu, Nematalosa nasus, is, they are river species, not the original marsh 67 species which existed and adapted to the area varied fish communities (herbivorous, for thousands of years, yet lost forever. Many carnivorous, omnivorous, detritivorous and studies were conducted to examine fish predators) in one ecosystem, though in various communities in the post-draining marshes. (86) rates, indicates that the food hierarchy is presented a comparison of fish communities in disordered and abnormal in that ecosystem three marsh site southern Iraq: Soog Al- (72). Thus, determinants of environmental Shiyookh, Hwezeh and East Hammar. The stability and balance off the marshes should be researchers pointed out that these marsh site addressed, especially those which contribute to include equal populations of the original the rehabilitation of the marshes like salinity species with East Hammar is distinguished for and invasive species occurrence. including the largest population of the original species due to the occurrence of marine Water Status in the Marshes species. P. abu species dominated the southern The key and determinant factor in the marshes followed by C. auratu, for the restoration of the marshes, including people availability of suitable conditions and nutrient communities and biological diversity, is the sources like organic materials, aquatic plants availability of incoming water to the and algae being the main food for them. The marshlands. Via Tigris and Euphrates. This in former species is resident and the latter is alien turn depends on the upstream countries of the to the Iraqi environment (86). (87) showed that two rivers (Turkey, Syria and Iran). Turkey 31 species were found in Hammar Marsh built on Tigris are 17 with storage belonging to 14 families and dominance was capacity of 25.3 billion cubic meters, and those held by Cyprinidae in terms of the number of built on Euphrates are 40 with storage capacity species, while P. abu was dominant in terms of of 95 billion cubic meters (88). For example, population as it was %35.85 of the total Ataturk‘s was built in Turkey as part of collected sample. Fish were divided into three Southeast Anatolia Irrigation Project (Great categories: resident (%45.1), alien (%19.4) and Anatolia Project = GAP) in 1998 with storage marine (%35.5). Fish occurrence differed as 10 capacity of over 307 billion cubic meters of species were resident and 5 were seasonal, as water flowing annually from Turkey to Iraq via well as there were 16 rare species. Mohamed et Euphrates and it is said that it could alone dry al. (2009) studied the nature of fish community out Euphrates (2). In Syria, 4 dams were built in Hwezeh Marshes in 2005-2006. The total with storage capacity of 16.1 billion cubic number of the species was 15 with the meters. So, Tigris and Euphrates flows dominance of P. abu (%37.1) followed by C. witnessed decreases of %15 and %43 of the luteus (%29.4), Carassius auratus (%15.3), original quantities in 1972 respectively (89). Alburnus mossulensis (%4.88) and L. vorax This could in future lead to lessen the average (%4.14). Post-draining stage in the marshes annual flow of the two rivers up to 52 billion included difference in the nutrition system for cubic meters per year in 2020 (90). The status some fish species of the marshes. (83) queue, if continues with the same rate of mentioned the changed in nutrition of some inflow decrease, Tigris and Euphrates would fish species in Hammar Marsh. Researchers be no more by 2040 (91). Water requirements indicated that change happened to C. luteus to restore the marshes to their former shape in from herbivorous to omnivorous. The same the 1980s (12900 square kilometers) are about applies to C. carpio from omnivorous to 42 billion cubic meter per year (92). Since carnivorous. Also, S. triostegus and L. vorax water demands from Tigris and Euphrates for shift had their feeding system completely the coming periods in terms of agricultural, changed to be totally predatory to small fish. service and industrial uses would rise to about Such change also found M. mastocemblus, 70.6 billion cubic meter