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School of Architecture School of Architecture CREDITS CONTENTS

Editors INTRODUCTION / 04 "ARCHITECTURE - WHAT NOW? WHAT NEXT?" / 116 Dr. Edna Langenthal DR.EDNA LANGENTHAL RATIONALE Itzik Elhadif ITZIK ELHADIF BENI REUVEN LEVY

Editorial Board Prof. Marcel Mendelson, Bar Ilan University, Israel SHAPING THE CONSCIOUSNESS OF THE / 08 URBANISM IN THE REFORMULATION OF / 119 Prof. Gilead Duvshani, Ariel University, Israel PAST IN THE PUBLIC SPACE A DIALECTIC OF INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS Prof. Beni R. Levy, Ariel University, Israel HOLOCAUST REMEMBRANCE IN BERLIN RACHEL LIKONEN Dr. Ruth Dorot, Ariel University, Israel YAEL CANETTI YAFFE Prof. Perez Gomez, School of Architecture, McGill University, Canada CITY HOLE - ABOUT THE MUNICIPAL / 123 Associate Prof. Jungau Shai, School of Architecture, South East University, China BI-POLARITY OR CENTRALITY? / 30 INSTITUTION, BEER SHEVA Prof. David Leatherbarrow, School of Design and Architecture, University of Pennsylvania, USA POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS FOR THE INTERIOR AVI SRUR Prof. Jeff Malpas, School of Design and Architecture, University of Tasmania, Australia DESIGN OF SYNAGOGUES IN THE Prof. Siamak G. Shahneshin, Zurich, Switzerland IBERIAN DIASPORA Prof. Adam Sharr, School of Architecture, Design and Landscaping, Newcastle University, UK URBAN IMAGE IN THE 21ST CENTURY / 126 DAVID CASSUTO ALON NEUMAN Copyediting Meira Hass (Hebrew) THE ESTHETIC INFLUENCE OF THE CANTILEVER / 48 Michaela Ziv (English) BALCONY IN ISRAEL GILEAD SCHWEID Graphic Design | Studio Keren & Golan Print | Elinir A DANCE-ARCHITECTURAL CREATION FROM / 68

School of Architecture A NIETZSCHEAN PERSPECTIVE: Ariel University LABAN AND SCHLEMMER POB: 3 Ariel YAEL DAGAN Israel 40700 MARINA EPSTEIN-PLIOUCHTCH 03-9066242 EMOTIONAL SPACE IN THE CITY AND ITS / 96 2016 © All Right Reserved EXPANSES – MARC CHAGALL. RUTH DOROT ISSN 2412-656X ISBN 978-965-7632-11-6

2 3 INTRODUCTION

In David Leatherbarrow's book Uncommon Ground: Architecture Technology and Topography he claims “Architectural definition starts in the folds of the terrain – As long as architecture is spatial it is necessarily topographical”. Thus, Leatherbarrow rejects the idea that the site exists prior to there being a need to plan, and criticizes the idea of ‘place’ based on theories, especially of the local spirit (“genius loci“) theorists. Unlike the assumption that the site has absolute, prior or predetermined characteristics, Leatherbarrow claims that the site was created by means of the design process, where the architect selectively identifies the conditions and the obvious phenomena of a particular environment. From this point of view, the design is a process of interpretation, both of the site and of its construction. Undoubtedly this approach already exists in spirit in Kenneth Frampton's article 'Critical Regionalism'. Frampton's work retrospectively reviews a select group of modern architects whose work corresponds with the abstraction of technological modernization and with a forecast that is compatible with local materials, orientation, light, texture and climate; it thus emphasizes the importance of the link between the architectural work and the site. In other words, his phenomenological interpretation links art and performance with local site-related tactics. In doing so, his writing discusses historical as well as current conditions and their impact on contemporary practices. These aspects have been raised in the field of art ever since the mid-1960s, when critics of art and design adopted the context of the site as being part of the creative process. When Jack Burnham published ‘Systems Esthetics’ he identified a significant part of the art work that could not be described or appreciated according to the criteria of modern art which, up until that period, had appreciated an autonomous and limited object. In this context, the current issue of ‘Architext’, No. 6, does not unite under a single theme, and its articles open up a discussion that ranges between extremes – from abstraction to concretization, and offers aspects relating to cultural contexts and fields of human activity, all connected with the notion pf place. Thus, Yael Kanetti's article discusses the presence of past consciousness in the urban public space; the importance of what has been made present as the design of memory at a given site, thereby creates a narrative of a national consciousness of the past.

5 David Cassuto's article deals with exposure and discovery, while re-reading the site-location of synagogues on the Iberian Peninsula. The article looks at buildings, although it is uncertain whether all of them were indeed used as synagogues. Some of the buildings have undergone significant transformations and their purpose was altered. Some became churches, museums or even granaries. The design process during which the architect conducts adjustments, conflicts and negotiations, is expressed in controlling the envelope of the building; determining how the climate is regulated; creating the esthetic environment; and choosing the type of boundary between the interior and exterior. These decisions gather into a new representation, in the spirit of the changing time, which is also expressed from the aspect of technology. Gilad Schweid's article examines the phenomenon of the balcony, one of the architectural elements characterizing residential construction in cities in the Land of Israel since the 1920s. Schweid discusses the balcony as an esthetic component, but also as a social and representative component. Yael Dagan discusses in her article the simultaneous influence of ideas from the field of dance and architecture, indicating how dance concepts appear in architectural space and how spatial-architectural concepts appear in dance. This indication presents different possibilities for expressing the same idea. Ruth Dorot's article clarifies the selective inquiry that exists beneath the surface – the emotional space in the works of Marc Chagall; a space that can exist anywhere, as a person's imagination, in a dream, in a fantasy, in memories and even in yearning, by providing the place for his spiritual experiences.

Enjoy reading! Dr. Edna Langenthal, Itzik Elhadif, Editors

6 7 SHAPING THE CONSCIOUSNESS OF THE PAST IN THE PUBLIC SPACE A DIALECTIC OF HOLOCAUST REMEMBRANCE IN BERLIN

YAEL CANETTI YAFFE

Universal history was born in the cities, and became central at the moment of the decisive victory of the city over the village. According to Marx, one of the great revolutionary attributes of the bourgeoisie is its success in "subordinating the village to the authority of the city", whose atmosphere liberates... The city is the environment of history because it is at one and the same time a place where the social force that enables the historical enterprise is concentrated, as well as the location of awareness of the past.

[G. Debord, "Society of the Spectacle" Section 176, p. 175, Babel Publishing, 2001]

The above text concisely presents the field of study of this article – the manners of presence of the consciousness of the past in the urban public space, and the importance of the urban physical space in shaping a national and private awareness of the past. Architecture and town planning play a crucial role in shaping cultural and national identity, as well as in shaping remembering and forgetting.1 In each period, decisions are made on the question of which buildings and places in the city should be preserved, and whether they can be demolished to make room for new buildings; which events to commemorate and which to "silence", thus allowing them to be forgotten. The city is an entity that exists and emerges in a complex manner, not only in space, but also in time: the urban space exists both diachronically – the city grows, develops and changes over time, and synchronously – different periods in the history of the city exist side by side physically (both in the form of ancient structures of historical importance – and through the urban fabric as it developed over time). Barry Curtis views the city as a metaphor for remembrance; it corresponds to the experience of walking in the city and the act of remembering, and refers to memory, like Walter Benjamin, in the context of past experience. Curtis sees in the city a suitable model for exploring the complex connections between past, present and future.2

One of the most interesting cities in this context is Berlin. Berlin of today is an example of a city that courageously deals with its Nazi past, certainly compared to other cities in Germany and in Europe as a whole. 3 Since the reunification of Berlin in 1989 and its restored recognition as the capital of united Germany, it is possible to find in Berlin itself a large variety of ways of commemorating the Holocaust, which are part of the urban

8 9 fabric: museums such as the Jewish Museum and the Topography of Terror Museum; the objective and the subjective, between the victim and the aggressor. These places – the signs on buildings and near to the location of prominent sites from the period of the Nazi Holocaust Memorial, by the Jewish-American Architect Peter Eisenman, in collaboration with regime (e.g., the bunkers of the heads of government, the location of the Gestapo offices the artist Richard Serra; and "The Stumbling Stones," a project initiated and executed by the and the SS, etc.); memorials and monuments. 4 All these are scattered throughout the city German artist Gunter Demnig – succeed by different means in "capturing" the dialectic tension, and make Berlin an exception in this context: there is no other Western city where the thereby avoiding the danger of being banal and, in effect, erasing the memory of the past. events of the 20th century are so intensively and consciously imprinted. 5 It should not be Analyzing the monuments and how they shape the German awareness of the Holocaust is taken for granted that Berlin would chose to commemorate the crimes of the Nazis so based on the basic concepts of Hegel's philosophy of history. Most of today's historians find intensively in the urban space – this commemoration is in constant conflict with Berlin Hegel's thought to be irrelevant to the study of the history of current times, and all the more so being the capital of Germany and an international economic center, a city that is trying when trying to deal with the Holocaust. Hegel is widely regarded as the father of radical German to turn its face towards the future. nationalism in the modern era. In addition, according to the historian Dominick LaCapra, the World War II and the Nazi regime, as well as the Cold War and the division of the city, left Hegelian way of thinking, certainly after the occurrences of the Holocaust, no longer stands Berlin as a city full of "pockets of vacuum"; a texture "full of holes", broken in a way that the test of reality. Quoting Lyotard, LaCapra explains that we are in an era when it is no longer required restoration and reunification. Thus, with the passage of time, a physical urban fabric possible to believe in a comprehensive historical narrative, such as, for example, the stories of has developed, in which the dimension of time has an enhanced physical-spatial presence the Bible.8 In the Hegelian perception, according to which history is teleological and the human deriving from the proximity of the new and the old, which is unique to Berlin – both from the spirit is in an ongoing process of development on the route towards absolute self-knowledge, intensity of events from the not-so-distant past which resulted in this, and from the shadow there is no place after the events of the Holocaust,9 certainly not when the particular (ethnic of its glorious past, which was further removed – of Berlin in particular and of Germany in groups, individuals, contingent circumstances) is subordinated or sacrificed in favor of the general. The city's two main memorial axes, representing the period of World War II and the universal. Despite all the above I would like to present Hegel's historical-dialectical perspective, period of Communist rule, and the separation wall that divided Berlin, perpetuate dark periods as well as his perception of historical memory, as a conceptual platform that enables a deep in Berlin’s past and that of the entire German nation. Many of the writers who deal with Berlin and complex comprehension, both of the manner in which the awareness of the past, of the after World War II use similar metaphors to express the problematic nature of coping with a Holocaust in Berlin, has been shaped over the last 20 years; and also with regard to the strong past that can not possibly be understood and embraced: metaphors of ghosts and phantoms,6 connection and the tension between history and urban space. and of emptiness and of lacking 7 are the preferred metaphors used by researchers of the history of the Nazi regime and the Holocaust. History, memory and the Hegelian dialectic

In this article, I will discuss two Holocaust remembrance monuments in Berlin as successful According to Hegel, the subject (the individual and the nation) acts and progresses through examples of shaping the consciousness of the past in the public urban space, and I will show that an act of negation,10 which in fact characterizes the progress of history – dialectically: through their strength lies in their success in presenting the memory of the past dialectically – between negation and re-negation that never brings us back to the starting point, but brings us each the past and the present, between the past and the future, the particular and the universal, time to a new state of affairs,11 which contains “remnants" of the previous stages, a kind of

10 11 memory.12 In other words, since dialectic does not contain absolute negation, Hegelian history that in Hegelian phenomenology, the particular is already universal, since it is the disposition is cumulative history, while the progress towards absolute self-knowledge is based on internal of the universal that implicitly exists within it.20 contradiction and conflict. The most important point in our case, in addition to the dialectic, concerns the perception The nature of the Hegelian dialectic is that of self-explication of its object,13 and the mechanism of the concept of Hegelian memory; Hegel opens for us a window to a deep and complex driving the dialectic process is the tension between striving for self-recognition as something understanding of the concept of memory, as a concept whose value lies in its being public; that particular, and between striving to ascend to the objective level, in which everything that is is, in the possibility of its exposure. Memory is that same stable remnant from the previous particular actually fuses into the universal.14 As long as we have not reached absolute self- historical stages, which serves as the foundation for the growth of the spirit; this, unlike consciousness, we are all the time, as individuals and as a society, a subject in the making, personal memory, as it is recounted by one individual or another, or by means of a historical when the dialectical movement does not lead to absolute stability of the categories, and narrative; namely, memory as synonymous with recording a chronicle. The Hegelian dialectic, every question that we ask raises new questions; that is how change and development according to which negating the negated leads us to a new place, depends on the existence occur in history.15 of memory, which is the conscious expression of preserving the fundamental meaning at a higher level.21 The purpose of memory, therefore, is not to preserve the facts just in order to The prevailing perception is that radical German nationalism, which led to the rise of Nazism preserve them, but rather a reflexive infrastructure for the present and for a better future. in the 1930s, is based on Hegelian thought.16 Most scholars mention Hegel in relation to the Holocaust, in order to show to what extent his philosophy does not meet the test of reality: In his lectures on the phenomenology of spirit in 1930, Heidegger argued that Hegel does not it is impossible to accept the perception of destruction and devastation that the Holocaust speak about the future, since Hegel's conception of time is based on the past – time is both brought to the Jewish people, and to other ethnic and distinct groups, as ‘accidental’ incidents the continuum itself and also what actually happens, but it immediately turns into what has or disorders in the historical continuum, on the one hand, and certainly not as a necessary evil already happened.22 The prevailing interpretation of the Hegelian teleological system – that serving any ultimate purpose, on the other.17 is, the course of history – is such that when the spirit realizes itself and reaches absolute self- consciousness, time itself will be abolished and there can be no future; it will be the end of Despite this criticism, and although in our times we can no longer embrace Hegelian idealism history.23 According to another interpretation, based on Derrida's perception, ‘time’ according and teleology, it is nonetheless worth noting some important aspects of his ideas, which in my to Hegel is simultaneous – that is to say, the present is constantly coming into existence and opinion and the opinion of others, are also very relevant to our times; Yirmiyahu Yovel explains therefore it incorporates in it both the past and the future. 24 In this article, I will relate to the that the act of self-consciousness takes place through the other, and occurs dialectically – by city as the spatial, visual, and experiential representation of that emerging present, and I will means of a reconciliation of opposites.18 According to Hegel, the absolute spirit is a unity of Fig. 1: show how monuments succeed, through dialectical strategies, in being part of the urban fabric The Memorial to the Murdered Jews of dimensions, which for the most part are regarded as opposites, and Hegel perceives in them Europe, Berlin (Peter Eisenman Architects), as a continuous present, as well as sites that capture and shape the national and personal as establishing each other: unity and multiplicity, universality and particularity, objectivity and a view from above. awareness of the past. subjectivity, thought and being, etc.19 Another interesting argument is proposed by Eisenstein: when talking about historical memory, this actually refers to reflection, and therefore it must be recognized that it is not possible to avoid universalization of the past. Eisenstein reminds us

12 13 To discuss the winning proposals, a 5-member committee was established by the Senate of The Holocaust Memorial: from the universal to the particular the City of Berlin. The committee invited one member who was not German, James E. Young, a The Holocaust Memorial, designed by American Jewish Architect Peter Eisenman, was inaugurated Jewish-American professor of literature and Judaism who had written several books dealing with in May 2005, after a long process of discussion and deliberation, and after holding an international the connection between memory and architecture. Young had a central role in that committee. architectural competition (1996) that was shelved by then-Chancellor Helmut Kohl. The monument In his book, The Texture of Memory, which deals with memorial sites commemorating the "made history" not only because of the artistic artifact that was built, and which received Holocaust and their significance, Young presents the inherent problems of commemoration considerable international attention, but also because of the process that led to the establishment and preservation of memory materially and artistically, in general, and in respect of Holocaust of the monument: in 1997 the German government announced that they would be holding a remembrance, in particular.30 Young raises the fear that monuments are becoming too rigid and second competition, this time a closed competition for only 20 contenders, among whom were impervious, transmitting one-dimensionality and permanence, thereby erasing the timeline, the artists James Turrell,25 Rachel Whitehead and Richard Serra in cooperation with the Jewish- the procession and the mobility in the act of memory. He warns against a monument that, American architect Peter Eisenman. This group won the competition. After much deliberation, in its commemoration "swallows" and invalidates memory; he emphasizes the importance of a large and central site was selected – a 5-acre urban block in the center of (reunited) Berlin presenting memory as having different points of view, which changes with time; and he adds located near prominent landmarks in the city: the Brandenburg Gate, Potsdam Square, the that the process of remembering or commemorating is important in and of itself.31 His claim Berlin Wall, the bunker where Hitler ended his life;26 and above the bunker of the villa that was is that, in many cases, memorial sites "embalm" the past instead of leaving it relevant to the used by Goebbels.27 As with the previous competition, this one also had proposals submitted for present, thus missing their role. Young's fear is that the act of commemoration in a way that is grandiose monuments, in an attempt to cope with the challenge of Holocaust remembrance. visual and material exempts us to a great extent from the obligation to remember the past,32 This time, too, various arguments were raised against the idea of its establishment: Some which makes the memorial monument such that its very establishment belies its purpose. When asserted that, in any event, a memorial site with an aesthetic dimension would not make the monuments try to function as testimony, and perpetuate the catastrophe of the Holocaust in a Holocaust any less terrible; another claim was that it was Germany's way of evading liability literal manner, they risk turning the particular information of the past into something which is for what had happened in the past; others raised concerns about the unnecessary glorification inaccessible and non-communicative, thus further distancing the past from the present. Young of the Holocaust, as well as the fear of increasing anti-Semitism.28 explains that the art of "documented" memory violates how public memory works, which is based on the creation of shared values.33 In Young's perspective, the concept of Hegelian memory A year after the competition, Kohl said in an interview that the winning project deals with reverberates: the memory worthy of commemoration is that remnant of the past which serves the core of Germany's national self-consciousness.29 Kohl saw the process of choosing the as the basis for the worldview in the present, and not as another possibility of a factual recording monument, in all its political, philosophical and artistic aspects, as the historical process of a the history of the past. Young hones the question of the possibility of representing the past in nation seeking to rise to greater self-consciousness. This process incorporated the particular general, and the question of representing the Holocaust in particular, characterizing the type of dimension of the German nation's recognition of its responsibility for Nazi crimes, as well memory in which, in his opinion, the possibility of representation exists at all; and in Hegelian as the universal dimension of a deeper understanding of the essence of historical memory. concepts, the one that has the potential of becoming universal – that is, of historical value.

14 15 Young refers to the monuments trying to overcome these difficulties as "counter-monuments". Unlike many commemorative sites, the memorial site does not impose any process on its The winning monument, of Eisenman and Serra, is an example of a counter- monument: an visitors (such as entry from a particular place, walking along a marked route, etc.), there is no orthogonal field of more than 4,000 concrete slabs or stelae. This is a completely abstract memorial peak moment, and it lacks the internal hierarchy that is the norm in sites for the preservation site, lacking any direct connection to the events of the Holocaust; a proposal that Young, as a of memory. However, this is not a static sculpture, but a spatial array that allows movement member of the committee choosing the monument, found the most suitable for this function. within it. As visitors move through the site, they experience a change: the deeper they go into By its very nature, the counter-monument34 is dialectical, since reservations about the possibility the center of the field, the ground sinks down and the concrete slabs rise; the more one sinks of capturing the past are embedded in the act of positive memory (that is to say, in the actual down into the center of the site, the deeper the silence grows; the narrow spaces between construction of the monument). His argument was that some form of expression should be the slabs allow glimpses of the street or the busy park, but the sounds of the city do not given to the enormous complexity of establishing a memorial site for the Jewish Holocaust.35 penetrate, they are silenced; this is despite the fact that we remain in the open urban space.

In May 2005 the monument was opened to the general public: a broad field covering some five In contrast to other memorial sites, the site does not allow for gatherings for ceremonies, and

acres, consisting entirely of concrete slabs of varying heights, including narrow passageways its alleyways allow only one person to move comfortably between the gray concrete blocks. Fig. 3: between them, in an orthogonal (grid) arrangement, all connected to the streets bordering the According to Rautenberg, the importance of the site is that it does not allow mass assemblies. A view from inside the monument site. The concrete stelae, which are dark gray in color, are coated with a smooth material that In fact, the monument avoids "importance" because when you walk inside it you are unable to invites the hand to slide over them. The length of the stelae is fixed, 2.38 meters, and the height see anything, creating a sense of emptiness, of "non-occurrence".37 This undermining experience varies, from a few centimeters above the ground to more than four meters in height. They stand shifts the memory of the past from an objective level of information and data, to the realm on ground paved with small stones that has potholes and it sinks the nearer you get to the center of subjective experience, which allows (but does not guarantee) deeper understanding and of the field. The stelae themselves are not entirely vertical, and they lean sideways, between one internalization, and this is where its strength lies. The monument was built in memory of half and two degrees.36 The monument has no defined or marked entry or exit; it is actually part of a collective disaster, there is no detail of the names of the victims and the stones are not the urban street network and can be accessed and exited from all sides freely and without charge. gravestones. This is an admission by the Germans of the existence of the Jewish Holocaust and their responsibility for the fact that it happened. However, this admission can be validated Fig. 2: The monument – a section objectively or collectively, as a consequence of the subjective level: every visitor to the monument, walking alone through the narrow passages, undergoes a different personal experience, and chooses how to deal with it and what to learn from it. Thus, Holocaust victims, as a silent collective, as a human mass lacking identity from the past, are embodied (as it were) in the present, in the assemblage of particular individuals visiting the site.

At the same time there is a tension between the particular and the universal, in the visual dimension of the monument. Eisenman asked himself how aesthetic significance could be given to a crime the scale of which is incomprehensible, and his answer was that only

16 17 something that eludes a particular aesthetic identification would be an appropriate measure death or absence –39 refer to the Holocaust as an event that is a kind of disconnection from to overcome this hurdle.38 The monument lacks the same overt visual, figurative symbolism the historical continuum, as an aberration from history, or, alternatively, as a site of mourning that is customary in monuments of commemoration; therefore, by means of the formalistic, and pain for loss, lacking a specific historical context.40 universal abstraction, the particular, personal experience of the person who walks within it Another interesting dialectic is that which exists symbolically between the victim and the is made possible. aggressor: the Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe who died in the Holocaust is not to be There exists in the monument the possibility of double time: one is the present experience; the found in the places that would be self-evident – such as the death camps, where many of the other is the possibility of remembering the past experience in the present. Eisenman explains visitors are descendants of the victims; instead, a site was dedicated in the center of Berlin, the that this sense of double time is achieved by an 'unstable' topology – the earth sinks inside capital of the Nazi regime in the past and of democratic Germany today, the capital city of the the monument, the stelae also change their height, and the visitor has difficulty finding a aggressor. The monument was erected at the initiative of the Germans, the descendants of the fixed datum in the space. Walking inside the monument is not pleasant or comfortable, and aggressor, with their financing and on their land, in the center of the capital city of Germany. As requires that the visitors will physically relate to the strange space around them. Dekel describes in her book, groups of Germans come to the monument for guided tours, including many students. In other words, the monument requires the descendants of the aggressor to The abstraction of the monument on the one hand, but its uniqueness in memory of the Jews Fig. 4: stand, even for a brief moment, in the position of the victim, walking uncomfortably between who perished in the Holocaust on the other, create the Hegelian perception of time – the memory Diagrammatic plan of the site the gray stones. However, at the same time, the monument was designed so that during the of the past is present all the time in the present and has implications for the future. The location walk there is no peripheral field of view – one has to take care not to collide with people who of the monument in the center of the city and the manner in which the passageways of the cross your path, since the stones conceal those who are following those paths that intersect with monument connect to the urban network, enable the continuous transition between the city the path that you are walking on. At any moment you may accidentally collide with someone, and the field of stelae, as well as a continuous view from the city into the monument, and vice or someone may accidentally collide with you. This situation causes the visitor to the site to versa, bringing the existence of the three times – past, present and future – simultaneously constantly be aware of the balance between being the victim and being the attacker. to the forefront of awareness. The spatial continuity and movement between the city and the monument is analogous to historical continuity, and therefore does not allow the Holocaust, The redundancy that characterizes the monument – both in terms of abstraction and distancing as an abnormal event, to be erased from history. There is no doubt that the past, in and of from the particular on the materialistic and aesthetic level, and also in terms of its size in the itself, remains distant and even more inaccessible when it comes to the blind and systematic urban space – is perceived as a powerful and very significant symbolic act, since it is located in extermination of millions of innocent people; and therefore, as Eisenman, Young and others the beating heart of Berlin. The monument resonates the urban texture, both morphologically, think, the attempt to capture this existentially was predestined to failure. It is better, therefore, and in how it is spread out across the site, as well as its apparently smooth connection to the that handling past memory should be done in the present while looking toward the future, network of urban streets. It is reasonable to assume that if this huge plot in the center of Berlin with the aim of preventing another Holocaust from occurring in the future. The unique location had not been dedicated to the memory of the Jews who perished in the Holocaust, it would and design of the monument refutes Henry Pickford's claim that Holocaust Memorials of the probably have been filled with shiny office towers, like those in nearby Potsdam Square. The kind he calls "the black hole" – in other words, abstract, formalistic monuments that represent shape of the monument makes it, at one and the same time, an integral part of the city, as well

18 19 as an absolute contrast with the city, by being a place of emptiness. Unlike other Holocaust scale. What is common and unique to both of them is the choice of the urban fabric, not only Memorial sites, which are concerned with the preservation of sites as commemoration (the as a context of past consciousness, but as the generator of memory itself.41 extermination camps, for example), which are mostly monadic in nature and are situated in Stolpersteine (Stumbling Stones) is the name of a memorial project for victims of the Holocaust, open areas isolated from populated places, the city of Berlin, is characterized by multiplicity and which is continually being created by German artist Gunter Demnig. The "Stumbling Stone" the Holocaust Memorial is perceived and understood as being part of that same multiplicity, is a concrete cube, which has a surface area of 10 cm. It is covered with a brass plate and is part of that same urban texture, which contains, among other things, other sites of memorial embedded in the pavements of cities in several European countries. On the plate is imprinted and commemoration which, together with the monument, complement the unity, which the name of the person who lived in the building nearby, the year of his birth and the place contains overwhelming conflicts and tensions. where he or she was murdered. Most of the stones are embedded in the pavements right The Holocaust Memorial is of significance that is no less than paradigmatic, for several reasons: opposite the entrances to buildings. The first stones were placed in Berlin and Cologne in it is paradigmatic in the process that preceded its establishment, a process that itself has been 1995 without any coordination with the authorities. The project is funded by donations, or by characterized by a dialectic of negation and repeated negation until public awareness matured, relatives of the victims who wish to place such a stone (which costs 95 Euros). The project is an so that it can retain the various contradictions that exist within it, without distinguishing interesting collaboration of individuals – the artist and the families of the victims – and of the between them. The monument is paradigmatic because it is a memorial site of historical institutions – the Berlin municipality and the institutions that contribute money to continue memory, which does not function as a figurative object, but as a central and significant place the project. In Berlin alone, already more than 5000 Stumbling Blocks have been placed, and in the city which is a constantly evolving urban event. there is an office dedicated to promoting the laying of stones and coordination between all of the relevant bodies: the artist, the authorities, the donor institutions and the families. The The Stumbling Stones: from the particular to the universal ‘Stumbling Stones’ commemorative project has led to educational projects that include, inter

Fig. 5: alia, schools throughout Germany; for example, textual documentation of the lives of those Stumbling Stones in Berlin who perished have been commemorated in the stones.42 The physical documentation project, which is an integral part of the streets of Berlin, is at one and the same time both an educational project and a historiographical project, since the information collected is documented and preserved in the archives.

The Stumbling Stones did not arouse opposition and conflict as did the Holocaust Memorial; they also gave rise to much less research interest. It is possible that their quiet presence in the urban space has succeeded in keeping them "under the radar" of those opposed to what was perceived as Berlin’s obsessive commemoration of the Holocaust.43 The first encounter with the

The ‘Stumbling Stones’ is an entirely different commemoration project that manages to achieve Stumbling Stones throughout Berlin evokes a very strong emotional response, stemming from the same dialectic complexity by using completely different means and on a completely different the concretization of the crimes of the Holocaust in the urban space and in time: the passer-by

20 21 stands opposite the entrance to the building and from the pavement spring the names of the plate; the effect gathers in two dimensions of the present – the present of the visitor to city, Jews who perished in the Holocaust, engraved on the Stumbling Stones, who lived or worked the tourist, who finds more and more Stumbling Stones as he walks through the city, and in this building in the past and are no longer. You do not have to go to a certain place with the the ongoing present of the city's residents, where as time goes by, more and more Stumbling intention of seeing them – they "grab" you on the pavements of the city. Stones appear throughout the city as if the past is a living and restless entity that penetrates into the present through continual movement, as if to dominate it. The cumulative appearance The Stumbling Stones are also an example of a counter-monument: they are not monumental, of the Stumbling Stones also emphasizes history, not only as the past that was and is gone, they are scattered throughout the city and are not incorporated in an organized memorial site, but as an ongoing present, as a historical continuum that has a synchronous dimension in and they are not a result of an initiative made by the country. Unlike traditional monuments, the Hegelian sense. The Stumbling Stones continue to appear in different parts of the city, as they act more as a mark than as a symbol; a mark that has a literal aspect – the text if they are telling the Germans that it is not possible to remove the Holocaust from history. embedded in them, and a visual aspect – they will always look the same, but not exactly the same, because they were made by hand and are not ‘mass produced’, something that Unlike Eisenman's monument, Demnig's Stumbling Stones operate from the particular to is evident in the final product. the universal, and here too without a shift between them. The stones look almost identical, all of them are placed between the paving stones in the pavements, but each time slightly In this project too, historical memory is dialectically presented: the crime of deporting Jews differently. Sometimes one stone, and sometimes three or five adjacent stones, which signify, from their homes to concentration camps and extermination camps is represented in concise for example, the murder of an entire Jewish family. Each stone stands on its own, as a memory and repetitive text on the stones. The text is objective information: it states the name of the of a particular person who lived in that place and whose life was cut off for no reason. However, victim, the date of birth, the camp to which he or she was deported, and the date of his or when they are experienced cumulatively, the numbers turn the particular experience into her murder. However, the objective, factual information is each time about a single subject a universal dimension which, according to Hegel, does not exist without assimilating the who lived and is no longer. The commemoration of the Stumbling Stones is an indication awareness of liberty. The cumulative repetition of the Stumbling Stones (the repetition exists, of the Holocaust – not collectively as in the monument, but individually. There is another as stated, both in space and in time), like the monument, is a modus of excess which, despite aspect of subjectivity in this project – here too the passer-by who encounters stones is a its minor performance in the urban space, has the potential to considerably disrupt the daily subject who participates in the creation of historical memory, while moving around the lives of the city's residents, who are planted in the present. city in the present time. In a different and interesting way, the Stumbling Stones project also connects to the monument The advantage of the Stumbling Stones project is the type of conflict or tension it produces. in the existence of a dialectic between the victim and the aggressor: the Stumbling Stones The small ‘blocks’ are scattered everywhere in the city, and they are a constant reminder of serve as memorial monuments to all those Berliners, Jews and others, who were cruelly sent the terrible crimes committed by the Germans; on the other hand, it is easy to ignore them, to their deaths by the Nazi regime. In addition to the impact of the fact that the descendants or not to pay attention to them, or simply to forget them, certainly if you are a resident of of the aggressor allow and even support this type of monument, which can be seen to be Berlin. They preserve the memory of the terrible past systematically, but not aggressively, somewhat invasive, there is an impact that is associated with the performance of the passer- thus allowing the past to coexist with the present. The dimension of time in this project is by: As a Jew whose relatives perished in the Holocaust, I saw the Stumbling Stones as a kind particularly interesting: the past is reported as static objective data, engraved on the brass

22 23 of consolation; because, despite its being an economic and cultural center on an international Conclusion scale, Berlin will never be a "normal" city like New York, for example: the harsh historical memory embodied in the paving stones is a real application of the Hegelian metaphor, in In this work I sought to explain, through Hegel's thought, the modus operandi of two projects, that the events of the past, the infrastructure, the ground which is walked on, allows one to both of which are engaged in preserving the memory of the Holocaust in the public domain go forward. However, when I accidentally trod on a Stumbling Block, I felt for a fraction of a in Berlin. In contemporary Western culture, which is dominated entirely by visual images, second the experience of an aggressor, one who tramples on others; and more importantly, most of which are produced and consumed in urban spaces, the importance of memorial the danger of becoming an ‘aggressor’ without even meaning to do so. The Stumbling Stones and commemoration sites in the shaping of world-view – including the shaping of a national do not allow total identification with the victims, since the passer-by that encounters them awareness of the past – should not be underestimated. The city – the constructed mass, on the street is always potentially both the victim and the aggressor. characterized by density and intensity of activity, made up of layers that have been created over time – is a complex, sequential and non-sequential documentation, involved and incidental, The Stumbling Stones project can be seen as a memorial that has a verbal aspect, complementing heterogeneous, planned but also contingent, stable but with a very present dimension of being the abstractness of the Holocaust Memorial. It is interesting to note that despite the difference temporary. This complex entity, which exists both in space and in time, is the focal point of a between these two modes of commemoration, in terms of the literal issue, as well as the consciousness of the past. variance in other respects: the scale, the aesthetics and the strategy of their action as a performance in the city, the two "monuments" successfully maintain the same tensions; The monuments and memorial sites located in the public domain in Berlin serve the narrative they both serve as a historical memory with the profound significance that Hegel attributes of the historical continuity more successfully than the museums – since they do not need to be to them: these monuments, as well as others in Berlin, are live performances that attest to visited – and the research institutes, which are not accessible to the general public; not only in the existence of a progressive spiritual infrastructure that is emerging in Germany today. In the diachronic sense of the continuum of responsibility and guilt, but also in the synchronous these commemorative actions, which are open-ended and open to interpretation, and range sense, in which the physical urban space in Berlin does not allow "putting the past behind from the subjective to the objective, between the figurative and the abstract, between the us", and the past seems to insist on dwelling in the present. The Holocaust Memorial and the particular and the universal, Germany demonstrates the meaning of a nation as a subject Stumbling Stones undermine the tradition of monuments, because their objective is not to that is its own object, in the Hegelian sense: preserve or freeze the memory of the past as an objective abnormal event that took place in the past, and their aesthetic and spatial strategies are of active participation in the urban space, The spirit is essentially active; it makes itself into that which it is in itself, into its own deed, its which is preserved as a diachronic continuum, as well as a synchronous fabric of past and own creation [Werk]. In this way, it becomes its own object, and has its own existence before present events. These counter-monuments are characterized by an interpretive and experiential it. And it is the same with the spirit of a nation; it is a specific spirit which makes itself into dynamic; thanks to the way in which the observer, the visitor, actively participates in the event. an actual world which now exists objectively in its religion, its ritual, its customs, constitution This is what prevents them from falling into the traps of false representation of memory. and political laws, and in the whole range of its institutions, events and deeds. That is its creation – that is this people. (G.W.F. Hegel 2001: 90).

24 25 17 2Wilkins 1974, p. 144.

1 Huyssen 1997 p. 57. 182Hegel, 2001, p. 19.

2 Curtis 2002 pp 66-65. 192Ibid, P. 24.

3 See Arieli 2014, p. 19. 20 Eisenstein 1999, pp. 15-14.

4 According to Arieli, we live today in an era in which almost no survivors of the Holocaust remain, 21 Hegel, 2001, p.76. a situation that gives importance to the treatment of the physical remains of that period (Arieli 22 Malabou 2000, p. 198. 2014: 21). The buildings built by the Nazi regime in Berlin, and which survived the war and the Allied bombings after the end of the war, are a special challenge in trying to reconcile the present 23 Hegel 2001, p. 61. with the past. These are very large buildings, which, on the one hand, have been redesigned (for 24 Malabou 2000, p. 210. example, the huge office building in the center of Berlin that served as the offices of the Nazi Air Force and now serves the German Ministry of Finance) is seen as a normalization of the past; in 25 James Turrell is the creator of 'Space That Sees', located in the Sculpture Garden of the other words, it has been erased; However, on the other hand, the demolition of these structures Israel Museum. will also be seen as an act of erasure and concealment of evidence that the Nazi regime existed. 26 Ibid. 5 Huyssen 1997, p. 59. 27 Ahr. 2005, p.287. 6 See Arieli 2014, Ladd 2010. 28 Eisenman Architects, 2005. This book has no page numbering. 7 See Goldberg 2012, Huyssen 1997. 29 Wise 1999, p. 46. 8 Or, for example, the narrative of "the Holocaust and the Rebirth" in Israel (see LaCapra, 2006, pp. 30 Young, James E. (1993): The Texture of Memory, Yale University Press, New Haven and London. 177-176). 31 Curtis 2002, p. 65. 9 Ibid., P. 190. 32 Young 1994, p. 5. 10 Hegel, 2001, p. 19. 332Young 1994, p. 11. 11 Ibid., P. 27. 342See Chapter 1 in Young’s book, The Texture of Memory. 12 Ibid., P. 35. 352Ibid. 13 Ibid., P. 86. 362Ahr 2005, p. 288. 14 Malabou 200, p.207. 372Rautenberg, Eisenman Architects, 2005. 15 McTaggart 2000, p. 11. 382Eisenman 2005. 162Eisenstein 1999, p. 5.

26 27 39 Monuments such as Square of the Deported Jews by Ulrich Rückriem in Hamburg or the monument Hegel, G.W.F. (2001): The Philosophy of History, Batoche Books, Ontario. by Saul LeWitt in Münster – Memorial to the Missing Jews. Heidegger, Martin (1988): Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit, Bloomington: Indiana University Press. 40 Pickford 2012, p. 422. Houlgate, Stephen (2005): An Introduction to Hegel: Freedom, Truth and History, Blackwell 41 It should be noted that in Berlin there are other interesting projects, such as Micha Ullman's Bibliotek Publishing, Oxford. Memorial Babelplatz Square, and the dome of the Reichstag, designed by the English architect Huyssen, Andreas (Autumn 1997): "The Voids of Berlin", Critical Inquiry, Vol. 24, No.1, pp. 57-81. Norman Foster, but this is not the place to discuss these. Ladd, Brian (1998): The Ghosts of Berlin, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 42 The technical information on the project is taken from the website of the Stumbling Stones Commemoration Project: https://www.stolpersteine-berlin.de/en/berlin. Lowith, Karl (1949): Meaning in History, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

43 Dana Arieli calls this type of commemoration, which takes place close to or below ground, "crouching Malabou, Catherine and During Lisabeth (2000), "The Future of Hegel: Plasticity, Temporality, Dialectic", memorial"; similar to Micha Ullman's monument in Babel Square, and the Information Center at Hypatia, Vol. 15 No. 4, pp. 196-220. the Holocaust Memorial. See Arieli, 2014. McTaggart, John and Ellis (1896 - 2000): Studies in the Hegelian Dialectics, Batoche Books, Ontario.

Pickford, Henry W. (2012): "Dialectical Reflections on Peter Eisenman's Memorial for the Murdered Hebrew bibliography: Jews of Europe", Architectural Theory Review, 17:2-3, pp. 419-439. Arieli, Dana (2014): The Nazi Phantom, Tel Aviv: Resling Publishing House. Wilkins, Burleigh Taylor (1974): Hegel's Philosophy of History, Cornell University Press, Ithaca and London. Debord, Guy (2001): Society of the Spectacle, Dafna Raz (Translation), Tel Aviv: Babel Publishing House. Wise, Michael Z. (Dec/Jan 1998): "Totem and Taboo", Lingua Franca, Vol. 8, No. 9, pp. 38-47. Hegel, G.W.F. (2001): Introduction to: Phenomenology of the Spirit, Yirmiyahu Yovel (translation and Young, James E. (Winter 1992): "The Counter-Monument: Memory against Itself in Germany Today", introduction) Jerusalem: Magnes Press. Critical Inquiry, Vol. 18, No.2, pp.267-296. LaCapra, Dominick (2006): Writing History, Writing Trauma, Yaniv Farkash (translation),Tel Aviv: Resling Young, James E. (1993): The Texture of Memory, Yale University Press, New Haven and London. Publishing House.

Ahr, Johan (2005): "Memory and Mourning in Berlin: On Peter Eisenman's Holocaust-Mahnmal, pp. 283-305. Websites Curtis, Barry (2002): "That Place Where: Some Thoughts on Memory and the City", in Iain Bordon et al (Eds.): The Unknown City – Contesting Architecture and Social Space, MIT Press, London, pp. 54-67. 1.2 Holocaust memorial website:

Dekel, Irirt (2013): Mediation at the Holocaust Memorial in Berlin, Palgrave Macmillan. http://www.stiftung-denkmal.de/en/memorials/the-memorial-to-the-murdered-jews-of-europe/

Eisenman, Peter (1998): "The Peter Principles: Interview with Peter Eisenman", Architecture 87(11), pp. 87-93. history.html

Eisenman Architects (2005): Holocaust Memorial Berlin, Lars Muller Publishers, Switzerland. 2.2 Stumbling Stones website

Eisenstein, Paul (Fall/Winter 1999): "Holocaust Memory and Hegel", History and Memory, Vol. 11 No. 2, pp. 5-36. https://www.stolpersteine-berlin.de/en/berlin

28 29 BI-POLARITY OR CENTRALITY? POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS FOR THE INTERIOR DESIGN OF SYNAGOGUES IN THE IBERIAN DIASPORA

DAVID CASSUTO

In the history of synagogues around the world there is a dark hole that we find difficult to fill; we are very familiar with the history of the synagogues from the period of the Mishnah and the Talmud, and we have enough information to understand how they were used. We are familiar with the synagogues in Eastern, Central and Western Europe; we are aware of synagogues in North Africa and Italy. However, information is lacking regarding how the synagogues in the Iberian Peninsula functioned.

There are very few buildings that were unquestionably used as synagogues in Spain and Portugal. Only about six are known in Spain, and even fewer in Portugal. Some of them have undergone changes since the time they served as synagogues; they have been transformed and changed their function; they have become churches, museums or granaries, and today it is difficult to trace how they were used in their original form.

The way to answer this question is to try to find clues in historical documents, in miniatures of the period, in ‘Responsa’ (halachic questions and responses) literature and also in the buildings themselves; moreover, from clues that can clarify for us what happened in the synagogues in the Iberian Diaspora.

In my remarks, I will concentrate on the location of the two main elements inside the synagogues: the pulpit (bima) and the Holy Ark (Aron Hakodesh). The Ark is the sanctuary in which the scrolls of the Torah are kept, which is read, portion by portion, on the Sabbath and the Holydays, and on Mondays and Thursdays, from the beginning of Genesis until the end of Deuteronomy. The Torah is read from the pulpit, when the scroll is brought to it from the Ark during an impressive procession accompanied by singing and prayer. The prayers are also led from the pulpit. I will also trace how the congregation was seated, and the location of the women's section; from all these I will try to understand the liturgical procedure in the synagogues in the Iberian diaspora.

The first solution to the question of the location of the Ark and the pulpit is the (one-level or two-level) bi-polar solution. In other words, the synagogue is designed so that the Ark is located on the wall facing Jerusalem (the Wall of Zion), whereas the pulpit is located on the opposite wall, and sometimes it is sunken into it, like a kind of room, and the shelf on which the Torah scroll is placed protrudes into the space of the synagogue.