per year, a water which became more opt to fish predator. These deficit of 8.6 billion cubic meters per year changes can be related to the evolved would strike taking into account groundwater environment as well as food scarcity after resources with that give 1.2 billion cubic many years of draining. The co-occurrence of meters per year, (%2) of the total water 67 resources in Iraq (93). Therefore, the issue potentiality of solving this issue and enhancing needs a re-consideration in the water plans and salinity acclimatization of fish via using salt programs to be efficiently used according to feeding technique that refers to incorporating the strategic importance. The use of the MOD certain salt amounts in the food of those fish water to stabilize Hammar Marsh and the (101), given that local fish general exposure to Central Marshes might be one of the high salinity in their natural environment is not reasonable solutions, especially with the confined to specified age, but all age groups suitable quantities of water in the MOD in from egg to adult. terms of discharge (220) cubic meters per second (94). Invasive Species Biotic factors like interspecies interactions Salinity including competition, predation and Salinity is one of the most important environmental needs interdependence; play environmental factors influencing fish important and influential role in the species survival, development and distribution (95). diversity and richness (102). Invasive species Environmental disturbs resulting from water contribute to many negative environmental quality influence the quality of biological impacts that are not easily discovered and lead productivity. This leads to alter the structure to great loss in the local biological diversity and a nutrition behavior of the biological due to the direct environmental interactions communities, reduce native species among species, let alone the genetic overlap populations that are more sensitive and when they mix with local species (103). Many increase alien species (96). Consequently, invasive species invaded the Iraqi marshes salinity increases contribute directly to before and after the draining like Cyprinus population decreases in the aquatic carpio, Ctenopharyngodon idella and environment (75). It is well-known that salinity Carassius carassius, which comes second in in Tigris and Euphrates increases southward dominance following P. abu in the southern (97). This negatively reflects on the biological marshes. The dominance of invasive fish diversity in the southern marshes (98). Salinity species in the Iraqi marshes is due to their increases in soil due to the deliberate draining ability to use the available diet sources; they campaign led to impose extra loads on water are not recognized by the enemies of the local inflows from the two rivers (99) which are fish species like waterfowl, predator fish and already not sufficient to cover the actual reptiles; and their ability to tolerate disturbed demand for the restoration of the marshes (89). conditions (81). Invasive fish species compete It is important to think systematically in this with local species if they diet on the same diet deteriorating situation. The investment in drain components or occupy the same territory water for irrigation and re-fertilizing lands to leading to the displacement of either of them reach soil salinity balance or upon mixing (87). Hussain showed the types of food drain water with freshwater, is one applicable overlapping between local and alien fish solution. Soil cleanse with drain water then species as in Table 4. Eight out of 12 fish with river water saves %20-30 of cleansing species with low food overlapping were freshwater (90). the fundamental resolution of included in the study. Also, there is salinity problem is no easy task, and for this considerable food overlapping among 4 local not to negatively reflect on the fish status in and alien species, besides the overlapping the Iraqi marshes, efforts should be intensified between alien species like Cyprinus carpio and to study the impact of salinity acclimatization Carassius carassius. Accordingly, immediate on the local fish communities. Most inhabitant management interference is required to uplift freshwater fish are categorized as stenohaline and stabilize the productivity of the food chain fish as they cannot tolerate high salinity and on the long run, and then ensuring the stability witness enormous mortalities when salinity of fish diversity in the aquatic environment crosses the tolerable boundaries (100). (59). However, several studies confirmed the 66