31 The second solution is the centralist solution of the synagogue space. In other words, there are that the person who is reading from Torah, or by those who recite to the people, the words four central columns located in the center of the space, and the pulpit is positioned between of rebuke, so that everyone will hear them and when they erect the tevah that contains the them. Sometimes the pulpit is placed in the center, without being surrounded by columns. Torah scroll, it is placed in the middle and behind the pulpit towards the Ark and facing the The Ark is always near the wall that faces towards Zion, or is recessed into it. people.” It is clear from this, that the tevah is not the pulpit; the tevah is apparently what is today called the "case" of the Torah, which is placed on a shelf located in the front of the pulpit; Solution 1: The bi-polar structure however, Maimonides is not talking about a bi-polar arrangement of the synagogue, but a To start with I will present the synagogue of Rabbi Yitzhak Ben Efraim Mehab (known as centered one, and for that reason I will not take his remarks into consideration in this portion El Transito) in Cordoba (photos 1-3) (Ben-Dov, 1989, 117-128). We did not encounter other of my writings (it should be noted that in the Sephardic testimony, the pulpit will, much later, synagogues of its kind in Spain; however, we realize that the internal arrangement echoed be called the teva but that was not the case in Maimonides’ time). Fig. 3: The dedicatory inscription to Ytzhak Mehab in Fig. 1: Cordova Synagogue plan and a general view the Cordova synagogue many synagogues in the Iberian diaspora. This is a relatively small space, 7 m x 6.50 m. The showing the western niche (Bimah) and the southern In the Responsa of the Rashbash (Solomon ben Simon Duran, Algeria) from the 15th century, space is bi-polar; on the eastern side is a small room containing the Torah scrolls; in the west woman section over an entrance anteroom quoting Asher ben Jehiel, in the 14th century in Toledo, it says: “And what is customary in some there is a flat alcove with amultilobal arch (surrounded by small round arches), around which places where a public emissary stands, in a wooden tower called in Arabic al-minbar…”. I will a verse from the Bible (Song of Songs 4: 4) is engraved: " Your neck is like the Tower of David, not go into the essence of the question answered by the Rashbash, but rather relate to the splendidly built (letalpioth); a thousand shields hanging on it, all the quivers of the heroes." fact that here we have a parallel between the wooden tower of the synagogue and the minbar In this verse there are three clear hints as to the location (next to the rear western alcove) of the mosque, which was known to be adjacent to the southern wall, the qibla (the extreme of the pulpit: "Like the Tower of David..." is reminiscent of the concept of the wooden tower, wall in the direction of the kaaba in Mecca), near the mihrab (the prayer alcove) (Michel, G., which apparently stood next to the alcove in the western part of the synagogue; "splendidly 1996, 22-25). It seems that in the Responsa mentioned above, the wooden tower stood near (letalpioth) built..." which is explained by the Sages: "All the mouths turn towards Him" (Song the western wall opposite the Ark. of Songs Rabbah 4: 4). Who, if not the Sephardic cantor, who functions as the focus for the mouths of the community members; "a thousand shields hanging on it, all the quivers of the However, the wooden tower or the minbar was not always placed in the west; as we see in heroes”. We will see that the Holy Arks and items from Jewish liturgy used to be adorned with Maimonides or as it appears, for example, in the sister Haggadah of the Golden Haggadah the emblems of the nobility of the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon, as seen in the Ark of Agira (photo 6) (Narkis, 1969, 58-59), as well as in the Responsa Pri Megadim, Orach Chaim, Eshel- (photo 4) (Bucaria, 1996, 28-31) in the hand washing basin in Siculiana (photo 5) and in the Abraham, chapter 669: "It is customary to encircle the minbar three times or seven times with well of Palermo - all of which are in Sicily (under Spanish dominion). The above verse, which Torah scrolls..." But the term minbar remained as is. In other words, they would encircle the surrounds the western alcove, clearly suggests that the wooden tower, i.e. the pulpit or the minbar or the wooden tower with the Torah scrolls, so that in this case, the wooden tower platform, was placed in the western part of the synagogue, with the flat alcove at its back. was not near any wall, but we shall discuss this further on.

It is interesting to examine how the Responsa literature (halachic questions and responses) The Holy Ark in the El Transito synagogue in Cordoba (unlike the one in Toledo) was, in fact, a relates to the pulpit: indeed the Rambam - Maimonides (1135-1204) - in Mishneh Torah, Laws Fig. 2: An Italian Miniature showing an interior view of small room in the east of the synagogue that could be entered, and the Torah scrolls placed on a bifocal synagogue, with the Heikhal on one extremity its shelves could be withdrawn (Narkis, 1992). On a stone that was found, out of place, near of Prayer, chapter 11, verse 3, writes: “a pulpit is erected in the synagogue, in the center, so and the Teivah on the other

32 33 a synagogue in Syracuse in Sicily, is written: "Barakeh Ben Rabbi Saadia the Elder (known as North Africa the pumpkin grower) dedicated two thirds of its own ground for the Holy Ark of the House of G-d"; or, if you wish, the Ark that was in Syracuse was part of a building, owned by Barakeh, In North Africa, many synagogues of the bi-polar type remain, at least in their plans; we know which was adjacent to the synagogue. this thanks to Jacob Pinkerfeld and Haim Zeev Halevi Hirschberg, who brought with them many plans of synagogues from all the North Africa countries. As an example, I will present In the bi-polar setup, the congregation in the synagogue would sit in rows, in two sections the case of the Shlomo Ibn Danan synagogue in Fez in Morocco (Pinkerfeld, 1974, 74-76) (Zack, on either side of the axis between the pulpit in the west and the Ark in the east. The internal 1993, pp. 29-32) (photos 9-10). The Ark covers the entire prayer wall, while the pulpit is inset arrangement in the synagogue in Cordoba was entirely on the ground floor level of the building. into a small back space, with a small canopy covering its façade, and a shelf on which to read Although there may have been another pulpit in the center of the space, no evidence of that the Torah protruding into the synagogue space. The structure is lengthwise and divided by a has remained. Later on we will see that the pulpit in the west may also have been raised on row of three columns. Here, too, the worshipers are seated in two sections on either side of a second level. the pulpit - Ark axis. We can only examine the custom in the Iberian diaspora, in order to understand the arrangement What characterizes the North African synagogues is that many of the spaces are bi-polar on that perhaps was customary in the Iberian Peninsula itself. one level, but are not regular; it is difficult therefore to see a planning rationale common to Southern France many synagogues.

Fig. 4: The Agira (Sicily) Spanish Holy- Ark (1454) Two synagogues from the Iberian diaspora, closest to the Iberian Peninsula itself, will exemplify Fig. 6: The “sister” of the ‘Golden Haggada’ showing Similar to that depicted in the Golden Hhagadah Italy the interior of a medieval Synagogue with the cantor this. Although these are synagogues from the 17th century, they are probably a continuation of -Spain the XV century) on the Migdal-etz (the Bema) and the stone holy- the chain of generations of synagogues from the time of the expulsion from Spain and Portugal. In most Italian communities, apart from those in Piedmont, the synagogues are bi-polar, similar Ark on the left We are referring to the synagogues in Carpentras and Cavaillon (photos 7-8) (Narkis, 1992, 32). to those in Provence and North Africa. This is especially evident in Venice (Camerino, 1991, In both these synagogues, the pulpit is located to the west at the rear of the synagogue, while 159-194), where they are almost all bi-polar (except for the Ashkenazi synagogue, the pulpit the Ark is in the east; but in the case of Carpentras, the pulpit is covered with a small canopy, of which, in the Ashkenazi fashion, is central; but over time, and with the integration between elevated an entire floor higher above the floor of the synagogue and protruding inwards. The the "western" and "eastern" Jews into the high Jewish society of Venice, the Ashkenazis also women's gallery is located along the northern and southern walls of the synagogue, in a kind shifted to the bi-polar method). of mezzanine floor. The seating in Ezrat Israel is similar to that in Cordoba, facing the axis that In the Ponentina synagogue (western-Spanish-Portuguese) in Venice (photos 11-12), entrance connects the pulpit to the Ark, on both sides. Seating both for the men and the women, is Fig. 5: Marbel Basin For Hands Washing in Siculiana, Sicily. dedicated to Samuel son of Yona Ziv’on (1480) into the synagogue is through a double staircase that exits from under the pulpit (Cassuto, similar, but on different levels. pay attention to the Arms of Castillia & Lyon 1978, 82-83). The pulpit is raised over two meters above the floor of the synagogue. During the 19th century an organ was introduced onto both sides of the table, but this was removed in the 20th century. (In Italy, the organ was not banned as in the Ashkenazi custom, but it was required that the musician playing it should be a non-Jew who was familiar with the rite

34 35 of prayer, according to the ruling of Rabbi Graziano of Modena, from the mid-18th century). Ahrida Synagogue (photos 15) In an engraving from the middle of the 18th century, one can see that when they had the The Ahrida synagogue consists of two synagogues: the older one, from 1430, belonged to hakafot (Hoshana Rabba and Simchat Torah) in the Ponentina Synagogue in Venice, because of the Romaniot community (a Jewish community which is neither Ashkenazi nor Sephardi, the fact they were unable to encircle the rear pulpit, they placed a temporary pulpit (a canopy) whose members lived in the Balkans and Asia Minor; the prayer is close to the Italian style). in the center (Bassi, 1962, 116). Another central pulpit will also appear in other diasporas of This synagogue has a large dome, like other ancient synagogues, particularly those in Bursa. It the Iberian peninsula. was active in Istanbul continuously since its construction. The second synagogue was added An instructive example of a raised back pulpit with the entrance to the synagogue underneath about 100 years later. This synagogue was founded by refugees from Spain, who reached the is in the Sephardi synagogue in the city of Pesaro (photos 13-14) dating back to 1700; this community of Ohrid in Macedonia and from there continued to Istanbul. is also the case in nearby Ancona, which dates back to the same period (Pinkerfeld, 1954, Here, for the first time, we encounter the existence of two pulpits in the synagogue; one is pp. 33-35). The prayer, the reading of the Torah, the sermons by the rabbis, all of these were a kind of balcony protruding from the railing of the women's gallery at the back, and it is conducted from the elevated pulpit. This solution is very similar to the solution in Provence probably associated with the Iberian style (as we saw in Provence and Italy). A second is located in southern France. on the floor of the synagogue, looking like the prow of a ship that arrived in Turkey after the All these synagogues are relatively small, so the pulpit being positioned at the end did not expulsion of the Jews from Spain. The women's section was hidden behind the upper pulpit, interfere with hearing the sermons, the Torah readings and prayers, and the cantor's songs of and there was no doubt that the women were closer to this pulpit than the men. I will talk Fig. 9: Bipolar synagogue in Fez (Morocco) pay attention prayer. In comparison, in the Great Synagogue of Livorno, one of the most important Spanish Fig. 7: The bipolar synagogue of Carpentras (France) more about the significance of these two pulpits later on. This phenomenon is also repeated to the Bemah included in the north-western wall and built in the early 17 Century restored in 1778 the entire south-eastern wall “covered” with holy arks synagogues in Europe – despite the fact that the pulpit remained in the back of the synagogue in two synagogues in the city of Bursa (the first capital of the Ottoman Empire). – because of its size it was not raised to an elevated level. In the same synagogue, they often added a choir to the cantor, to amplify his voice, because of the size of the hall. Expulsion(Gerush) Synagogue and Major (Majorca) Synagogue

The first synagogue was called the Expulsion Synagogue. Its name attests to the reason Asia Minor behind its establishment, which took place at the end of the 16th century (photo 16). The In Asia Minor we encounter an unprecedented phenomenon that suggests the influence of the second was the Major Synagogue, named for the Jews who built it, who came from the liturgy on architecture or, if we wish, architecture on the liturgy. I will concentrate on the older island of Majorca after being expelled there from Spain. Following the intermediate way- synagogues which may have preserved the traditional structure of the Iberian synagogues: the station on the Jews’ journey, this synagogue was built about 50-100 years after the Expulsion Ahrida Synagogue in Balat, the Jewish Quarter of Istanbul (1430-1500) (Zack, 2008, 52-53); Synagogue. The two synagogues are similar: they both have two pulpits, one at the back the Major (the congregation whose provenance was from Majorca) synagogue in the city of Fig. 8: interior view of the Synagogue of Carpentras, over the entrance which rises another floor in height above the floor of the synagogue; the pay attention to the elevated Bemah on the second Bursa, dating back to the end of the 16th century (Zack, ibid, 125); and the (gerush) Expulsion floor and the stairs leading to it second is located in the center of the synagogue. It is surrounded by columns and seats Synagogue in the city of Bursa, from the end of the 17th century, (Zack, ibid, 127). that are enclosed between the columns, some of which face the center and some of which Fig. 10: Bipolar synagogue in Fez (Morocco) pay attention to the Tevah included in the north-western wall and the way of sitting 36 37 face the rest of the congregation seated all around the hall. Those facing the center face of Samuel Castiel, David Belelia, Ephraim Sala and Yosef Levi. They established the synagogue the second, central pulpit. in the middle of the 16th century. In 1662, when the synagogue burned down, these families restored it to its original form, and it remains standing until today. The seating arrangement Asia in the Paradesi Synagogue was around the lower pulpit, and it is clearly reminiscent of the The synagogues in Cochin, India, function similarly to the ones in Turkey. I will relate to seating arrangement in the Iberian synagogues in Bursa and in Istanbul. It can therefore two of the six synagogues (Slapack, 1995, 56-69), (Weil, 2002, 55-60). One of them is the be assumed that all these synagogues were inspired by the interior design influence of the Karavumbagam (meaning: ‘the southern bank of the river’) (photo 17). This synagogue – the synagogues in the Iberian Peninsula. most beautiful in Cochin – became a warehouse for ropes. Later its interior was purchased by For everyone’s ears the Israel Museum and transferred to Israel in its entirety. The synagogue has a magnificent Holy Ark and a central pulpit made of brass poles (similar in its general shape to that of the We will try to understand the functions of the various officials in the double-pulpit synagogues. Ahrida synagogue in Istanbul). Here too, as in Istanbul, there is another pulpit on the second One should bear in mind that the Sephardic prayer style, and later the Oriental style, is floor, behind which is the women's gallery. It should be noted that the status of women in very different from that which is customary in the Ashkenazi synagogues. In the Sephardic the Jewish community in Cochin is no less than that of the men. synagogues, the cantor is not the only person whose voice is heard by the congregation. In these Fig. 11: Venetian bipolar Portuguese (Ponentina) synagogues the hymnologists (paytanim) are an important factor during prayer. In addition, Fig. 13: Pesaro Sephardic Synagogue. the entrance Another synagogue that remains in place is the Paradesi (‘of the foreigners’, a term for Jews Synagogue look twards the holy Ark the congregation also participates in the liturgy: singing the supplications, the selichot and the to the prayers hall is under The bema (1690) a look exiled from Spain and Portugal) (photo 18). It is similar in form to the synagogue mentioned towards this pole piyyutim, which are chanted during the prayers; individuals or groups from the congregation above, and contains the same elements, which are decorated in good taste. The decorations actively participate. The cantor, or the chanter, designates an individual or a group, to chant of these two synagogues are very different from those of the synagogues in Turkey. They are the prayer or sing the melody. built of massive teak beams and are decorated with typical Hindu decoration, with lotus flowers descending from the beams and a rich lattice to conceal the women behind the If the synagogue is not very large, then from his high position at the western side of the upper pulpit; all these decorations were characteristic of palaces and mosques in India, synagogue – the cantor is able, through signals or body language, to delegate someone from and are influenced by Hindu art. Parts from another synagogue in Cochin were used to the congregation to lead the liturgy. If the space is large enough so that the pulpit is situated in build the settlement of Nevatim in the Negev, which was initially settled by Jews who had the center with the congregation sitting around it, the paytan from the central pulpit indicates immigrated from Cochin. which person will be the leader.

In that case, what was the purpose of the raised rear pulpit? Who built these synagogues in situ? It seems that from there they would preach, conduct the particularly sublime canonical prayers, Fig. 14: Pesaro Sephardic Synagogue a look to the ark The story of these synagogues is linked to the fact that Cochin was a Dutch colony. The largest and read the Torah and the Haftara; since listening to the reading of the Torah is an obligation traders in the Netherlands were Jews of Portuguese and Spanish descent. They were sent to Fig. 12: Venetian bipolar Portuguese (Ponentina) for every person who prays. There is no participation here for the congregation – rather, the Cochin to perform serious economic transactions; among them were members of the families Synagogue, look twards the Bimah that has been reader is the only one who reads the Torah and it is his obligation to be accurate while he is covered with an organ in 1894 (allowed by italian rabbis)

38 39 reading, and his voice must be heard clearly. Everyone, every man and woman, must hear the is a Hebrew inscription (photo 4) stating the year it was made. The inscription has by now reading of the Torah. The location of the Torah reader in a high place elevates him above the disappeared almost altogether, however Don Rocco, who studied the temple 70 years ago, congregation (unlike the lower pulpit, where the cantor or the chanter (paytan) are just the managed to copy the inscription (Bucaria, 2001, 5) "Jacob's house was blessed in the light of ,emphasized in the inscription indicates the thousands 'ה The Hebrew letter .('באור ה) " first’ among many participants). The voice of the person reading the Torah, or of the person the Lord‘ delivering the sermon, is clearly heard from both the men’s section and the women’s gallery. and then the word for ‘in the light’, so that the meaning in numerology comes 1449, i.e., 50 Thus it is in Provence, Italy, Morocco, and also in Asia Minor and Cochin. years after the dating of our Haggadah. In the center of the arch above the door of the temple was the emblem of the kingdom of Aragon, the region in which the Haggadah was illustrated, Therefore, the small raised rear platform was meant for reading the Torah, or for giving a sermon, and these are the rulers who were indicated on the emblem of the nobility on the Holy Ark. or for leading a particularly important prayer; while the lower pulpit, if there was one, was Fig. 15: The Ahrida Synagogue, Istanbul, pay attention intended for the regular prayer and sections of piyyut – and it is appropriate and important to the two Bemoth in the middle and in the rear of The question thus arises as to whether there were such synagogues resting on a square that the congregation, whether large or small, will have a sense of closeness and belonging. the hall (1430) of supporting columns, on the Iberian Peninsula? It should be noted that there is indeed a synagogue of this kind in Tomar in Portugal (Wischnitzer, 1964, 42) (photos 20-21). Observing Solution 2: The centralist arrangement the beautiful space inside the Portuguese synagogue, and at the same time looking at the miniature of the sister Haggadah of the Golden Haggadah, it is possible to understand how Fig. 17: The Kadavumbagam Synagogue (1560) in Cochin This solution of one central pulpit is found in particularly large synagogues in which the ceiling the space in the synagogue in Tomar, Portugal was used. It is reasonable to assume that the with the upper Bema,and the women section behind requires central support. This support is not effected through a single column but by means it, in the immage you can note the misuse of the hall Ark in Tomar is similar to the Ark we found in Agira. of four columns. Naturally, the pulpit is enclosed between them. The wooden tower is also called al-minbar by the Jews; meaning the minbar that parallels This is where the theory presented above differs, and the synagogue takes on a completely the minbar in the mosque. However, unlike the minbar in the mosques, which always stood different character. I will begin by clarifying the miniature that appears in the sister Haggadah Fig. 16: The Gerush Synagogue in Bursa (turkey). 15 near the qibla wall next to the mihrab and, similar to it, we assumed that there was also one of the Golden Haggadah (photo 6). This is a photograph of a synagogue. Indeed, the illustrator century. Take note of he double Bimoth in the middle and in the rear on an upper level in the synagogue of Yitzchak Mehab in Cordoba, so that every wooden tower, even if it stood or the person who commissioned the Haggadah notes above the illustration: "The owner in the middle of the hall, was called al-minbrah by the Jews. Since we found, as mentioned of the house and his household, reciting the Haggadah". However, this is not what appears above, in Pri Megadim, Orach Chaim, Eshel-Abraham, chapter 669: "It is customary to surround in the painting. The painting depicts prayer in a synagogue (or perhaps the reading of the al-minbrah with Torah scrolls", it is clear that in this case the minbar was in the center, as in Haggadah inside the synagogue). The miniature originated at the end of the 14th century, in the synagogue in Tomar ( although Pri Megadim is Ashkenazi and from the 18th century). the region of Catalonia or Aragon. From the painting we learn that the synagogue was erected using four columns and the wooden tower is located between them. The pulpit is reminiscent Do we find synagogues erected on four columns in the Iberian diaspora? Indeed, we find of the church pulpits during that period, usually made of marble (photo 19). Opposite the many such synagogues in Morocco and North Africa in general. In the Atlas Mountains (the cantor there is a sort of stone structure with a door inside of it. Some believed that this was Anti-Atlas), there are many synagogues erected on four central columns (such as that of the the entrance to the synagogue, until a stone sanctuary was found in Agira, in Sicily, which is Tiznit, or Ifrane, Tahala and Taroudant, all of them in the Anti-Atlas and dating back to the very reminiscent of the structure in our Haggadah (photo 6) (Narkis, 1969, 59), on which there 17th century) (photo 22) (Pinkerfeld, 1974, 112; 114; 122-124). Fig. 18: An external view of the Paradesi Synagogue Cochin 40 41 In Asia Minor there are several large synagogues that are supported by four central columns. The oldest and the most important is the "Seniora" synagogue in Izmir, dating back to the 16th century. It was apparently built in the honor of – or with money donated by Doña Gracia Mendes Nasi, (photo 23) (Zack, 2008, 134-137). Later the central pulpit was replaced by two reading shelves on both sides of the pulpit; an arrangement that derives from a drastic change in the liturgical use of the synagogue.

Another synagogue in Izmir which also underwent the same metamorphosis is Etz Chaim (Zack, 2008, 140-144), dating back to 1700, and from which the central pulpit was also removed during the 18th century and was moved to the two sides of the Holy Ark. Yet another

synagogue in Izmir, also from the early 18th century, is Bikur Cholim (Zack, 2008, 130-133). Fig. 20: The plan of the four central pillars Tomar The pulpit here is inserted between the four columns, as a cell standing in its own right, as (Portugal) Synagogue (15 century) in the abovementioned Haggadah (photo 24) (Zack, 2008, 160-163). And finally, the unique synagogue of Bergama (Pergamon), from the 18th century. Here the four columns are so close together that the pulpit is fitted in tightly between them (photo 25).

In Hungary there are three synagogues supported by four central columns: in Bonyhád; in Mad Fig. 23: Synagogue Sinyora (the Lady) leaning on four (photo 26); and in Apostag. All three of them are from the end of the 17th century (Gozda, central pillars in Izmir (Turkey) 16th Century 1991, 131). During that same period (up to 1699), these areas of Hungary were occupied Fig. 19: A typical Ecclesiastical Italian Marble Pulpit by the Ottoman Empire. It is possible that inspiration can be found here from the Turkish Fig. 22: A synagogue leaning on 4 central pillars with a done in the fourteenth Century by Giovanni Pisano skylight on the top. Ifran in the counter Atlas mountains synagogues, which they clearly resemble. I am not inclined to attribute their inspiration to it reminds the wooden Al-Mimbar of the synagogue (Morocco) a view to the Bema depicted in the sister of the Golden Haggada (see fig 7) the Polish ‘fortress’ synagogues, which also stand on four columns, since these – unlike the Turkish and the Hungarian – are massive. There is no doubt that Jews who moved from one place to another throughout the Ottoman Empire carried the architectural concepts of design with them throughout the empire.

One synagogue in Italy, in the city of Asti in Piedmont (which was unmistakably influenced by the Ashkenazi style) (photo 27), was also erected using four supporting columns; However, it was constructed in the middle of the 18th century and is more likely to have been influenced

by the Eastern European synagogues that were built with four columns (Biddau, 2002, 28-33). Fig. 21: The four central pillars Tomar (Portugal) Synagogue (15 century)

42 43 And who knows the solution to the riddle?

If that is the case, the question at the beginning of the article can be answered, because we have observed some solutions from among the various solutions proposed, in Europe and in North Africa, all of which originate in the Iberian Peninsula. We have attempted to understand how these synagogues functioned before the expulsion. I assume that there will be as yet undiscovered synagogues, and that our ability to solve the Iberian riddle may yet expand further, and enable us to learn more about synagogues that have disappeared over the generations. Fig. 24: The Bikur-Holim Synagogue in Izmir, Turkey Fig. 25: Bergama (Turkey) Synagogue, (18th century) Fig. 26: Mad Synagogue (Hungary, 18th century) the (1724). The Bemah is included between four sustaining the Bema is enclosed between four pillars Bema is enclosed between four pillars pillars Bibliography:

Ben Dov, M. (1989), Synagogues in Spain, Dvir Publishing House, Tel Aviv.

Yaniv, B. (2009), Maaseh Rokem (Embroidery), published by the Ben-Zvi Institute for the Study of Jewish Communities in the East, Jerusalem.

Sefer Shiboli Haleket, Seder Ta'anit, siman 269.

Pinkerfeld, Y. (1954), Synagogues of Italy, published by the Bialik Institute, Jerusalem.

Pinkerfeld Y. (1974), Synagogues of North Africa, published by the Bialik Institute, Jerusalem.

Responsa HaMordechai, tractate Berachot, Responsa Bosch Orach Chaim, siman 58, section 19.

Responsa Pri Megadim, Orach Chaim, Eshel-Abraham, Siman 1909.

Responsa Rosh, rule 5, question 21.

Responsa Rashbash, Siman 573.

Maimonides Laws of Prayer Chapter Eleven Siman 3

Bucaria, N. (1996), Sicilia Judaica, Flaccovio Ed, Palermo. Fig. 27: Asti-Piemonte, (end of the 18th century) the only Synagogue in Italy based on four pillars probably Bucaria, N. (2001), "L'Arte Ebraica in Sicilia", Kalos Anno 13, No 2, pp. 4-13. by ashkenazi influence Bassi, E., (1962), Architettura del Sei e Settecento a Venezia, Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane, Palermo.

Biddau, N. (2002), Gli Spazi Della Parola, Elede editore SRL, Torino.

44 45 Camerino, U. "I Rilievi delle Sinagoghe", in: Albizzi )ed.) (1991) La Città degli Ebrei, Venezia, pp. 159-194.

Cassuto, D. (1978), Ricerche sulle Cinque Sinagoghe (Scole) di Venezia e Suggerimenti per il loro Ripristino, Jerusalem Printing House, Jerusalem.

Gazda, A. (1991), Zsinagogak es zsido kozsegek magyaror szagon, MTA, Judaisztikai kutaitocsoport, Budapest.

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Narkis, B. "The Heikhal Bimah & Teivah in Sephardi Synagogues, Jewish Art no. 18, 1992, pp. 31-47.

Slapack, O. The Jews of India, Israel Museum, Jerusalem.

Weil, S. (2002), Indian's Jews Heritage, Marg Publicatons, Mumbai.

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Zack, J. (1993), The Synagogues of Morocco, The Jewish Heritage Council World Monument Fund, New York.

Zack, J. (2008), The Historic Synagogues of Turkey, The American Sephardi Federation, Istanbul.

46 47 THE ESTHETIC INFLUENCE OF THE CANTILEVER BALCONY IN ISRAEL

GILEAD SCHWEID

In spoken Hebrew, the term ‘balcony’ refers to several architectural elements, some of which already appeared long ago in different parts of the world, in different cultures, and in a wide variety of forms and uses. Although in Israel the balcony is a very important component of residential construction, the definition of ‘balcony’ is not simple. The Even Shoshan dictionary refers to it as a ‘terrace’ and clarifies: "(1) a balcony, like a terrace in front of the house. (2) a spacious terrace on the ground floor. A ‘terrace’ is defined in the same dictionary as being "a space protruding from the wall of the house and surrounded by a railing". In other languages there are quite a few terms that define external portions of a structure and which can be included in the definition of ‘balcony’. It can be seen that definition No. 1 – terrace - is similar to ‘portico’, which is a covered passageway between the exterior and the interior, attached to the bottom of the building and allowing access to it from the outside. Compared with that is definition 2, which is similar to ‘loggia’ – an indoor element attached to a structure, accessed only from the inside of the building, and which can also appear higher up on the building. On the other hand, the definition of ‘terrace’ in the dictionary is closer to what we usually mean when we say ‘balcony’. This definition can also refer to a fairly wide range of architectural conditions; and what is common to all of them is that the element opens outwards from one or several directions, and is connected to the body of the structure from at least one direction. From a functional aspect, a ‘balcony’ is an external surface into the apartment / structure and which belongs to the apartment / structure, mediating between the interior and the exterior, and (in a residential apartment) allowing for residential activities which are more convenient to conduct there, rather than inside the apartment. This definition is also suitable for terrace balconies that were used for various purposes in the oldest constructed buildings that we know of. Based on existing archaeological research, terraces (in other words, flat, paved or tiled surfaces, exterior to and attached to a structure) appeared for the first time in the Natufian culture in the Galilee and the Carmel about 12,000 years ago, with the first stone structures (Belfer Cohen 1992, p. 119). In other words, the first stone structures of which we have physical evidence – which by chance, or perhaps not by chance, were found in the Land of Israel – also contain a certain type of balcony, which was apparently used to perform various crafts, and to spend time in during the good weather. Morphologically,

48 49 one should mention five general types of balconies we find in Israel: garden terraces; roof narrow balcony constructed of wood which is also closed at the façade), or the French balcony terraces (built on a portion of the roof of the floor below); protruding / cantilever balconies; (very narrow). It seems that most of these balconies (at least in central and northern Europe) sunken balconies; and sunken protruding balconies. Due to the lack of space, I shall discuss were used largely for esthetic purposes, even if they sometimes had other uses. Generally, in this article only the esthetic contribution of cantilever balconies. This is because they are the use (including the esthetic use) was what dictated the construction of the balcony, its the most common balconies in residential buildings in Israel, and because their possible location and dimensions, and the esthetic conventions were what dictated how the features esthetic impact is the greatest and the most varied. were handled. Thus, in the Muslim Middle-Eastern residential culture, cantilever balconies that were mostly closed were widespread. These were used as places where jugs of water Narrow cantilever balconies that protrude from the wall, those on wall-mounted supports were cooled; as observation points and places where one could find relief from the heat; for (and sometimes also on columns) are later than the garden balconies (terrace and veranda), women, without exposing them to the glances of passers-by in the street. In Baghdad, for than the roof balconies, and the portico. However, they also appeared many years ago, in example, this balcony developed into an entire room called shanasheel. It had a cantilever different parts of the world and in many styles. It can be assumed that the first cantilever portion that protruded out over the street and the wooden carvings that enclosed it were balconies appeared due to various functional needs. There is artistic evidence of their existence the major decoration of the façade facing the street (Golani 1994, pp. 105-103). Even in Muslim in Minoan Crete, although it is not yet clear what their exact use was or how common they construction, it seems that the institutional functioning of the balconies prior to that had were. (Palyvou C. 2004). In Europe, these balconies first appeared in the early Middle Ages – been private. In the 8th century CE, the minaret appeared: a tall tower attached to the a turbulent period in terms of security – in the form of the ‘bretèche’, a defensive element mosque, from which the muezzin called the faithful to prayer. Whether the steps appeared that stands out from the wall. At the beginning the bretèche was made of wood, and at a on the outer side of the minaret – as it was at first, or whether they were on the inside – as later date became part of the construction of the wall, and in many cases they could even they were later on, the muezzin would call from a balcony that covered the entire top part be moved from place to place. It was for the most part located over a gate or on the side of of the minaret – since according to custom, the muezzin should call out to the four winds. a tower, and from there it was possible to shoot arrows downwards, as well as lob stones In certain places, Georgia, for example, long cantilever balconies combined with external and boiling oil onto the attackers trying to break through the gate or the wall. Later, these stairs served as external corridors from which people entered the apartments on floors other balconies started to be built out of stone and they became permanent. (Frappa J. 1917). In than the ground floor. Elsewhere, balconies were used as an entrance (with the addition of time, cantilever balconies were added to the town hall, facing the main square, and that was exterior stairs) or as an external corridor of the apartment for the purpose of moving from how they became part of established construction. From these balconies, official notices one room to another. As long as the cantilever balconies were built with supports made were read out to the public gathered in the square. These balconies were built of wood and of stone or wood, the degree of their deviation from the wall of the building was quite stone, and were decorated according to the rules of style customary in that place and at that limited. In the 18th century, with the appearance of cast iron as a building material, there time. At the end of the Middle Ages, with the appearance of the residential apartment facing also appeared balconies some or all of which were made of iron. Due to the nature of the the urban street and located on floors higher than the ground floor – and especially with material, the iron balconies – especially the lattice – became much more decorative. At the the enlargement of the windows – narrow cantilever balconies facing the street started to end of the 19th century, with the introduction of reinforced concrete as a building material, appear also in residential construction (Frappa, ibid). For example, the Maltese balcony1 (a it was possible to create cantilever balconies that protruded much further. The increasing

50 51 width of the cantilever balconies opened up a new range of functional uses, while the nature prominent and influential elements of the street's appearance and character. Here, planning of the material greatly increased the range of design options. that takes this perspective into consideration and relates to the street as a whole, can greatly improve its appearance. Types of esthetic influence common in the cantilever balconies Unintended influences If we analyze the possible esthetic contribution of cantilever balconies, regardless of the intention of the planner and based on general esthetic parameters, the fact is that the use of It is thus evident that the use of cantilever balconies can have esthetic implications that the cantilever balconies – as opposed to the construction of smooth façades – may have several planner is not necessarily aware of. But awareness of these effects can, in fact, enhance the important esthetic impacts relevant to the visual complexity of the façade; the orders of esthetics of the façade. Here are some examples of such effects: magnitude seen on the façade; and the dimension of depths across the façade. Cantilever Complexity: Many have argued that the complexity and appearance of the object has an balconies also create the play of light and shade, which shift with the changes in lighting. actual esthetic effect. For example, Klinger and Salingaros (2000) argued that a signfcant and Moreover, since such balconies are also visible from below, a lower façade is added to them. orderly complexity contributes to esthetic pleasure. This is similar to Arnheim’s assertion that In cases where this façade is carefully handled, it is possible to create a special architectural orderly complexity creates a good feeling, disorderly complexity creates confusion, and order experience, especially when the balconies hang relatively low and when they are quite without complexity creates boredom (Lavie & Tractinsky, 2004). In general, studies have found wide. Conscious planning which takes these effects into account can improve the esthetic that moderate visual complexity has an esthetic advantage. If we refer to typical residential contribution of the balconies. Beyond the effects mentioned above, there are clear effects that buildings in Israel, usually their formative and formal complexity is quite minor. Therefore, the planners make use of. Among these is the distribution of balconies across the façade – cantilever balconies (and others) almost always increase the complexity, in a manner that which, like the distribution of other prominent elements, can affect its composition. Balconies contributes to the esthetic impression, as long as they appear in an orderly manner rather are an excellent tool for creating geometrical arrays, playing with material and color, and than randomly across the structure. Multiple balconies of all sizes, in all kinds of shapes and simulating movement and dynamics across the façade, and to emphasize its horizontal, in seemingly random locations, can severely impair the esthetic impression of the façade, vertical and diagonal lines. Individual or special balconies can highlight important parts of due to visual confusion and lack of structured planning. the building. Balconies can add geometrical shapes to the inventory of façade shapes and, in The number of ratios or distinct magnitudes: The number of ratios of the parts from which an some cases, can bridge different geometries in different portions of the façade. Balconies also element is composed apparently has considerable importance in terms of esthetic perception enable tenant activity, which may create either positive or negative esthetic effects. Thus, for (Salingaros, 1998; 2003; Haken, 2006). Alexander argues that in architecture, in order to example, cultivating vegetation on the terrace can often contribute to the esthetics of the achieve an esthetically satisfactory result, there should be elements of at least four orders of façade (greenery, color, a sense of nurturing), while storing large objects or closing off the magnitude: large, medium, small and very small. He stresses the desirability of definite gaps balcony with various materials can significantly damage its esthetics (neglect, disorder, dirt). between them, rather than a continuous transition. That is to say, there should preferably Balconies can also make a decisive contribution to the esthetics of the street. When it comes be elements associated with a particular magnitude, rather than each element having a to looking from the side and especially on narrow streets, balconies are among the most different order of magnitude (Alexander 2002, p. 145-150). Salingaros supports Alexander and

52 53 emphasizes in particular the importance of the small orders of magnitude, ranging from one very bright for much of the year, the resulting contrast is usually sharp and strong, and can half a centimeters to two meters. He argues that modern architecture's disregard for including contribute greatly to the beauty of the façade. such sizes is the main reason for its rather esthetically dismal products (Salingaros, 1998). A study that examined the contribution of the number of orders of magnitude to the esthetic Intended esthetic effects value of façades, inter alia by means of balconies, found that an increase in the number of magnitudes contributed significantly to an increase in the esthetic value of the façade These esthetic influences are deliberate, used by the architect to improve the beauty of the (Schweid, 2011, pp. 166-165). Balconies are a major element, several meters in size. Moreover, structure, and sometimes to achieve other goals, such as improving the legibility or artistic these elements are easily noticeable, and often include elements of smaller sizes, such as expression of the structure. bars. In other words, the addition of balconies to the structure creates a greater richness of Composition: In most historical styles, the main façade of the building – especially in an distinct magnitudes, thus increasing the beauty of the structure. The designer's awareness important building – was usually designed with a two-sided symmetry. In the international of this esthetic feature can be expressed in both the size of the balconies, and in their design, style, however, this principle was replaced by an asymmetric ‘composition’. Composition – i.e., so that they contain additional smaller orders of magnitude, also in the organization of the manner of connection and the relationship between components of the whole – is one the façade, so as to visually create additional orders of magnitude, for example, in intervals of the most important principles of beauty in any artistic work, including architecture. The between balconies or in the columns of balconies. cantilever balcony and its ‘visual weight’ are prominent, and allow it to be an important element Adding a dimension of depth to the façade: The façade of a structure may be flat or may have in the composition of the façade, even when the overall shape of the façade is simple and a dimension of depth. An experiment conducted by Stamps (1999), revealed that façades somewhat banal. That is to say, that even when there is no interesting play between the large Fig. 1: Balconies that are an important part of the composition. with depth are perceived as being more esthetic than flat façades. Balconies contribute to entities of which the structure is composed, cantilever balconies can render the composition Jerusalem. this dimension of depth, especially when they are sunken or cantilevered, and when they are of the façade more interesting and esthetic, whether or not the façade is symmetrical. A wide. As with complexity, even when consciously using the dimension of depth for esthetic different material or color for the balconies can greatly reinforce this dimension. purposes, one must maintain a logical and balanced array of balconies. A seemingly random Semblance of motion, arrays and emphasis on vertical and horizontal lines: Beyond the issues use of depth will damage the esthetic appearance rather than contribute to it. of symmetry and composition of the entire façade, it is possible, by means of an array of Light and shadow: Shadows allow you to capture three-dimensional depth and shape; however, balconies, to create patterns, dynamic or otherwise, across the façade. It is also possible to they also create a strong contrast between illuminated and shaded surfaces. Alexander argues strengthen the vertical perception of the structure (using vertical columns of balconies) or that good, sharp contrast is one of the principles that contribute to beauty. He differentiates the balanced perception of the structure (using long and continuous balconies the entire between successful and unsuccessful contrast by way of examples (Alexander, ibid., p. 200- width of the façade). 203). It seems that contrast that serves an orderly and planned array, as well as a rhythmic Emphases: Highighting important parts of the structure in all kinds of ways is a basic esthetic array, is what creates beauty. When talking about shadows created by cantilever balconies, tool in almost any architectural style. These highlights may signal, for example, a main the contrast can be not only organized, but can also change when the angle of the sun in entrance or an important wing, but also a window, a cornice or a corner. In most styles, the Fig. 2: Highlighting the horizontal direction. Jerusalem. the sky changes, and with the amount of clouds overhead. In Israel, where the sunlight is main means of highlighting important parts has been with a variety of decorative elements.

54 55 In the international style of architecture, which opposes the use of traditional decorations, contributes to the façade, and in accompanying decoration such as planters. the single balcony, or one characterized with a special appearance, size, color, etc., highlights Artistic expression: In exceptional cases, an architect tries to express himself artistically in a certain areas of the structure. It is interesting to note that in the styles of the past, and in manner which is extreme. Because of their functional irregularities and visual prominence, places where balconies are not common, balconies were used for this purpose, for example, in balconies can serve as tools for this expression, without creating esthetic implications that Italy, where in many buildings from the period of the Renaissance onwards, a single cantilever are too strong for the façade. The balconies designed by Antoni Gaudí can serve as good balcony hanging above the main entrance signals and highlights its location. examples of such expression – for instance, Casa Milà in Barcelona. Adding various geometric elements: Since the cantilever balcony is a separate component with its own identity, it can be given a geometric shape unrelated to the overriding geometry of Reasons for the large number of cantilever balconies in Israel the façade. For example, on the façade of a building dominated by straight lines and right angles, and the inventory of shapes is cubist, it is possible to hang an angular or curved Compared to the rest of the world, in Israeli cities, balconies – especially cantilever balconies balcony, or a free-style balcony, without creating dissonance – a step that can turn the façade – are a prominent component, particularly in residential construction. They are so prevalent into something more interesting and esthetic. In Israel, one can see a relatively broad use of that one may consider the cantilever balcony as one of the components of the emerging this feature, especially with the addition of rounded shapes to structures that are basically Israeli style. This can probably be attributed to two main reasons: the first is the Israeli cubist in form; a phenomenon that may be attributed to Erich Mendelsohn, who built several climate. In contrast to the European climate – which is cold in the winter and rainy even buildings in Israel in the 1930s featuring such balconies (Rothbard, 2005, p. 57). in the summer, and where sitting on the balcony is often unpleasant – in Israel, where Mediation between different geometries or different parts of the structure: Sometimes, due to more than half the year the weather is hot and without rain, sitting outdoors is relatively the shape of the plot of land, or due to certain structural requirements, a building contains pleasant, especially on really hot days when it is very hot inside the house. This advantage several different forms, or several different geometries. Ultimately, due to the joining of is expressed in the construction of cantilever balconies, especially in cities or towns, and entities coming from different geometrical families, or exhibiting different grids, the overall in apartments that are not at ground level. This is because the balcony allows you to sit appearance of the structure is discordant and unsuccessful. A different connecting entity ‘outside’, while being organically connected to the apartment, even in ones that are not could also transform the complex into an esthetic composition. A cantilever balcony is an attached to the ‘outdoors’. Urban planning in Israel from the early 20th century did not obvious entity in this case, since it extends beyond the surface of the façade, and can appear provide enough open public spaces, such as gardens or squares, and thus only increased in all sorts of forms without affecting its esthetics. this need. Properly designed cantilever balconies can also improve the ventilation in the Decoration: In many styles in the past, the cantilever balcony was the main decorative apartment, which is a decisive advantage during the summer, especially in the hot and humid element. Leading architects of modern architecture, such as Adolf Loos, came out coastal plain of Israel. It also shades the walls and openings and reduces the heat. Leading demonstrably against the ornamentation of past styles, but decoration remains one of Israeli architects of the early 20th century, such as Berwald and Kaufman, attached great the most important principles used by the successful architects who have designed in importance to the local climate, and recognized the importance of the balcony as a means the contemporary style. The main difference was in the means and the level of the detail. Fig. 3: of improving living conditions. The second reason is the fact that the architectural style that A decorated balcony that emphasizes the main Cantilever balconies can be used as decoration either when their shape or their color entrance. Jerusalem. dominated construction in Israel from the 1930s to the 1970s was the international style.