Table (4): Food overlap between the local and alien species in the marshes using Morisita Index (72). The overlap The overlap The overlap The scientific name weak median high (≤ 50 ) (50-69) (≥70 ) Carassius carassius× Cyprinus carpio 21 Cyprinus carassius×Acanthobrama marmid 22 CarassiusCarpio × Alburnus mossulensis 39 Alburnus mossulensis× Carasobarbus luteus 35 CarassiusCarpio×Carasobarbus luteus 41 CarassiusCarpio× Alburnus mossulensis 41 Acanthobrama marmid×Alburnus mossulensis 51 CarassiusCarpio×Luciobarbus xanthopterus 69 Carasobarbus luteus×CarassiusCarpio 90 Silurus triostegus ×Leuciscus vorax 90

Conclusions inflows in Tigris and Euphrates and  Iraqi southern wetlands play important monitoring water quality and water role in keeping the regional and global pollution. biological diversity.  Developing informed programs for the  The draining of the marshes is an optimal use of water resources to organized crime that led to rehabilitate the Iraqi marshes. complicated issues of damaging effects  Conducting regular survey for the to the natural and social aspects of the populations and species of environment. communities of fish, birds and plants.  Iraq faces drastic water shortage  Engaging relevant NGOs in the coinciding with the completion and programs of the preservation of the operation of water projects upstream biological diversity and educating Tigris and Euphrates causing severe marsh locals about coping with the decline in river flows. environmental status queue without  Draining operations impacted the exhausting the riches in those areas. ecosystem in general and species Developing future programs by the populations and food behaviors in fish governmental agencies and NGOs for the communities in particular. professional and craft development for the  Salinity increases in the southern marsh population to maintain human marshes is a serious threat to the communities in those areas. biological diversity in general and to fish species in particular. Reference:  The marshes suffer from shortage in 1-Al-Ansari, N.A. and Knutsson, S. (2011) water inflows and experience ongoing Possibilities of Restoring the Iraqi deterioration due to the absence of Marshes Known as the Garden of short-term or long-term strategies to Eden,Water and Climate Change in the deal with such issues. This urges to MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH intensify future study of the different AFRICA-Region. International disciplines concerning wetlands Conference, Germany,28-29 April 2011. management. 2-Partow H. (2001). The Mesopotamian Marshlands: Demise of an Ecosystem. Recommendations Nairobi (Kenya): Division of Early  Activating the international Warning and Assessment, United agreements to ensure sufficient water Nations Environment Programme. 65

UNEP publication UNEP/DEWA/ .International Charitable TR.01-3. Foundation,London.pp:94-109. 3-Richardson, C. J. and Hussain, N. A. (2007). 12-Aqrawi, A. A. M., (1995). Correction of "Ecological functional assessment and Holocene sedimentation rates for biodiversity as indices of restoration in mechanical compaction: The Tigris- the of southern Euphrates Delta, Lower Mesopotamia. Iraq." Ecological Society of America Marine and Petroleum (12) 4: 409- 416. Annual Meeting Abstracts. 13-Soltysiak, A. (2006). Physical anthropology 4-UNEP (2001). The Mesopotamian and the ―Sumerian problem‖. Studies in marshlands: the demise of an ecosystem. Historical Anthropology, 4145-158. Early Warning and Technical 14-Kliot, N. (1996). Hydropolitics and Assessment Report, geopolitics in the Tigris-Euphrates river UNEP/DEWA/TR.01-3. basin. Paper presented at the conference 5-Naeem, S.(2006). Expanding scales in ‗Water in the Middle East–a source of biodiversity-based research: challenges conflict or cooperation?‘ August 26, and solutions for marine systems. 1996, Odense University, Denmark. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 311, 15-McCarthy, M. (2001). How Saddam has 273-283. drained life from his precious wetlands 6-Maltby, E. (1994). An environmental and and left a people damned. The ecological survey of the marshlands of Independent 19 May 2001. Mesopotamia. AMAR Foundation, May 16-Scoones, I. (1999). New Ecology and the 1994. social sciences: what prospects for a 7-Brasington, P.(2002). Monitoring marshland fruitful engagement? Annual Review of degradation using multispectral remote Anthropology 28:479-507. sensed imagery. The Iraqi Marshlands: a 17-Al-Jwaybirawhie, J. (1993). Salaaman Human and Environmental Study. E. Aytuha Al-Ahwar: Lamahat Tarikhya wa Nicholson and P. Clark. London, Jeoghrafiya wa Turathya (Peace on You Politico's Publishing: 151-168. Marshlands: Notes on 8-IUCN. (2016c). Evaluations of Nominations History,Geography and Folklore). of Cultural and Mixed Properties. report Ministry of Culture and Information, for the World Heritage Committee 40th Baghdad, Iraq. ordinary session, Istanbul, 10 – 20 July 18-Young G. (1977). Return to the Marshes: 2016. Life with the Marsh Arabs of http://whc.unesco.org/en/decisions/6794. Iraq.London: Collins. 9-IUCN. (2016b)." World Heritage 19-Hallo, W. H. (2010). The World's Oldest Evaluations" Evaluations of Literature. Studies in Sumerian Belles- Nominations of Natural and Mixed Lettres. Leiden, The Netherlands, Properties to the World Heritage List. Koninklijke Brill NV. Evaluation Report – May 2016. 20-Al-Zahery, Maria.; Pala; http://whc.unesco.org/en/decisions/6794. Vincenza;Battaglia; Viola Grugni; 10-Lees, G. M. and Falcon, N. L. (1952). The Mohammed, A.;Hamod; Baharak; geographical history of the Hooshiar, K.;Nadia, ashani; Anna, Mesopotamian Plains. Geographical Olivieri; Antonio, Torroni; Augusta, S., Journal, 118, 24-39. Santachiara-Benerecetti1 andOrnella, 11-Sanlaville,P.(2001).The deltaic complex of Semino.(2011). In search of the genetic the lower Mesopotamian plain and its footprints of Sumerians: a survey of Y- evolution through Millennia. In: Clark,P. chromosome and mtDNA variation in and Magee,S.(eds.).The Iraqi the Marsh Arabs of Iraq. Evolutionary marshlands, A human and Biology, 11:288 :2-15. environmental study.AMAR

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اعادة استقراء لألهوار العراقية التي تقع ضمن الئحة التراث العالمي ) دراسة مرجعية ( 1 كاظم جواد لفته الزيذي, Giuliana Parisi 2

1Department of Agri-Food Production and Environmental Sciences, Animal Sciences Section, Università di Firenze, Via delle Cascine 5, Florence 50144, Italy. 2 Department of Agri-Food Production and Environmental Sciences, Animal Sciences Section, Università di Firenze, Via delle Cascine 5, Florence 50144, Italy; الخالصة 9 رمغ اهىار ثالد يب ثٍُ انزافذٍَ أو جُخ ػذٌ، انجزء انجُىثٍ يٍ انؼزاق، ورحزم يسبحخ 51-200000كى2 . ربرَخُب ، كبٌ نهذِ انًُطمخ دورا رائذا فٍ انحضبرح اإلَسبَُخ ًَزذ ألكثز يٍ ػ 1000بو . َسكٍ االهىار الىاو َطهك ػهُهى"ػزة االهىار" او" انؼًذاٌ" ، انذٍَ هى ورثخ انسىيزٍَُ وشؼىة انسبيُخ.لبد صذاو حسٍُ ثهًجُخ حًهخ شزسخ ػهً هذِ انًُبطك فٍ ػبو 5995 ، ادد انً رجفُف االهىار . نى َسهى يٍ هذا انذيبر سىي 3٪يٍ انًسبحخ انكهُخ نألهىار. رسجت هذا انفؼم فٍ رذيُز شبيم نهُظبو اإلَكىنىجٍ، ورهجُز سكبٌ األهىار.فٍ ػبو 2002، ثذأد انًُبِ ثبنزذفك يٍ جذَذ إنً هذِ انًُبطك .اػبدح االغزاق ، ال َضًٍ اسزؼبدح جًُغ يُبطك األراضٍ انزطجخ فٍ جُىة انؼزاق كًب فٍ انىضغ انسبثك. كًب اٌ انُظبو انجُئٍ انجذَذ اثز ػهً رُىع وخىاص االَىاع انًزؼبَشخ فٍ رهك انًُبطك. فٍ ػبو 2052 وثبنُظز ألهًُخ اهىار ثالد يب ثٍُ انُهزٍَ ، ادرجذ يُظًخ )IUCN) ثالثخ يٍ االهىار انؼزالُخ وهٍ هىر انحًبر ،هىر انحىَزح واهىار انىسظ ضًٍ الئحخ انززاس انؼبنًٍ كبرس حضبرٌ َجت انًحبفظخ ػهُخ .انهذف يٍ هذِ انذراسخ، هى إػبدح رمىَى انُظبو انجُئٍ فٍ هذِ انًُبطك انثالس يٍ يُظىر انجُىنىجٍ ويٍ خالل اسزؼزاض ثؼض انزحذَبد انزٍ َجت انزؼبيم يؼهب السززداد االسزمزار إنً َظبو انجُئٍ ًَزذ ِالف انسٍُُ.

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