56 57 There were various movements in the international style which introduced the cantilever The esthetic history of the cantilever balcony in Israel balcony as an architectural component for purposes of composition as early as the 1920s. In sketches by futurist architects, Antonio Sant'Elia and Mario Chiattone, such use had already Narrow cantilever balconies appeared in Arab urban construction2 as early as the 19th century. been observed in 1914-1915 (Rosse, 1999, p. 35; 43), but these structures were not built. Thus, At first, these balconies were supported by decorated ornamental stones embedded into the for example, we can see cantilever balconies that are an essential part of the structural wall. From the end of the century until the end of the Ottoman rule, balconies were generally composition of the building in the Bauhaus residence in Dessau, designed by Gropius in supported by metal rails (Kroyanker, 1985, p. 120). These balconies were initially used as a 1924; in Schröder House in Utrecht, in 1925, representing the elementalist movement (Filler, primarily decorative element, and as a means of improving the ventilation and shading, 1982, p. 136-145), and in Villa Cooke in Paris by Le Corbusier in 1926, representing the Cubist because their width was such that it was not possible to remain on them for long periods. movement (Blake, 1960, p. 54)., In a book published in 1928 as part of the Bauhaus, one of Stylized stone railings or iron trellises with geometric patterns were installed (Kroyanker, the most important proponents of the style, Moholi-Nagi, referred directly to the balconies ibid., p. 124). In terms of esthetics, these balconies were often used to highlight an important as expressing some of the new esthetics (Banham, 1978, p. 331). While in Europe in the late element such as an entrance, and to decorate the building’s façade. Even among other 1920s and early 1930s, the international style was rejected: on ideological grounds in Russia bodies building in Israel during the second half of the 19th century, cantilever balconies also and Nazi Germany; it came to a standstill in light of the difficult economic situation in appeared sporadically – for example, in the American Colony in Jaffa, built by the followers France; and in England because of indifference to its esthetics (Banham, p. 335). In Israel, of the Reverend George Adams in 1866. Despite the fact that the houses in the colony were which did not, at that time, have a real style, the international style was perceived as being constructed from ready-made parts and made of construction wood imported from America, representative of Zionism, and therefore enjoyed great success and the support of the and despite the fact that where they came from no one had a cantilever balcony, most of the institutions. Moreover, in Israel the style underwent a certain adaptation, in the direction settlers in Jaffa added wooden balconies to their homes to better cope with the local climate of greater use of balconies compared to Europe. In northern Europe it is desirable to (Lifshitz et al., 1988). These balconies were practical and not intended for esthetic purposes, introduce a maximal amount of sunlight into the building, while in Israel small windows but their design was meticulous. Their esthetic contribution lay primarily in increasing the are sufficient, and shading on the walls and openings greatly improves the function of the complexity of the façade and the different orders of magnitude, as well as by adding a certain building in terms of climate. Therefore, instead of the long ribbon window of Le Corbusier lightness to the appearance of the buildings. In the Mea Shearim neighborhood, designed – which constituted one of the principles of modern architecture – they started building by Conrad Schick and built in 1874, wooden balconies were attached to the apartments on long balconies in Israel, which created a similar composition in some ways, with climatic the second floor (Carmon, 1977). Here too, the main intention was probably practical, but advantages (Metzger-Szmuk, 2004, p. 12). Another reason unique to Israel, the importance the esthetic contribution of the balconies was to increase the complexity and the different of which has grown over the past 30 years, is the response of cantilever balconies and roof orders of magnitudes, and to add a different material, with its color and texture, to the stone balconies to the need by a large sector of the public to build a ‘sukkah’ during the Feast of façades. After World War I, and especially in the 1920s, the most common building style in Tabernacles, in a dense urban environment and in apartments not on the ground-floor. Israel was eclectic. What was special about this style was the combination of architectural motifs selected from a variety of architectural styles. In Israel, various oriental motifs were integrated, in addition to motifs from Western styles. Cantilever balconies were incorporated

58 59 in a relatively large proportion of the buildings built in the eclectic style. The Jewish designers, to Israel, started designing in the spirit of the international style. Very quickly, most of the architects who tried to create a ‘new Hebrew style’, integrated cantilever balconies into the façade for who worked in Israel in the 1920s, such as Magidovich, adopted the new style, the spirit of which practical reasons, as well as for esthetic purposes. The cantilever balconies appeared in a had a decisive influence on the design of the balconies and their esthetic perception. Two of the variety of sizes and with all kinds of details, but they always also had an esthetic purpose. principles of the international style had particular impact: negating the symmetry and replacing Because they were used as ornamentation, these balconies often included Bezalel painted it with composition, and eliminating decoration. Other principles that had a great impact were tiles, stylized handrails, vases, and especially-designed supports that were for the most part the long ribbon window which was replaced by long balconies, and the emphasis on the use of made of stone. A large number of these balconies emphasized the entrance to the house, plastered concrete, which also influenced the shape and appearance of the balconies. Emphasis or a corner between two streets. Some of them were decorated in materials that varied the on the ‘truth of the material’ influenced how iron was used on balconies, where the trellises building’s materials and colors. In some cases the balconies served as a bridge between decorated in the Art Deco style or geometrical shapes were replaced by simple iron pipes and geometries and various parts of the building. Thus, for example, at the Pagoda House in bands. The inventory of balcony shapes expanded and in addition to various kinds of rectangles Tel Aviv, designed by Alexander Levy in 1925. The large cantilever balconies at the top of the they began to include rounded shapes as well as combinations of rectangles and circles. Trapezoids building overlook the triangular shape of the courtyard, to connect the wings built on the and other geometrical shapes also appeared in some places. As a result of the use of reinforced streets that converge at a sharp angle, and create a harmonious entity. The eclectic shape concrete, the supports for the balconies disappeared, and the balconies widened and began to of the balconies tended to be rectangular, though sometimes they were curved at the outer protrude directly from the wall. Instead of the obvious ornamentation of the previous style, a perimeter a building (for example, at the Nordau Hotel, designed by Yehuda Magidovich in gentle decorative style appeared, expressed in the base of the balcony being graduated, in the 1925). Bialik House, designed by Joseph Minor and built in 1925-6, features a closed wooden details of the balcony's connection to the façade of the building, and the combination of the cantilever balcony, the walls of which are covered with a kind of wooden paneling. Even material and the color of the metal railings and the concrete. among the affluent Arabs, especially in Jerusalem, many eclectic buildings were built during The designed esthetic highlights were usually expressed in the general contribution to the the first decades of the 20th century. The eclectic highlights here were slightly different. In overall composition of the structure, in enriching the range of geometric shapes, in breaking many of the structures, cantilever balconies appeared for esthetic purposes. These were used symmetry, in emphasizing corners, and in playing with light and shadow which also relied on to decorate the façade, and especially to indicate the entrance. Most of the balconies were ‘concrete aprons’, a sort of thin shading wall which was sometimes hung beneath balconies, narrow and almost all were rectangular. Emphasis was placed on the designed supports and on concrete sunshades above them. During this period, the balconies became almost a which were made of stone, although many of the balconies were supported by iron railings. fixed component of residential buildings, and established a norm. Consequently, in the decades Some of the balconies were decorated with Armenian tiles, and a considerable emphasis was to come, when contracting companies were responsible for most residential construction, placed on the guardrails of the balconies. These were mostly divided into perforated stone the balconies were a fixed component, but usually received no esthetic attention. At this time railings – a sort of panel, or stylized iron railings with art deco motifs. A small portion of the the balconies were mostly rectangular, but their dispersion across the façade of the building railings were made from molded concrete. became a derivative of the apartment plan rather than a deliberate esthetic element. The In the early 1930s, there was a rapid change in the style of construction in the Jewish sector. meticulous design of the balconies’ details largely disappeared, and the lack of decoration Architects who were born in Israel and studied in Europe, and European architects who immigrated has become a simple banality, repetitive and boring.

60 61 In the 1950s and 1960s, with the arrival of the large waves of immigrants, most of the a certain size without this being calculated as part of the main space, provided that there construction in Israel was that of housing complexes which the most part – for reasons of was a space of at least two floors between each balcony. This was done in order to prevent economy – did not include balconies. In the 1970s and 1980s, with the return to larger volumes them from being closed. In many cases, this legislation caused esthetic damage to the façades of private building and construction by contractors, the cantilever balconies came back to of buildings, due to the law dictating balcony distribution, and it not being due to esthetic serve as a prominent structural element. In construction initiated by the Ministry of Housing considerations; or because of the addition of strange elements to bridge the gaps created – especially in Jerusalem – the brutalist style dominated. The façades of the buildings were between the balconies. In 2008 the law was changed again, and it is now permissible to sometimes composed of small, distinct parts that created a three-dimensional façade, instead build one or two cantilever balconies above each other (up to 12 m2, or 10% of the size of the of uniform and flat façades, and the cantilever balconies were replaced by roof balconies. apartment – whichever is smaller), without the balcony area being included in the area of In the 1920s, and especially in the 1930s and 1940s, urban balconies played an important role the apartment. In recent years the cantilever balconies are once again playing an important by allowing tenants a relatively comfortable place to spend the afternoon and evening. In role from the esthetic point of view. This is primarily in residential towers, where two trends Tel Aviv this also added a social function, which was based on the widespread and frequent exist: one is the creation of columns of protruding balconies, which are a major part of the use of the balcony, and the fact that it provided an intermediate space between the public compositions of the main portions of the structure with emphasis on the dimension of space of the street and the private space of the apartment (Aronis, 2009). The family used to height. The second is playing with protruding shapes across the façade, widthwise, and gather on the balcony, and they often hosted people there. On the lower floors people would using it to create prominent and massive decoration. In recent years, from the geometric sometimes communicate with passersby on the street, and people on neighboring balconies viewpoint, triangles and other angular elements have been added to balconies. In terms of would converse with each other. This feature was so strong that it was perceived as part of materials, substantial use has been made of aluminum and glass surfaces in railings, and the cultural life of Tel Aviv and was expressed in local literature, songs and local theater, the integration of various types of steel. and even in skits. However, from the 1950s and especially in the 1960s and 1970s, there was a widespread trend of closing balconies in order to increase the area used for residential Summary purposes. Esthetically, closing the balconies – especially if this was not coordinated between the tenants – created an esthetic confusion on the façade, and often esthetic damage due to the As we have seen, in residential construction in Israeli cities the cantilever balcony was and use of cheap materials and improvised attachments. The cultural changes that Israeli society still is highly prevalent. Thus, the esthetic influence of the cantilever balconies in Israel on the underwent in the 1970s, reflected, among other things, in the extension of working hours and façades of the single building and on the façades of the streets is of great significance. The increased entertainment in front of the television screen and in front of the computer – with nature of the balconies, in terms of size, shape and esthetic emphasis, has been influenced over the electric air conditioner becoming a basic consumer product – greatly reduced the use the years by the dominant architectural style, the materials and construction technologies, of balconies as a refuge from the heat as well as a place for family and social relaxation. In as well as the intended use of the balconies. During the past two decades, and especially many cases the balconies became storage spaces, places to hang laundry and so on. These in the last decade, the balcony is once again functioning prominently and also esthetically. uses caused esthetic harm because of the dimension of neglect that accompanied them. The current style is a ‘high-tech’ incarnation of modernism. Most of the buildings are high- In 1992, the staggered balconies law was enacted, allowing the construction of balconies of rises, and the balconies function mainly as distinct blocks within the composition, as well as

62 63 creating alignments on the façade. New building materials that are used mainly for railings, Bibliography: such as glass and various metals, sometimes provide the balconies with a ‘high-tech’ feel. Belfer-Cohen, A. (1992), History of Prehistoric Man, Broadcast University, Ministry of Defense Publishing However, the planners of the balconies have not yet internalized the cultural changes in House, pp. 109-121. the use of balconies, and the fact that balconies located on high floors in directions facing Banham R., (1978), Architecture in the First Machine Age. Theory and design. Dvir Publishing. the prevailing wind require design that takes into account the direction of the wind. Since the cantilever balcony is one of the important characteristics of residential construction in Golany G. (1994), The House and the Jewish Quarter in Baghdad, Architecture and the Environment. Israel, it is worthwhile trying to continue building such balconies, adapting them to changing Published by the Babylonian Jewry Heritage Center. needs and the new construction technology. Increasing the awareness of planners of the Hirschfeld Y., (1982), The Rural Residence on Mount Hebron and the tradition of Construction in the Land of unintended contributions of the cantilever balconies to the esthetic aspect - increasing the Israel. Cathedra: The History of the Land of Israel and its Settlement, No. 24, pp. 79-114. Yad Yitzhak Ben Zvi.

complexity, the depth and the orders of magnitude - may improve their esthetic contribution. Lipschitz N., Lev-Yadun S., Bigger G. (1988), The Source of the Tree and the Age of Trees in the American In terms of usage, it seems that in the coming years it will be possible – as part of the increasing Colony in Jaffa. Cathedra: The History of the Land of Israel and its Settlement, No. 47, pp. 70-78, Yad trend to intensify "green construction" – to encourage the use of "green" in roof balconies and Yitzhak Ben Zvi. cantilever balconies. These uses can be various types of vegetation and production of energy Metzger –Szmuk, N. (2004), Living on the Sands, Tel Aviv-Jaffa Municipality. from the sun or the wind. Obviously, balconies that are suitable for such uses will require Kroyanker D., (1985), Architecture in Jerusalem. Arab Construction Outside the Walls. Keter Publishing certain changes in planning and design. New uses that can rely on improved technology House and the Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies, Jerusalem. mght be swimming pools on the floor, and in the future perhaps landing-pads for private aircraft. Another change, based on new building technologies and new materials, which Kroyanker D., (1991), Architecture in Jerusalem. Modern Construction outside the Walls 1948-1990. might prove particularly useful in the cantilevered balconies, is dynamic balconies that can Published by Keter. be pulled out of the wall, change shape, and be adapted to changing sun and wind conditions. Carmon Y. (1997), Changes in the Urban Landscape of Jerusalem during the Nineteenth Century, Cathedra: The History of the Land of Israel and its Settlement, No. 7, pp. 38-73, Yad Yitzchak Ben Zvi.

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66 67 A DANCE-ARCHITECTURAL CREATION FROM A NIETZSCHEAN PERSPECTIVE: LABAN AND SCHLEMMER

YAEL DAGAN, MARINA EPSTEIN-PLIOUCHTCH

Rudolf von Laban – one of the creators of ‘Expressive Dance’ and the research of movement –and Oskar Schlemmer – one of the creators of ‘Abstract Dance’ and Total Performance Art – were two pioneers in the field of dance/theater in Germany at the beginning of the 20th century who integrated concepts of dance and architecture into their work. The dance- architectural creations of Laban and Schlemmer represent polarized approaches. From the end of the 19th century on, the Nietzschean perspective penetrated various cultural layers, arousing inspiration or inciting and encouraging the modern movements of change, as well as the creationof new art and a new society. Hence, Nietzschean narratives are expressed in the work of Laban and Schlemmer, but being based on dichotomy and flexibility, they demanded self-adaptation by the creator through processes of design.

This article seeks to add to the body of academic research combining dance and architecture, which has been growing since the end of the 1990s, as a study that integrates notions of dance in architecture and notions of architecture in dance; a narrative study based on historical material. It strives to present notions common to architecture and dance as flexible ideas that depend on specific interpretation, but which can also offer a choice of other possibilities for expression within the same notion.

In his book The Birth of Tragedy from the Spirit of Music (1872), Friedrich Nietzsche analyzes the history of Greek tragedy and presents a basic dichotomy: “the further development of art is bound up with the duality of the Apollonian and the Dionysian”. This dichotomy is formed “not in ideas, but in the powerfully clear forms of their divine world” (Nietzsche, 1871/2003, p. 8). The article presents the works of Rudolph Laban and Oskar Schlemmer, which in both cases are characterized by polarized expressions of Nietzschean narratives on the basis of the flexible dichotomy of those narratives, as described in The Birth of Tragedy. Moreover it

seeks to create discourse about works combining dance and architecture, which alludes to Fig. 1: Rudolf von Laban in his workshop at Dartington the variety of integratory possibilities embodied within it. Hall c. 1939-1938 (L/F/52/1). From the Rudolf Laban Archive ©National Resource Centre for Dance.

69 Forward examining concepts of dance in architecture. There are those who focus on the architectural design and, for example, use dance as a visual-performative tool through spatial or parametric Rudolf von Laban – one of the creators of ‘expressive dance’ and movement research, and modeling as a theoretical tool for interpreting architecture as movement, or as a design tool Oskar Schlemmer – one of the creators of ‘abstract dance’ and Total Performance Art, were two that utilizes the body. There are historical-theoretical studies, such as an examination of the pioneers of dance/theater in Germany as of the early 20th century, who integrated into their meaning of movement in architecture (Bronet, Schumacher, 1999; Shastri, 2010; Hardy, 2011; works concepts of both dance and architecture. The dance-architectural work of Laban and Stathopoulou, 2011). Within the second group – studies examining architectural concepts in Schlemmer represents polarized approaches which can be examined in relation to German dance – some focus on the creative process and use architecture as a theoretical or physical philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche. From the end of the 19th century on, the Nietzschean perspective tool. Here, too, there are historical-theoretical studies which examine, for example, subjective penetrated various cultural layers, arousing inspiration or inciting and encouraging modern representations by means of the connection between the dancing body and space, or the movements of change, as well as the creation of new art and a new society. Nevertheless, the concept of choreographic space (Briginshaw, 2001; Rubidge, 2011). Within the third group Nietzschean concepts required the creator’s self-adaptation through design processes. In the – studies that combine the ideas of the first two groups – dance concepts in architecture book The Birth of Tragedy from the Spirit of Music (Die Geburt der Tragödie aus dem Geiste and architectural concepts in dance – there are those who examine design processes while der Musik, 1872) Nietzsche analyzes the history of Greek tragedy and presents an intellectual others are theoretical-historical (Eisenbach, 2008; Jayakrishnan, 2011). dichotomy between the Dionysian and the Apollonian elements – two forces or passions which This article focuses on the third group, as a narrative study based on historical material, fight for control of the existence of Man. In other words: Nietzschean narratives arising from which aspires to present notions common to architecture and dance as flexible ones that discussion of the book are characterized by dichotomy. These narratives were expressed in depend on specific interpretation, but which are also capable of offering a selection of other the work of Laban and Schlemmer. The article presents their work as two polar expressions options of expression within the same notion. or as two flexible interpretations of these Nietzschean narratives, and thus seeks to discuss works combining dance and architecture as creative thought, embodying in it a variety of Period background possibilities of concrete expression. At the end of the 19th century, as opposed to the expressions of intellectual conservatism Background – integration of dance and architecture such as that of Max Weber and Sigmund Freud, there were intellectuals who strove to create a new shared life and to abandon the ‘objective’ ways of thinking. What was common to these Creators in the fields of architecture and dance employed notions of the parallel practice groups was the renewed reference to Man and, as Robert Musil described in his book The Man throughout the 20th century, but the academic research combining dance and architecture Without Qualities (1930): “…suddenly throughout Europe there arose a kindling fever. Nobody only began to expand towards the end of the 1990s. This evolving body of knowledge is knew exactly what was on the way; nobody was able to say whether it was to be a new art, a categorized by Turkish architect Zehra Ersoy into themes of subject (body), event (time, Fig. 2: new man, a new morality, or perhaps a reshuffling of society.” The idea of man’s re-creation Oskar Sclemmer, 1930 ©Oskar Schlemmer, Photo movement, happenings) and experience (embodiment) (Ersoy, 2011). I will distinguish between Archive C. Raman Schlemmer, www.schlemmer.org of himself was expressed through the free body, which was interpreted in various ways by three groups of studies in accordance with their orientation. The first group contains studies the artistic avant-garde in Europe at the beginning of the 20th century (Green, 1986, 14).

70 71 German culture had attached importance to physical training since the post-Napoleonic period. shapes and coordinates were liberated, as were the subject and the ornament. Moreover, the This thinking was promoted by Friedrich Ludwig Jahn, the father of modern gymnastics. He destruction and mechanization that took place in Germany following the First World War developed exercise as a tool for strengthening personal and national power. Later on, from led to a new perception of the body. The hordes of discharged soldiers, physically damaged the beginning of the 20th century, this thinking gave rise to heterogeneous practices that, with missing limbs, aroused an ontological crisis, and rehabilitation by means of prosthetics in addition to physical training, also emphasized nudity, nature and sunlight as means for not only established the belief that deconstruction and change could be created in the body, changing man and his body. During the Weimar Republic (1919-1933), dance flourished as but also helped to re-conceptualize it and unearth its potentials (Elswit, 2008). part of body culture, and methods were developed that used movement for new purposes. The German performing arts were influenced by composer Richard Wagner’s ‘total work of In the Bess Mensendieck method, for example, movement is a form of therapy; and in art’ concept (Gesamtkunstwerk), which sought to eliminate the separation between the arts, the eurhythmics of Émile Jaques-Dalcroze, movement is a tool to development musical as well as the separation between audience and performers – a blurring of artistic-aesthetic abilities. The ‘free dance’ of Isadora Duncan, an American pioneer of modern dance, was first boundaries that also resonated into the political (Bing-Heidecker, 2010). introduced in Germany in 1902. She became popular among women who were introduced to the expressive capabilities of the naked dancing body (Manning, Benson, 1986). In her Rudolf von Laban – Form and Content footsteps we find François Malkovsky in his ‘danse libre’. ‘Expressive dance’ (Ausdruckstanz) or ‘new dance’, which developed in Germany and reached its peak in the 1920s and 1930s Laban (1879-1958), dancer, choreographer, teacher and dance theorist, was born in Bratislava, in Fig. 3: even beyond Europe’s borders, was a major milestone in the development of modern dance. Dance in Ascona. Austro-Hungary. As the son of the military governor of Bosnia, he witnessed military parades Fig. 5: http://web.stanford.edu/group/berlin/data2/CLEAN/ Dance was considered to contribute to an aesthetic, healthy and moral lifestyle, even greater and marches, and experienced them as a combination of free physicality with movement Figure Drawings: Male Figure c. 1940-1938 pathways/modern_dance/1origins.html (L/C/20/3). From the Rudolf Laban Archive ©National than its artistic value (Bing-Heidecker, 2010). Modern dance in particular expressed a feminist professionalism. The uniformity of these displays of movement impressed him, and he Resource Centre for Dance. approach, according to which ‘woman’ was perceived as the one who should give birth to the linked them with their performers: “steady comradeship and loyalty… Only art matched up Dionysian perspective and physical spirituality 1 . At the same time, the dancing body was of to this idea.” (Green, 1986, 88). Between 1900 and 1907 he studied dance, acting, painting, interest to expressionist painters, both as an object and as a tool for dynamic comprehension design and architecture at the School of Fine Arts in Paris. He then moved to Munich, the of reality through which they polished the formal expression of transient gestures. Thus, for center of new dance, where he drew caricatures and performed satirical dance. However, example, painter Emil Nolde, who was in contact with many ‘expressive dance’ performers, because the city and the theater both attracted and repulsed him, he dreamed of a new tried to express the rhythmic movement of thought or of feeling through lines of an ecstatic dance, “a healthy festival of joy in the clear sunlight of daytime, without these pretences nature; the painter Ernst Ludwig Kirchner was preoccupied with his ecstatic connection to and trappings which smother all the essentials”. Laban was attracted to landscape, plants the object in order to present ecstatic moments that expressed the Dionysian powers of the and crystals, and turned away from urban society in favor of the realization of his vision of artist himself (Short, 1993). cultural recovery (Green, 1986, 88-89). During the 1920s, European art tried to adapt to the industrialized world, and began to During the summers of 1913-1919, he taught at his ‘Mountain of Truth’ dance farm in Ascona, Fig. 4: formulate itself in relation to the machine. The Bauhaus cubists and constructivists rejected Rudolf Laban with his students. an important center of counter-culture. At the start of the 20th century it was settled by aesthetic assumptions and created manipulations of form, composition and color. The a community of young utopists, anarchists, activists and intellectuals who engaged in the

72 73 arts and distanced themselves from the city, for the sake of their own self-discovery2 . In between 12 and 1200 participants, and combined social dance and theater dance (Manning, Laban’s center in Ascona – an “individualistic commune” – nature helped Laban's students Benson, 1986). Laban was involved with Eurythmy, visualizing words as deriving from the discover the ‘dancer spirit’ (Tanzergeist): “He and his dancers were to be seen on those slopes sounds of the body, and therefore from bodily movements. This notion perceives dance as the in the summer months, he with his pipes or his drum, and around him the women (and a source of ideas (Tanz, Ton, Wort).5 In addition, he was involved in the eurhythmics developed few men)… evoking each her most hidden impulses.” (Green, 1986, 94). The German writer by Jaques-Dalcroze. Eurhythmics aims to lead to the heightening of physical awareness Hans Brandenburg described Laban as a ‘man “for” women’ who recognized the capabilities in order to prevent control of the brain or of moral awareness, through the integration of and rights of women, even though this was in non-political terms (Green, 1986, 91)3. This music and speech. This method strives to create an ethical balance, and therefore plays a liberated dance was influenced by religious-ritual dances, such as the dance of the whirling social role (Green, 1986). When he retired from dance following an injury in 1927, and the dervishes.4 Laban believed that by means of the dance, the dancer was ‘reborn’ and thus the ensemble that had been created around him disbanded,6 Laban returned to the notation German ‘expressive dance’ (or ‘new dance’) was born. This dance realized the concept of a of movement he had started working on in Ascona, based on analysis and description of ‘new way of life’ (Lebensform), as opposed to the classical, elitist and degenerative ballet, movement (Labanotation).Laban's studies of movement sought the expressiveness and and the idea of a ‘total work of art’. The belief that these promote a common, harmonious, significance of movement – which is directly related to space – to create a vocabulary that national-German and universal human existence, accorded German modern dance a pseudo- would allow both a description of movement, and tools with which to teach it. These were religious, moral and sacred validity that also had political potential (Bing-Heidecker, 2010). developed into the Labanotation.

Since all the leaders of the style were educated in Laban's school, most of his ideas became Fig. 7: Fig. 6: Relationship Between Groups of Figures: Three the features of this movement. The pioneers of ‘expressive dance’ in Germany aspired to Figure Drawings: Male Figure c. 1940-1938 With the rise of the Third Reich in 1933, ‘expressive dance’ began to deteriorate and lose its Figures c. 1940-1938 (L/C/76/6). From the Rudolf (L/C/18/3). From the Rudolf Laban Archive ©National 7 consolidate the recognition of dance as an art in its own right, and to turn it into a tool of new original meaning. Initially, the regime did indeed adopt the ‘new German dance’, and under Laban Archive ©National Resource Centre for Dance. Resource Centre for Dance. expressiveness, while separating it from the convention of the ideal, perfection and beauty. the patronage of Nazi Minister for Propaganda Joseph Goebbels, Laban became its leading They wanted to understand the relationship between the body and the mind, and between figure, as he nationalized the Asconian concepts and ideas (Aschheim, 1994). But his success the individual and the universe; they aspired to let the body return to its original use – which came to a standstill in 1936. The regime began not only to supervise the movement material, had been interrupted by industrialization – as a vessel that creates harmony between man but also the message encoded within it. Dance was not meant to express hidden meanings, and himself, and between humanity and nature. The characteristics of ‘expressive dance’ nor to appeal to the intellect; that is, it did not need to reflect the uniqueness of the nation, are expressive movement, constructing the dance directly from the dancer’s sensations, and but merely express a joy of life (Bing-Heidecker, 2010). Laban's books, his troupes, his methods using all movement possibilities of the body and a variety of movement-cultural lexicons. and his schools were declared anti-German and were confiscated – and it was only in the 1980s that his work was restored to the lexicon of German culture (Preston-Dunlop, 1998). In 1919, Laban's career as the leading representative and theoretician of the ‘new dance’ was In 1938 he moved to England where he lived until his death. He joined his students, Kurt Jooss flourishing in Germany. He developed community dancing – amateur dancing in groups, and Lisa Ullmann, and in the 1940s she became his main collaborator. In England, Laban which his students disseminated via troupes of movement that they established with the developed the theory of ‘space harmony’ (Choreutics, 1966), in which he defined sequences professional unions, church groups, and Laban’s chain of schools. The groups contained anywhere of spatial motions within the crystalline structures of the five polyhedrons: triangular

74 75 pyramid (tetrahedron), cube (hexahedron), octahedron, dodecahedron, and icosahedron – management of the Bauhaus Stage. Students from all departments participated in the Stage as form-movement harmonies. These sequences reflect the spatial law that exists within Workshop and, like Schlemmer, they lacked any professional background in dance; however, the human body, corresponding to that which exists in nature, enabling the differentiation they were “fascinated by the creative attitude of their master-magician” (Gropius, 1961, 8). between different rhythms of motion in space, in accordance with the number of angles in Schlemmer, who developed the art of the performance into total art within the Bauhaus, each sequence 8 (Maletic, 1987). In London he also developed the theory of ‘eukinetics’, from created a combination of choreography and visual design. The Bauhaus called for the unification which his theory of ‘effort’ was derived (Effort, 1947), in collaboration with Frederic Lawrence, of all the arts in the ‘cathedral of socialism’ and in accordance with the Werkbund tradition, a management engineer. Together they applied the analysis of movement to training and sought to create new collaborations in the creative work processes that would bring about selecting workers in industry, and suggested a way to measure the ‘kinetic quality’ of the a new balance of the environment. In addition, because he rebelled against the traditional work unit (Preston-Dunlop, 1998). ‘Effort’ refers to the quality of movement: choices of the approach of learning through imitation and encouraged the students to find their own mover create personal styles based on the components of weight, time, space, and flow. direction, he allowed them to examine new ideas through the body. Since, according to Laban's theories, movement was perceived as a dynamic essence –a In the spirit of the Bauhaus concept of integrating art and technology, Schlemmer argued combination of measurable and non-measurable characteristics, and as a combination that “the endeavor to free man from his physical bondage… resulted in substituting for the between the material and the spiritual – they were adopted in the fields of theater, therapy organism the mechanical human figure (Kunstfigur): the automaton and the marionette” Fig. 8: and sports (Maletic, 1998). Relationship Between Groups of Figures: Three (Gropius, 1961, 28). His involvement with the man-as-machine was not strange during that Figures c. 1940-1938 (L/C/77/6). From the Rudolf period,9 and was linked to the new possibilities revealed by the artificial organs in medicine, Laban Archive ©National Resource Centre for Dance. Fig. 9: Oskar Schlemmer – Form and Content and also, apparently, with his injury during military service in 1915. In order to redefine the Relationship Between Groups of Figures: Three Figures c. 1940-1938 (L/C/101/6). From the contemporary body and the meaning of humanity in the technological era (Elswit, 2008), Rudolf Laban Archive ©National Resource Centre for Schlemmer (1888-1943), a German painter, sculptor, designer and choreographer, was born in Schlemmer made use of the principles of abstraction, mechanization and technology.10 The Dance. Stuttgart. Between 1906 and 1910 he studied for one semester at the School of Applied Arts costumes in the Stage workshop were made of soft or hard materials, changed the contours in Stuttgart and then received a scholarship to the city’s Academy of Fine Art. He then moved of the human figure, turned it into a mechanical object and affected the possibilities of to Berlin, where he worked for two years as a painter. In 1913 he opened and managed the movement. For example, in Pole Dance (1927), the limbs were activated by the poles’ movement, New Art Salon. Schlemmer sought an artistic and philosophical redefinition of the theater, and in the Glass Dance (1929), the hoop-skirt costume with the glass pendants and the glass in which he saw the “history of the transfiguration of the human form”, with its visual ball placed on the head restricted and dictated the possibilities of movement (Rottenberg, elements – stage, costumes and objects (Gropius, 1961, 17). 2008). With the transfer of the Bauhaus School to Dessau in 1925, and with the emphasis In 1920, Schlemmer was invited to the Bauhaus School in Weimar, where he taught first at the placed on the unity of art and technology, Schlemmer’s theatrical work focused on the idea sculpture workshop. After having staged a series of dances during Bauhaus Week, including of ‘man and the machine’. The Figural Cabinet, in which he used the techniques of cabaret and a combination of logic and irrationality to make fun of the cult of progress and technology (Rottenberg, 2008), and The Triad Ballet (1922), which Schlemmer had begun working on in Stuttgart in 1912, is a following the retirement of the painter and dramatist Lothar Schreyer, Schlemmer took over the metaphysical satire that manipulates the human performer by means of geometric costumes

76 77 that modify his capabilities. The work is based on the idea of the trinity: three parts are danced was never built for economic reasons (Gropius, 1961, 12-14). by three dancers, within the framework of the spatial trinity of height, depth and width; the The theory of performance developed by Schlemmer combined painting with theater as trinity of form includes a triangle, a circle and a square, while the color triad includes yellow, complementary fields, for both of which the focus is the space. For example, in his Gesture Dance pink and black. The three parts of the dance develop from the humorous, to the serious, to (1926-1927), Schlemmer graphically delineated the paths of movement and the movements fantasy; the three colors refer to three moods. The costumes, made of various materials, change of the dancers in space, and presented physical images in paintings (Rottenberg, 2008). He the capability of the performers (Rottenberg, 2008). Schlemmer’s abstract figures presented studied the relationship between man and space, where the costumes and masks created different spatial relationships by means of changing angles and perspectives. Unlike the the metamorphosis of the human body in a manner that emphasized or changed its identity, expressionist choreographers, the dance is not meant to reflect nature, subjectivity, emotion as well as in a manner that emphasized his submission to, or rejection of laws. This thought or individuality; rather, objective definitions for ideas: lines, geometry, spatial dimensions, was expressed in his proposal of four ways of changing the human body: transferring the and rhythm. The identity of the sculpted figures does not represent or depend on an external laws of cubic space to the body – ambulant architecture; emphasizing the laws of the body narrative, nor does it attest to any particular subjective or emotional state (Helden, 2012). in relation to space – the marionette; enabling the laws of movement of the human body in The social events held regularly in Weimar and Dessau attracted the general public to the school. space – a technical organism; dematerialization – metaphysical expression (Gropius, 1961). Fig. 11: Like other Bauhaus artists who were members of the November Group, which encouraged The dance performances of the Bauhaus troupe directed by Schlemmer combined not only Movement in the icosahedron. connections between the public and the world of Art, Schlemmer also integrated performers a tragi-comic essence, but also satire and utopia. By means of satire, a Dadaist tradition, http://www.amplab.ca/23/10/2014/labanotation- topology-moving-body/ and audience as part of ‘total performance art’. Gropius argued that the theater should be Schlemmer scorned outdated theatrical forms, and utopia expressed his yearning for art “a flexible building, capable of transforming and refreshing the mind by its spatial impact that enriches the soul (Rottenberg, 2008). Fig. 10: alone...for if it is true that the mind can transform the body, it is equally true that structure models: Structures Using Tensegrity (L/F/68/7). From can transform the mind” (Gropius, 1961, 12-14).Schlemmer also perceived the theater as being a the Rudolf Laban Archive ©National Resource Centre Gesture Dance, 1926 for Dance. place where one can shape utopia, since the stage, which creates a momentary and changeable Schlemmer left the Bauhaus in 1929 and taught at the National Academy of Fine and Applied world, may be the ‘absolute visual stage’ – at one and the same time a moral-educational Arts in Breslau, and at the United State School for Fine and Applied Art in Berlin. When the and artistic institution (Gropius, 1961, 18-22). With this in mind, Schlemmer distinguished Nazis came to power in 1933, his work was declared ‘decadent’ and he was forced to resign between the three stages: the oral stage, created by the writer or the composer; the acting from his position in Berlin. He wandered from place to place in order to avoid persecution stage, created by the actor; and the optical stage created by the designer. These stages can by the Nazi regime, and worked in partial anonymity. In 1937, his first one-man exhibition exist separately, or in a variety of combinations managed universally.11 The third type was was displayed at a gallery in London. He died in 1943 in Baden-Baden. developed by Gropius in the form of the ‘total theater’ model (1926), which combined three basic types of theater: the arena stage, which creates spatial unity with the spectators; the Nietzschean space Fig. 12: The main directional rays establishing three levels Greek proscenium stage, which separates the spectators from the stage; the modern depth in cubic space. Choreutics © Published by Dance stage, which deepens the distance but enables the integration of technology. The integrated Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) was an inspiring figure in the political-cultural revolution that Books Ltd. Reproduced by permission. and flexible theater was designed to allow for change through mechanical mechanisms, but took place after 1890, and included rebellion against positivism, materialism, and the liberal

78 79 bourgeoisie as part of the discovery of the subconscious, irrationalism and neo-romanticism. development of modern dance, but they also suggest a thought that is common to dance Nietzsche encouraged modern movements of protest and change. The Nietzscheans sought and to architecture. The following section presents the works of Rudolf Laban and Oskar to express the impact he had, and aspired to reverse moral, cultural, and political values. Schlemmer as two different expressions and two different interpretations of Nietzschean However, the Nietzschean concepts required adaptation through processes of design, and ideas. On the basis of Nietzsche’s Dionysian-Apollonian dichotomy, as described in The Birth invited the individual to delineate his own path and self-definition. Thus, the Nietzscheans of Tragedy,12 Laban and Schlemmer’s work, which combines notions of dance and architecture, who adopted these concepts – and who belonged to different social strata and to a variety will be examined through five dichotomous Nietzschean narratives. of political and cultural movements – merged Nietzsche’s ideas into a broad spectrum of attitudes, including anarchistic, expressionist, nationalist and socialist ones. In 1910, Thomas 1.2 Body-space Mann recognized the changing nature of Nietzsche’s influence over time: “We who were born around 1870 are too close to Nietzsche; we participate too directly in his tragedy, his personal Nietzsche defines a basic dichotomy “in origins and purposes, between visual (plastic) arts, Fig. 15: The Triad Ballet. The Theater of the Bauhaus ©by − fate... Our Nietzsche is Nietzsche militant.Nietszche triumphant belongs to those born fifteen the Apollonian, and the non visual art of music, the Dionysian. Both very different drives Wesleyan University Press. Published by Wesleyan years after us... for them he is a prophet”(Aschheim, 1994, 37). Over time, Nietzschean concepts go hand in hand, for the most part in open conflict with each other and simultaneously University Press. Reprinted by permission. began to penetrate German and European politics, and at the same time they were used to provoking each other all the time to new and more powerful offspring”, until “this pair, produce Fig. 13: undermine the Nietzschean values. Pole Dance, 1927. The Theater of the Bauhaus ©by Attic tragedy, just as much a Dionysian as an Apollonian work of art” (Nietzsche, 1871/2003, Wesleyan University Press. Published by Wesleyan University Press. Reprinted by permission. p. 8). Laban and Schlemmer were both preoccupied with the relationship between space In his books Twilight of the Idols and Ecce Homo, Nietzsche argued that the ‘visible world’ and man, or with relationship between the Apollonian-plastic and Dionysian-non-plastic is reality, as opposed to the ‘real world’, the external and objective one. Thus, in contrast to elements, which maintain a perpetual dichotomy. However, the objective and the method classical theocentric thinking, he believed that there was no single perspective of the world, were different: Laban, with his physical orientation, sought to define the body and movement and that deconstruction was necessary – one which led to a variety of interpretations. The through space, while Schlemmer, whose orientation was architectural, sought to define space ‘desire for power’ meant organizing and constructing the experience of the world so that all through the body and movement.13 Following Nietzsche, who described how “Singing and phenomena are born out of it. This construction is not a “thing in itself” but an inseparable dancing, man expresses himself as a member of a higher unity” (Nietzsche, 1871/2003, p. 10), part of its fulfillment. The experience of reality exists through the body, as described in Laban argued that while music expresses feelings and literature expresses reason, dance Thus Spoke Zarathustra. “Body am I entirely, and nothing more; and soul is only a word for expresses “the drives that dominate living beings” (Green, 1986, 108-110). Gropius did, indeed, Fig. 16: something about the body” (Nietzsche, 1891/2010, p. 31). Hence, in his vision, he saw the realize that Schlemmer “experienced space... with the whole body, with the sense of touch of Man and space. "The laws of cubical space… corresponds to the inherent mathematic of the dance and the dancer generating together the embodiment of the senses. In The Birth of the dancer and the actor.” (Gropius, 1961, 8), but Schlemmer’s style of work emphasized the human body and creates its balance by means Fig. 14: Tragedy from the Spirit of Music the dancer is perceived as encompassing within him the Spatial Delineation with Figure. Photograph: ‘objectified’ quality of the performers. The figures, their limbs and movements, were sensed of movements, which by their very nature are determined mechanically and rationally." The Theater power of the entire work, and possesses the divinity that has itself become a work of art. Lux Feininger. The Theater of the Bauhaus ©by as mechanical (Rottenberg, 2008).14 Wesleyan University Press. Published by Wesleyan of the Bauhaus ©by Wesleyan University Press. Isadora Duncan first read Nietzsche's writings in Berlin in 1902 and described him as ‘the first University Press. Reprinted by permission. Nietzsche presents the manner in which the Dionysian and the Apollonian impulses shaped Published by Wesleyan University Press. Reprinted by permission. dancing philosopher’ (Aschheim, 1994). His ideas indeed found a physical expression in the the different periods of the early Greek artistic work, while fighting each other, until reaching

80 81 their long-awaited fusion: the Apollonian culture developed from the earlier Dionysian one, questioned conventions, and involved self-creation (Aschheim, 1994). While the people at harmonious and naïve, characterized by illusion and image, until the Dionysian impulse broke Ascona strove for the unity of man and nature in a utopian commune isolated from the world through it, and the Attic tragedy developed like a child of the two artistic impulses. Socratic of the city, at the Bauhaus they aspired to a more reconciled unity of man and industrialized art, founded on logic and knowledge, brought an end to the art of Greek tragedy by removing reality, of technology and the principles of the ‘arts and crafts’ movement. In the spirit of the the Dionysian element from the equation (Nietzsche, 1891/2003). In the spirit of Nietzsche, who Bauhaus, Schlemmer imposed on the theater the work of producing utopia, so that acting saw in the combination of the two impulses during the process of creation as a masterpiece, with technological innovations would serve as a starting point for the wonders that had Schlemmer incorporated painting and drawing in his theory of performance as a theoretical not yet been invented. intellectual practice (Apollonian) and theatrical-dance experience as a practice of emotional The ideal unity comes from art, because “once having glimpsed the truth, man now sees pleasure (Dionysian). It is true that in the Triad Ballet one can see a balance between the everywhere only the horror or absurdity of being... Here the will in in the highest danger. Fig. 18: Man and space. "The laws of organic man, on the principles of abstraction and emotional impulses; however, the paradox is that it is precisely Thus, to be saved, it comes close to the healing magician, art”. (Nietzsche, 1871/2003, 22). other hand, reside in the invisible functions of his the kind of connection he created between theory and practice that is an indication of his Laban’s experience at Ascona was to change the world with the help of art and through inner self… whose movements and emanations create an imaginary space… These movements 15 conservative mindset. The sources of the experience and the means of the dance were not the ‘religion’ of dance, by means of body worship and natural healing. Schlemmer, in are determined organically and emotionally." The the human body and its movements, but figurative inventions (Rottenberg, 2008). In other contrast, used “imaginary constructs, which permit living to continue. These constructs Theater of the Bauhaus ©by Wesleyan University Press. Published by Wesleyan University Press. words, the Dionysian practice was not a driving force, but an applied tool for Apollonian Fig. 17: are the Sublime as the artistic mastering of the horrible and the Comic as the artistic Reprinted by permission. Man and space. Movements derived from the laws theory. The postmodern dance movement set a precedent for interdisciplinary research, which of cubical space "involve the physical attributes… release from disgust at the absurd.” (Nietzsche, 1871/2003, 22). In the words of Schlemmer: created deconstruction of assumptions regarding the connection between the body and although there is no conscious awareness of spatial “Endless perspectives are opened up: from the supernatural to the nonsensical, from the relationships here." The Theater of the Bauhaus ©by the work of art, and thus hybrid practices were born (Mokotow, 2007). However, Schlemmer, Wesleyan University Press. Published by Wesleyan sublime to the comic. Precursors in the use of pathos, of the sublime, are the actors of as a theater entrepreneur in the early 20th century, preceded it with his interdisciplinary University Press. Reprinted by permission. ancient tragedy... Precursors in the comic style are the gigantic and the grotesque figures work, specifically because he saw dance as a supporting factor rather than as a generator. of carnival and fair” (Gropius, 1961, 29 ). 16 Nietzsche explains the “ the mysterious teachings of tragedy”: the basic acknowledgement 2.2 Whole - parts of the unity of individuals, the idea of individuation as suffering and the aspiration to a re-established unity. “The one truly real Dionysus appears in a multiplicity of shapes... his Nietzsche describes the chorus of satyrs of the Greek tragedy as “a living wall which tragedy rebirth... only with this hope was there a ray of joy on the face of the fragmented world” draws about itself in order to separate itself cleanly from the real world and to protect its (Nietzsche, 1871/2003, 28-29). Nietzsche’s modernists disciples concentrated on new and ideal space and its poetical freedom for itself”. He describes how “the cultured Greek felt positive construction, outlined new ways of moral renewal, and advocated for the creation of himself neutralized by the sight of the chorus of satyrs... the state and society... the gap a ‘super-human’ within an alternative human culture. Although many of them argued that between man and man give way to an invincible feeling of unity which leads back to the they were apolitical, their rejection of the present society was, in itself, political (Aschheim, heart of nature" (Nietzsche, 1871/2003, 21). Influenced by Nietzsche, modernism worked in 1994). Against the backdrop of the blurring of the boundaries of the body and the machine two directions, praising the technological world and condemning it; but both directions that took place after the war, Schlemmer made use of the deconstruction of the body in order

82 83 to redefine the meaning of being human in a technological age, and thus created a new developed progressive links between the dance and other domains. His Effort theory, which theater 17. Laban, in whom the people perceived a Dionysian satyr, created deconstruction relates to how a movement is carried out and the impulse that drives it, was developed to of the body in his research of movement, in order to rebuild it from its authentic meaning, train women for men’s work during the war, and it was applied in industry to improve the and thus created a new dance. From a social point of view, Laban aspired to create a life “at efficiency of workers in the factories. This idea that the quality of movement is more important which all [are] participants in communal thinking, feeling and doing” (Green, 1986, 102). to output than quantity has also been applied in physiotherapy and psychotherapy (Siegel, 1981). Since the emphasis was not on form or content, but on emotional meaning and the ideal of the community, Laban's collaborativeness, in the form of The Birth of Tragedy, could also 3. 2 Subjective – objective have been expressed during his period in Ascona and also during the period of the Weimar Republic, when the ideas were nationalized (Aschheim, 1994). Nietzsche defined two worlds of art, “the one in the Apollonian dream or Dionysian intoxication” – The idea of utopian unity occurred in the Greek tragedy not only in art, but also in life itself, where confronting the isolating objective Apollonian impulse of the world of inner imagination, through the structure of the theaters, in which “given the way the spectators' space was built stands the subjective Dionysian impulse, which leads to a mystical unity between one person up in terraces, raised up in concentric rings, it was possible for everyone quite literally to look and another, and between humans and nature (Nietzsche, 1871/2003, 10). Laban almost entirely Fig. 19: out over the collective cultural world around him and with a complete perspective to imagine Diagram of the Gesture Dance. Photograph: perceived the moving body as the source of sensation. Although he created choreographies himself a member of the chorus... Enchantment is the precondition for all dramatic art” Hotzold. The Theater of the Bauhaus ©by for the stage, the idea of ‘Dionysian intoxication’ was expressed mainly in his groups of Wesleyan University Press. Published by (Nietzsche, 1871/2003, 23-24). Similarly, the idea of total art within the theater was expressed Wesleyan University Press. Reprinted by movement, in which the participants intensified the collective movement through their spirit permission. by Schlemmer in his reference to the stage in Dessau as a flexible space whose components of movement (Siegel, 1981). Later on, Nietzsche called for the unity of subject and object, since are experienced by the audience from new perspectives. He even perceived the Bauhaus “insofar as the subject is an artist, he is already released from his individual willing and has building itself as a stage, visioning the urban environmental dance that would appear in become, so to speak, a medium... now he is simultaneously subject and object, all at once Germany 40 years later (Siegel, 1981). In Ascona, movement lessons were integrated into the poet, actor, and spectator” (Nietzsche, 1871/2003, 17). This self-‘fusion’ was examined both lifestyle, and the community dance led by Laban stemmed from a desire to eliminate the at parties at the Bauhaus and in nature at Ascona. However, in Schlemmer’s performance separation between the performing artists and the audience. 18 work, although he saw the actor’s potential to become a united Dionysian impulse because Greek tragedy was characterized as a total work of art: “the figure of the wise and frenzied “he constitutes his own material with his body, his voice, his gestures, and his movements”, satyr... a image of nature and its strongest drives, a symbol of that and at the same time Schlemmer recognized that unlike the days of the great tragedy, today’s actor bases his work the announcer of its wisdom and art: musician, poet, dancer, visionary—in a single person” on the written text (Gropius, 1961, 18-22). Schlemmer indeed saw the dancer as someone who (Nietzsche, 1871/2003, 24). Just as at Ascona they believed in the integration of visual arts, was capable of again succeeding in creating Dionysian unity, although, since he did not use music, dance and poetry, the performance on the Bauhaus Stage also combined choreography, the dancer’s strength to express himself through the vocabulary or the quality of movement, spatial design, and visual arts. Laban and Schlemmer both aspired to be visionary artists: Schlemmer’s work, in fact, derived from an Apollonian dream and the inner fantasy world Schlemmer sought a process in which the stage designer would develop optical phenomena of Nietzsche's concepts. which would later be matched with words and musical sounds (Gropius, 1961, 29). Laban

84 85 The work itself is influenced by being a ‘mirror image’ by the plastic artist, or that of the expressionism, unlike the French, lacks the rational component that mediates irrationality, Dionysian musician who ‘is nothing but primordial pain’. The lyrical artist, ‘first of all, as a thus somewhat eluding the tension between intellect and anti-intellect that characterizes Dionysian artist… produces the reflection of this primordial oneness as music… But now this the German tradition. However, Laban perceived transcendental significance in dance, from music becomes perceptible to him once again, as in a metaphorical dream image, under the fusion of thought, feeling and desire, and in his studies of movement he aspired to bring the influence of Apollonian dreaming." (Nietzsche, 1871/2003, 16). In this work, “the essence the unconscious into the field of the conscious. While Laban – as an artist whose body is his of nature must express itself symbolically; a new world of symbols is necessary, the entire tool – perceived the Apollonian consciousness and the Dionysian unconscious as two forces symbolism of the body... the full gesture of the dance - all the limbs moving to the rhythm” inhabiting man, Schlemmer, as an artist of visual theater with an architectural orientation, (Nietzsche, 1871/2003, 11). As an Apollonian artist, Schlemmer created imaginary figures, but perceived the Apollonian rationale as residing in space, and man as the Dionysian-emotional he saw them as symbols of perennial types of human nature – funny or serious, serene or element. These, according to Schlemmer, struggle for control: in the case of man adapted to tragic. He created images that expressed metaphysical ideas, for example: the shape of a space, the movements become mechanical and rational, even though “there is no conscious star formed by the fingers; or the sign of infinity created by folded arms. Laban the lyricist, awareness of spatial relationships”; in the case of space adapted to man, the movements the pioneer of ‘expressive dance’, sought new symbols to represent the relationship between are created organically and emotionally; out of the “invisible functions of his inner self: man and nature, through his body and movement.19 heartbeat, circulation, respiration, the activities of the brain and nervous system”, and space becomes an imitation of nature. The ‘man as dancer’ (Tanzermensch) implements a third 4. 2 The unconscious – conscious / irrational – rational and balanced state; “He obeys the law of the body as well as the law of space” (Gropius, 1961, 22-25). This approach, which establishes the intellect in space, differs from Nietzsche's Many Nietzscheans have delved into the depths of the irrational and the unconscious. Like intention, according to which the kinesthetic value produced by the dancing man is greater Freud, Nietzsche also wanted to dismiss teleological and metaphysical explanations, dealing than the absolute intellectual. Thus, Schlemmer continued the myth of the non-intelligent with rediscovery and emphasizing ‘self-creation’, but Nietzsche limited them to “unique dancer, based on the Cartesian dichotomy according to which the physical is inferior to the individuals” (Aschheim, 1994). In contrast to the Greek Apollonian artists, for whom “their mental. Mokotow (2007) argues that the recognition of physical intelligence is still complex dreams also had a logical causality” were the Greek Dionysian artists, for whom “the language and that while the writing of dance might help acknowledgement of dance as performance of song and poetry of such a doubly defined celebrant... awoke in that world fear and terror... theory, it also establishes a precedent for the written word over movement, and the body’s “something never felt before forces itself into expression”(Nietzsche, 1871/2003, 10-11). The need for assistance by means of writing (Mokotow, 2007, 18-19). threat of the unconscious characterized not only the attitude of the government towards Laban; there were many who were deterred from his dealing with eroticism combined with 5.2 Expressionism of the will – conceptual expressionism mysticism, and the Asconian phenomenon in general.20 For Laban, free dance enabled resistance to knowledge and the devotion to the occult The blurring of the traces of more than two decades of modern dance creation in Germany Dionysian, and he called for rebellion against the dominance of abstract ideas, and for life led and in Eastern Europe in the wake of World War II, included it in the category of German by the ‘dancer spirit’ (Tanzergeist) (Green, 1986, 108-109). Aschheim (1994) claims that German expressionism, ‘expressive dance’, even though those involved in it were not all in agreement

86 87 on this, and some called it ‘free dance’ or ‘new artistic dance’ (Siegel, 1981). The different capable, not simply of understanding existence, but even of correcting it. However, science expressionist elements in the works of Laban and Schlemmer can be found in Nietzsche’s leads him again and again to its boundaries, beyond which he must turn to art … as his shield. description of the two types of expression and representation intertwined in Greek tragedy: Among them we must enter into the thick of the battles being waged between insatiable, the Apollonian image and concept, the reflection of phenomena, which cause the arousal of optimistic knowledge and the tragic need for art (Nietzsche, 1871.2003, 42). Laban, the leading pleasure in beautiful forms, and Dionysian music, “an immediate reflection of the will itself, theorist of the new world of dance, who provided a theoretical definition for expressive and also because it presents itself as the metaphysical counterpart to all physical things in dance, began experimenting with his ideas in his ‘research laboratory’ in Ascona, and then the world, the thing−in−itself as counterpart to all appearances” (Nietzsche, 1871/2003, 42). focused on his research. This “scientific” and “abstract” project... took him away from the Gropius described Schlemmer’s work as architecture in motion, using a personal vocabulary, idea of a spontaneous celebration and an expression of the unconscious, towards the idea wanting shape to produce significance and that ‘image’ would initiate human development of exactitude, fixity and system” (Green, 1986, 103). If it is possible to say that, with Laban, art (Gropius, 1961, 9). In Schlemmer’s abstract theater, the elements were arranged on stage and gave birth to the theory, then Schlemmer’s theory gave birth to art. Schlemmer, in his theory grouped into a kind of ‘act’, a comedy or tragedy; the dancer acted as a puppet or puppeteer, of performance, combined theory (painting and drawing) and performance art while the and his expressive self disappeared (Siegel, 1981). One may argue that his work dealt with figurative inventions, rather than the body movements, created the dance and directed the the ‘reflection of phenomena’ from the outside in. Laban, on the other hand, worked from viewers to observe the different levels of the performance. the inside of the individual outwards, seeking to express ‘this thing in itself’. He emphasized the spatial dimension of the movement, based on the understanding that space “is a hidden Dance-architectural thought feature of movement and movement is a visible aspect of space” (Laban, 1966, 4). However, we can also identify another reading of the expressionist elements in their work: on the one This article presents Nietzscheism as a factor that generates and encourages the integration hand, if we relate to the choreography of Schlemmer’s human transformation as an attempt of concepts of dance and architecture in the works of Rudolph von Laban, one of the creators to produce a change of identity and social influence, redefining and expressing what is human of expressive dance and the research of movement; and Oskar Schlemmer, one of the creators in the modern world (Elswit, 2008, 398), then the encounter of Schlemmer’s discourse and of abstract dance and ‘total performance art’. practice can be perceived as an expression of ‘this thing in itself’. On the other hand, Laban’s Nietzsche defines a basic dichotomy that : “the further development of art is bound up with search for the meaning of physical gestures in his studies of movement, a psycho-scientific the duality of the Apollonian and the Dionysian”. This dichotomy is formed “not in ideas, but approach that sought to separate physical gestures from the performer and overcome the in the powerfully clear forms of their divine world” (Nietzsche, 2010, p. 8). The formalistic- abstract and ephemeral nature of dance (Mokotow, 2007)21 indicates a ‘conceptual’ approach, architectural-dances setting up through ‘carved figures’ in itself highlights the lacunae in in Nietzsche's terms, which deals with the reflection of phenomena. each discipline - dance and architecture; for example, the need for architecture in the Socratic Laban and Schlemmer both engaged in theory and research, both in defining how the human medium, the difficulty of the architect to create from the Dionysia of space, or the inability body works within its physical element – space – and in the search for the meaning of dance of the dancer to be a spectator. beyond the influence of the individual dancer. Nietzsche described the creative relationship The article focuses on the third group defined above – studies that incorporate notions of between science and art thus, Socrates, the archetype of the theorist,believes that thought is dance in architecture and notions of architecture in dance, as theoretical research based on

88 89 of directions; time rhythm – the sequence of movements relative to time; weight rhythm – the historical material, and aspires to present notions common to architecture and dance as amount of strength exerted during movement. The combination of the three creates the movement flexible ideas that depend on specific interpretation; moreover as ones that are able to offer punctuation (Maletic, 1998). a choice of other options of expression within the framework of the same idea. 9 Man of the theater Gordon Craig claimed: "The actor must go, and in his place will come the inanimate figure, the Uber-marionette" (1911); writer Valery Brjusov demanded "replace actors with mechanized dolls, into each of which a phonograph shall be built." (Gropius, 1961, 28). 1 In her lecture "Dance of the Future" (1903), Duncan described her vision of the "Supreme Woman" 10 Mechanical figures, masks and geometric costumes were popular in the Bauhaus performances: as "the dancer the future... She will dance not in the form of a nymph, nor fairy, nor coquette but Kurt Schmidt introduced ‘The Mechanical Ballet’ (1923) and Man-Machine (1924), Xanti Schawinsky in the form of a woman in its greatest and purest expression.She will realize the mission of woman’s performed ‘Circus Dance’ (1924). The art of the circus also attracted Bauhaus artists (Rottenberg, body and the holiness of all its parts... she shall dance the freedom of women "(Manning, Benson, 1986). 2008). 2 Among others at Ascona there were Otto Gross, Carl Jung and Rudolf Steiner, and Schlemmer also 11 The constructivists who worked at the theater were influenced by the new possibilities offered by visited there (Green, 1986). airplanes, vehicles, elevators and cameras to grasp the characteristics of the space, and created, for 3 About Laban's magnetism, one can learn from the description of Mary Wigman, the pioneer of example, a theater where the audience could see the internal mechanisms of the stage (Siegel, "expressive dance" and his student, in her book, Laban, My Teacher: "Like a glaring flashlight they 1981). pointed out your own weak spots to you,... Laban, the magician, the priest of an unknown religion, 12 Throughout the 20th century, the Apollonian-Dionysian dichotomy was given all kinds of artistic the worshipped hero. How easily he could change from the gallant knight into the grinning expressions. For example, Paola Crespi examined the discourse that took place in Germany in the faun!" (ibid, 99). 1920s on the subject of rhythm – an idea that was also central to the theories of Rudolph Laban, 4 Laban, who traveled as a child to North Africa and the Far East, was interested in dances of ancient and saw in it interpretations of both Apollonian and Dionysian aspects of rhythm, such as ‘order’, prayer and movement rituals of different cultures (ibid, 1986). ‘harmony’, ‘moderation’, versus ‘chaos’, ‘disharmony’ and ‘flow’ (Crespi, 2014).

5 Rudolf Steiner also dealt with rhythm but in a different way: while Steiner translated poetry into 13 See Feuerstein, 2002. dance, Laban opposed its artistic use (Maletic, 1998). 14 Heinrich von Kleist, in his 1810 article on the marionette theater, referred to the mechanical 6 His injury occurred at a dance conference in Magdeburg, organized by Laban and Wigman, with movement of the doll: "Each movement has its centre of gravity; it is enough to control this within Schlemmer. The conference was a milestone in the development of dance as a profession and as the puppet. The limbs, which are only pendulums, then follow mechanically of their own accord, art (Manning, Benson, 1986). without further help." (Rottenberg, 2008).

7 Fritz Böhme, a dance theorist in the Weimar Republic, wrote to the Ministry of Propaganda headed 15 Wagner's article "Religion and Art" (1880), which was central to the culture of Ascona, reflects by Goebbels in 1933: "One should only reflect those shapes (dance) in which the German is renewed Nietzsche's intention to save art from the pain of life. Wagner called for the spirits to take humanity as a person and reborn... dance is a question of race... it is not a question of formalism or of aesthetics, out of materialism and help to create the race anew: "…intention for art's saving from the pain of but of nurturing the authenticity of German forms of expression "(Karina & Kant, 2003, 197-8). life."(Green, 1986, 122).

8 Laban examined the movement as arising from three aspects of rhythm: space rhythm – possibilities

90 91 16 Schlemmer's parody of existing forms of dance and the cult of progress and technology echoed Philosophy, Dance department, School of the Arts, University of Southampton. the satirical intent of Valeska Gert, a Berlin cabaret dancer, who contradicted the conventional image Bronet, F., Schumacher, J. (1999) "Design in movement: The prospects of interdisciplinary design", of femininity by using stereotypical shapes from popular entertainment and, conversely, hinted at Journal of Architectural Education, New York: Taylor & Francis, 53(2): 97-109. the metaphysical intention of Laban and Wigman's ‘expressive dance’ (Manning, Benson, 1986). Crespi, P. (1914) "Rhythmanalysis in Gymnastics and Dance: Rudolf Bode and Rudolf Laban", Body & 17 The exposure of soldiers to mass production technologies of weapons, and the de-individualization Society, London: Sage, 20(3&4): 30-50. of soldiers – in the years after the war these two phenomena left an understanding that human physiognomy is dependent on choice. The "prosthesis people" challenged the need for bodily Eisenbach, R. (2008) “Placing space: Architecture, action, dimension”, Journal of Architectural Education, integrity (Elswit, 2008). New York: Taylor & Francis, 61(4): 76-83.

18 Aschheim mentions two different types of architectural-artistic works, which aspired to the unity Elswit, K. (2008) “The Some of the Parts: Prosthesis and Function in Bertolt Brecht, Oskar Schlemmer, of art with life, and proposed a Nietzschean lifestyle, which merges the desire for self-creation with and Kurt Jooss”, Modern Drama, University of Toronto Press, 51(3): 389-410. the Dionysian impulse to self-drowning, and to create a total community: the experimental artists Ersoy, Z. (2011) ”’Building Dancing’: Dance within the Context of Architectural Design Pedagogy”, colony of Darmstadt, which integrated into the industrial world, and the creations of Bruno Taut, International Journal of Art & Design Education, Hoboken: Wiley-Blackwell,30(1), 123-132. which represented the cult of mountains and escape from the cities, a phenomenon that became popular: "impulse to self-immersion" (Aschheim, 1994). Fabrizi M., Lucarelli F. (2012) Measuring space, accessed at 22/09/16 from: http://microcities.net/ portfolio/measuring-space/ 19 Wigman described in The Ways and Goals of the Dancer (1923): "My group does not dance emotions, emotions are too precise, too noticeable. We dance the change and transformation of spiritual Feuerstein, M. F. (2002) “Body and Building inside the Bauhaus’s Darker Side: On Oskar Schlemmer” in G., states as these are exposed variously in each individual" (Manning, Benson, 1986) Dodds, R., Tavernor (eds.) Body and Building: Essays on the Changing Relation of Body and Architecture, Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. 20 A dance critic who wrote about the dance conference in 1927 perceived Laban's insistence on the ‘magic of dance’ as being something menacing, claiming that he had shamed the dance with Green, M. B. (1986) Mountain of truth: the counter culture begins, Ascona,

"perverse eroticism, religious ecstasy, pedagogical cult, compounded into a doctrine of salvation- 1900-1920, Hanover: University Press of New England. through-dance" (Green, 1986, 108-110). Gropius, W. (introduction), Schlemmer O., Moholy-Nagy L., Molnar F. (1961) The theater of the Bauhaus, 21 Mokotow distinguishes between developments at the beginning of the century of ‘gesture’ in the Middletown: Wesleyan University Press. world of dance, which aspires to express emotion, as opposed to "gesture" in the theater world, which seeks a great idea from the movement itself. She claims that Laban used theatrical tools Hardy, A. (2011) “The Expression of Movement in Architecture”, The Journal of Architecture, London: that contain symbols which dance supposedly does not have (Mokotow, 2007). Routledge, 16(4): 471-497. Helden, T. V. (2012) Expressions of form and gesture in Ausdruckstanz, Tanztheater, and contemporary Bibliography dance, A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Program of Comparative Literature, University of Colorado. Aschheim, S. E. (1994) The Nietzsche Legacy in Germany, 1890-1990, University of California Press. Jayakrishnan, K. (2011) Dancing Architecture: The Parallel Evolution of Bharatanātyam and South Indian Briginshaw, V. A. (2001) Dance, Space and Subjectivity, A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Architecture, M.A. of architecture thesis, University of Waterloo.

92 93 Karina, L., Kant, M. (2003) Hitler’s dancers: German modern dance and the Third Reich, New York: Stathopoulou, D. (2011) From Dance Movement to Architectural Form, A thesis submitted for the Berghahn books. degree of Master of Philosophy, Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, University of Bath.

Laban, R. (1926) Choreographie – Origins of a conception of body-space, Online translation Longstaff, J. Bing-Heidecker, L. (2010) The total subversion of the totalitarian regime, the vicissitudes of the Third S., Zierach, E. (2011), accessed at 22/09/16 from: http://www.laban-analyses.org/jeffrey/2011-Rudolf- Reich, online 18/09/16 from http://www.dancetalk.co.il/?p=513 (Hebrew) Laban-1926-Choreographie/contents.htm Rottenberg, H. (2008) The Bauhaus: The Art of the Performance, online 18/09/09 from: Laban, R. (1966) Choreutics, (annotated and ed. by L. Ullmann), London: MacDonald & Evans. http://www.dancevoices.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=22:2008-08-03-03- Laban, R., Lawrence, F. C. (1947) Effort: An Economy of Human Movement, London: MacDonald & Evans. 37-10&catid=28&lang=en&Itemid=167 (Hebrew)

Maletic, V. (1987) Body-Space-Expression: The Development of Rudolf Laban’s Movement and Dance Note: This article is based on a lecture given in January 2014 at the conference of the Israeli Society Concepts, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. for Dance Research, " Moving Between Local, Global, and Glocal: Israeli Concert Dance in the Era of Globalization”, Western Galilee Academic College, given by Yael Dagan and Dr. Marina Epstein-Pliouchtch. Maletic, V. (1998) "Laban Principles of Movement Analysis" (Volume 4), in S. J., Cohen (eds.) International Encyclopedia of Dance, a project of dance perspectives, New York: Oxford University Press.

Manning, S. A., Benson, M. (1986) "Interrupted Continuities: Modern Dance in Germany', The Drama Review: TDR, New York: MIT press, 30(2): 30-45.

Mokotow, A. (2007) Why Dance: The Impact of Multi Arts Practice and Technology on Contemporary Dance, A thesis submitted for the degree of Master of Creative Arts, School of Creative Arts, The University of Melbourne.

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Preston-Dunlop, V. (1998) Rudolf Laban: An Extraordinary Life, London: Dance Books.

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94 95 EMOTIONAL SPACE IN THE CITY AND ITS EXPANSES – MARC CHAGALL.

RUTH DOROT

The spider spinning its webs creates a place where once there was space

Yi-Fu Tuan

The concepts of "place" and "space" are similar, and thus there is a lack of clarity as to the differences between them. The distinction between the two is related to the question of "where" bodies are located. The difference between "space" – which is general and indicates freedom – and "place," which is specific and indicates security, argues Tuan, is like the difference between a building and a home (Tuan, 1977, 3).

“Space” is defined as being part of the initial data of consciousness, from the most general contents of the sense and from the basic concepts of thought – in cognition, in metaphysics, in psychology, in physics, in mathematics and in architecture.1

The modern term "space" originated in the 17th century, however the academic debate on the question of “space and place” began only in the 19th century, although according to the explanation by geographer Franco Farinelli, the ancient Greeks had distinguished between the two terms even earlier (Agnew, Livingstone, 2011, 2).

In "space" any part can replace another, without any significant change taking place. This is comparable, for example, to two bodies of equal weight that change place on the scales and don’t cause any change in the balance. On the other hand, "place" is part of a land surface and, therefore, not equivalent to any other, and cannot be replaced by any other without causing an overall change. According to the Webster's Dictionary definition, "space" is a dimension in which a material is located, or is a network that contains actual objects. "Place", in comparison, in its geographical sense, is part of a space in which people live or reside together.2

"Place" – a space in which they reside – has a structure; it provides a "house" with an exact address for some kind of content, and it is a "location". The "place" refers to the way people are

96 97 attracted to a certain area of space, and its dimensions have no importance or limitation – a 2. Conceptual space – an abstract sequence, defined mainly by mathematics and physics, room, a classroom, a neighborhood, a city (Tuan, 1977, 6). "Place" is perceived as "space" which and connected with the locations and relationships between physical objects. has been filled by people with significance, following their life experiences; this significance 3. Psychological space – which cannot be measured in perceptual or conceptual terms, but can be provided in two ways: directly and intimately – by means of the senses for example; is perceived through experience. Alongside the practical aspects – the logical-mathematical or indirectly and conceptually – by means of symbols and art (Tuan, 1977, 6). Yi-Fu Tuan also – there is the psychological aspect, which is responsible, to a great extent, for determining adds that "place" is devoid of discernible boundaries and is beyond the visible expression the nature and spirit of the place or space created. Beyond the objective differences of a specific period of time; for example: the arts, commemorative sites, and architecture between one person and another, personal feelings, memories, associations, the nature of (Tuan, 1977, 3). the person, and also the background and education in which that person was raised will play a central role. It is thus difficult to reach a consensus regarding the subjective "Space" – as opposed to "place", which must be located somewhere – can exist anywhere; aspect of the psychological space. John Welwood also distinguishes between three types it is abstract, devoid of any substantial meaning and devoid of structure; it has no social of psychological space: connections to a person, and it is an open expanse whose borders can be marked and . a Oriented Space – experienced physically, in which the body reaches the perceptual space, protected from trespassers. “Space” does not invite or encourage people or their followers which is essentially visual, auditory and tactile. to fill it by creative means (Tuan, 1977, 6). . b Open Space – a dimension that is free of conditioning and form, which is at the foundation of all of our activities and can be understood as an essential feature of In accepted or popular speech, the concept of "space", for the most part, evokes an association awareness itself. 3 with architecture, "the discipline that deals with the definition of the controlled environment, . c Feeling Space or Affective Space 4 – how the atmosphere or psychological environment its design and its creation" (Golani, 1999, 11). The entire world is one large space, which was in which we live is created and felt at any given moment. Each emotional space has already divided during the six days of creation – heaven and earth. This basic division has a matching sound, as well as a different inner-psychological landscape, and it conveys developed throughout history. Humans in general, and artists in particular, require divisions an atmosphere and quality of its own that influences our feelings while we are in it. and definitions of spaces, whether for public needs or for private purposes. Defining the It is interesting to note the connection between mood and space: in high spirits one functional requirement of "space" directs its planning: its dimensions, its design and the feels "on top of the world", "in the clouds", and in low spirits – "flat on one’s face". This creation of the atmosphere that emerges from within it. space is subjective, and the feeling in it changes, not only from one person to another, but also within the individual, depending on the circumstances. Therefore, in this space John Welwood distinguishes three types of space that can be objectively defined and measured you can feel openness without limitations or claustrophobia, pressure and obstruction. (Welwood, 1977, 4): Sometimes a person will feel that the space is boring, pointless or a monotonous, 1. Perceptual space – which can be seen and tactilely sensed with the help of the body. Its superficial and frozen flatness; there are those who will feel the space is deep, has infinite characteristics: 3-dimensionality, overlap, shape, distances and directions – forward, potential, rich in layers of meaning, volume and texture, and is vibrant and dynamic. backward, up, down, right and left.

98 99 Psychological space is comprised of the inner world and what represents it: thoughts, feelings, – the site of the market and the center of production for local craftsmen. 80% of all the and all the principles that organize inner life – the conscious and the unconscious – as well craftsmen in Vitebsk were Jews. Jewish peddlers set out from there to peddle their wares in as everything in-between. For example, when a baby realizes for the first time that he or the surrounding villages. Jewish merchants who had the courage and initiative moved to she and the mother are not interconnected and begins to take his or her first steps – these the large Russian cities, and even to other countries, deploying a commercial network as far become both emotional and physical. The baby moves away from unity with the mother, as Western Europe and the Far East. Others established banks and developed light industry into a psychological space, in a step that is a recognizable developmental achievement. The and commerce (Harshav, 2006, 12). emotional space flows and develops, and it appears to be an energy field we create around ourselves, one that is constantly changing and rearranging itself in different forms: sometimes During the first half of the 20th century, the Jewish Vitebsk was part of an extensive network the spaces are suffocating, frozen, restless and discontented; sometimes they are floating, of social and cultural institutions that included systems of education and learning: 28 schools, dancing and weightless. 60 synagogues, publishing companies, newspapers, community administrations, religious authorities and political parties. The secular institutions among them operated under the This article deals with “space” in the town of Vitebsk, with which the life story of Jewish auspices of a religious framework that legally separated the Jews from the official Russian painter Marc Chagall (1887-1985) is intertwined. Vitebsk plays quite a major role in the Orthodox Church. As the capital of the district, Vitebsk operated as an administrative center extensive works of Chagall throughout his entire career. From a perceptual and conceptual and served as the home for Russian Orthodox and Polish Catholic churches and cathedrals, “urban space”, in his paintings the town turns into a "psychological-emotional space". In as well as educational and administrative institutions. Workers from the surrounding area the paintings discussed in this article, the events are all depicted against the background who were looking for work flocked to the town, as well as soldiers who came to their bases, of the physical space of Vitebsk, while each is placed in a different psychological-emotional clerks, priests, teachers and representatives of the Russian government (Harshav 2006, 12). space around the town. From Chagall's many paintings that deal directly or indirectly with his hometown, there The town of Vitebsk, in Belarus (White Russia), is the capital of the Vitebsk region (‘oblast’) in is an impression contrary to what is described above. Due to his special relationship with the northern part of the country. It was part of the Jewish settlement in the Russian Empire. his birthplace, Chagall describes Vitebsk as a shtetl – a term attributed to a Jewish town,5 In 1897, for example, the 34,420 Jews residing in Vitebsk constituted a majority (52%) of the originating from the German word Stadt – city; and then, by way of the Yiddish and having city's population, and a majority of the urban population for the first time in history. The being ascribed a diminutive, the original meaning of which is ‘small’, it became shtetl - a small main church, town hall and the other tall official buildings were located near the market, town. The gentile area of Vitebsk, but primarily the Jewish area, is portrayed as small, crowded which was surrounded by the homes and shops of the Jews. The location of the gentile and and warm, intimate, embracing, creating a sense of security and arousing a yearning within Jewish regional town of Vitebsk was strategic because of its proximity to the two Russian the artist for his childhood and youth – a completely nostalgic space.6 Even when referring capital cities of St. Petersburg and Moscow. In addition, Vitebsk was the main intersection to the administrative-official center, there is a gap between the impression he wishes to of the railroads that crossed the Baltic Sea Basin, from Odessa and Kiev to St. Petersburg create and the historical truth. Between the years 1910 - 1914, the period when he first lived in and from Riga to the west of Moscow. In modern terms, Vitebsk was the "regional mall" Paris – the center of art at the time – his yearning and nostalgia for what he had left behind

100 101 grew stronger. As the years went by, the more distant he became from the town, the more am always with you? The truth, I have not lived with you, but I do not have a single painting this remained with him as if it were a memory, a dream, or a fantasy. that does not breathe your spirit and your reflection. Sometimes I am very sad when hearing people talk about me in languages I don’t understand and am unable to communicate in. Also in the various fields of art, the choice of the three types of "space" has significance. They talk about our relationship saying that I have apparently forgotten you. What do they In most instances the artists choose a perceptual or conceptual space that is coherently say about my relationship towards you? Is not my artistic difficulty and suffering enough? associated with the act or the composition; whereas others, like Chagall, often choose Do you understand me, my town? Do we understand each other? spaces that are surprising and surrealistic, enriching the interpretive level of the work. I would be happier to wander through your fields, to gather the stones of your ruins and This article deals with types of spaces within a selection of Marc Chagall's works, which in with my aging shoulders, to help rebuild your streets. The best I could wish for myself is if their essence, are defined as perceptual and conceptual; however at the same time they you said I was, and remain faithful to you forever. Otherwise I would not have become an function as psychological-emotional spaces. Whereas the first two types are objective and artist... these are your dreams – and I have only realized them on canvas, like a bride on her logical, the emotional space is subjective and experienced only through feelings. As such, it way to her wedding – I have kissed you in a variety of colors and lines, and just don’t say you is unexpected or unacceptable, and is perceived mainly through the senses that experience don’t recognize yourself. it or witness it. Emotional space can exist everywhere: in a person's imagination, in a dream, Fig #1 in a fantasy, in memories and even in yearning. Chagall's original perspective of the world I look at you from a distance, my town, just as my mother looked at me from the doorway yielded psychological-emotional spaces, which characterize his unique worldview, because as I left the house on my way to the street" (Harshav, 2003, 92). of which he considered painting the Song of Life. The canvas stretched across the easel, which serves as an anchor in Chagall's life and art, A unique, unusual, one-time love prevailed between the artist and his town, which we learn functions as the initial emotional space in his world. Into it he pours the "reality" that he from what he said: "The soil that nurtured my artistic roots was Vitebsk" (Baal-Teshuva, 2000, creates. Marc Chagall, who tells the story of his life and the life of the Jews throughout the 19). Elsewhere he addressed it: "My soul remains on your soil..." (Harshav, 2003, 92). More 20th century, plants the Jewish town – the shtetl – on his canvas, depicting its rich Jewish way intensely, this love is reflected in Marc Chagall's extraordinary letter to his town: of life, the history of his family, modern life in Paris, his love, his inspiration and the world of nature and animals – the beauty of the world alongside destruction and evil. The flat canvas "To my town Vitebsk, is a hostel; an emotional space that brings into it, through colors and shapes, a magical world February 1944 that has been resurrected and becomes "three-dimensional". A special phenomenon is the I have not seen you for a long time, my dear town; I have not heard from you; I have not spoken "picture within a picture", frequently found in Chagall's work: the artist vis-à-vis the easel, with your clouds; I have not leaned on your fences. As a melancholy nomad I have carried your at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of a process. A prominent example is his Auto- soul for all of those years in my paintings, and only spoken to you and seen you in my dreams. portrait with Seven Fingers – 1912 [Fig #1], onto which is copied an earlier work: To Russia, I left my homeland, my soul, on your soil; a mountain where my departed parents are buried, to Asses and Others – 1912. The copied painting is the emotional space – the town where he on which stones were piled. If that is the case, why did I leave you for so long if in my heart I was born, Vitebsk, from which he was cut off while he was living in Paris. Fig #2

102 103 I and the Village – 1911 [Fig # 2] is considered to be one of Chagall's best known and important the emotional-imaginary-symbolic space of another younger cow, being milked by a woman, paintings, during the period in which he came to know Paris. This is a nostalgic painting painted small on the background of the large head of the cow. 10 On the realistic level, the cow's based on reality. Its roots lie in Chagall's memories and dreams, in which Vitebsk, the town head symbolizes the female image, as an organic creature representing the fertile life of the of his youth, appears. 7 In terms of style, the painting is influenced by the synthetic Cubism village, abounding with produce, as well as the partner of the man, ornamented with beads and Orphism of Robert Delaunay. According to Franz Meyer, the painting shows an important and decorated with colored dots on her head. In the emotional-symbolic space, in which the turning point in Chagall's early career: content and form receive the same weight and balance. woman is milking the cow, the maternal aspect is emphasized. The head of the cow serves as The painter organizes the work in terms of space, where "forward" and "backward", "up" and a "hostel" – a "spiritual womb" for milking and being milked. They feel protected in a "bubble" "down", "object" and "space" unite.8 Moreover, he "plants" the day-to-day beside the fantastic, – the background of a blue sky and white clouds, symbolizing purity – sheltering them from the present beside the past, the near beside the far, the day beside the night, the land beside the harsh and dismal reality, and the dangers hinted at as if in a kaleidoscope in the upper the sky, nature and animals beside the human, humor beside nostalgia, the rational beside portion of the painting: houses upside down and a woman standing on her head threatened the irrational – when all these unite into reality, which is itself also symbolic. by the scythe that is about to be swung towards her, held by a farmer harvesting his crops. The sense of closeness and protection from the outside world is intensified by the color white, with Chagall often draws farm animals, mainly mammals. Their placement in their natural role which a large part of the cow's face is painted; this whiteness corresponds to the whiteness is part of his overall perception of the world around him; however, Chagall also integrates of the upper body of the upside-down woman, the white clothing of the woman milking, and these animals outside their normal functional system of reference. Later in his artistic Fig #3 the color of the cow being milked. Around the red center of the painting – the focal point of development, this aspect became an immediate association – his characteristic symbolic the composition – the colors that stand out are: the green face of the man – the “I”; the white iconography. Chagall abolishes the divisions between man and the animal world, both by head of the cow; the colored houses against the black sky; and the pale blue of the branch at

means of groups functioning with mutual dependence and full balance; he perceives animals the bottom of the painting. The personified, watchful, sorrowful eye of the cow "watches out" Fig #4 as being parallel to, and even substituting for the human figure.9 for the wellbeing of the woman and the cow being milked. The emotional-symbolic space that supports and protects, which is expressed in the head of the cow, is possible thanks to Despite the dominant geometric component of the painting – the intersecting diagonal lines the optimal conditions of the cow: it is in complete harmony with the "I" – the man whose face and the circle in the center – the symbolic-content layer is clearly evident, and attests to "he is painted green, and with nature – the sky, the clouds and the flora, expressed by the branch and she" and their harmonious life in the village. Opposite the green face of the man we find that is being given to it as food, and as a bouquet, lighting up the scene like a candle.11 The the head of a cow. Both of the heads are displayed in profile and are connected by a dotted integration of all of these allows the cow to be the "giver", and also to be “suckling”: the Mother! line stretching between their eyes, while the eyes themselves express a close and intense relationship. "The symbolic head of the cow represents the past – a memory of something that Love, a core theme in Chagall's art, is given a diversity of expressions and designs. Sometimes actually happened. The two faces express the same naiveté; the same surrender to the forces of the lovers are placed in an emotional and unconventional space, which shatters the viewer's fate, and together they create the nucleus of the painting’s composition" (Kamensky, 1989, 120). expectations. In Clock with Blue Wing - 1949 (Fig #3), the ancient pendulum clock, brown and The head of the cow functions simultaneously on two levels: the physical-realistic space and heavy, hovering between heaven and earth, provides an unexpected emotional space for a

104 105 pair of lovers. Against the background of the wintry, snowy shtetl the couple finds refuge painted orange, and the roofs of the town in blue, blurring and dissolving into the horizon – the in the inner space of the clock. The physical hour is 10:10, while the couple is in a state of memory, the imagination and the nostalgia. The "nostalgic bubble of memory" functions as timelessness. The two are deep in the experience of love, looking into each other’s eyes, unaware a poetic emotional space for three main elements in Chagall's life and art: the artist with the of the reality around them in which time is transient, and alluded to by several means: the palette and the brushes, the aesthetic flowers – a source of joy and love, and the bird, connected rooster (at the top left of the picture) – nature’s “alarm clock”; the bird's wing – time flying with man and with flora – part of Chagall's basic world view; the three create a harmonious by; the winter – the change of seasons; night – replacing day as part of the daily cycle; and world, born in the imagination of the artist, lying at the bottom of the painting. flowers – the cycle of blooming and wilting. The couple, “intertwined” within each other, is in an emotional space that "encapsulates" them in eternal love. From an ars poetica creation with bold coloring – The Rooster – 1947 [Fig #6], an extraordinary emotional space emerges: a symbolic-lyrical love nest, an impressively large white rooster, Chagall's extensive work is rich in colorful flowers of various species, in different sizes and a symbol of masculinity, filling the dark night space of the city with his presence. A serrated hues. The flowers suggest beauty, optimism, romance, the joy of life and the excitement of crest and a sharp beak, an aggressive appearance and a clear outline that defines the image courtship. In a flower bouquet that is hugely disproportionate compared to the vase and the of the rooster – all of these contribute to his self-confidence, his power, his authority and couple, in Lovers Among the Lilacs – 1930 [Fig #4], the couple is immersed in a floral lovers’ his natural urges. In contrast, his soft white plumage shines; the twisted and wavy tail of nest, which serves as an emotional space, while the couple is in gentle ascension. On a soft, feathers, with a curly texture, seems to design an "elegant dress" that turns into the emotional 13 fresh and colorful bed overflowing with emotions, Bella and Marc Chagall are immersed in Fig #5 space which supports and protects the lovers’ nest, decorated with a bouquet of flowers. Fig #6 the tranquility and perfection of love. The artist uses the technique of blurring, creating an intoxicating atmosphere. The couple seems to be completely disconnected from time in the Against the backdrop of Vitebsk's gloomy darkness, during the period when the Nazis rose tangible world – the river Dvina – time flows – swept away on waves of shared imagination. to power, 14 a Jew with side curls and a black beard, contemplative and desperately anxious, The visual-artistic effect of the bouquet emphasizes that the two are surrounded by the sits on the ground in a melancholy position.15 The Jew in Solitude – 1933-1934 [Fig #7], is in an beauty and fragrances of nature. 12 ambivalent psychological space. He feels alien and unwanted, as Chagall felt in France at that time, when he had ominous feelings that predicted what was about to happen. The white The subject of the painting Couple on Red Background – 1983 [Fig #5] is mainly associated with prayer shawl over the traditional black coat envelops him in holiness and closes around him memory. At the bottom of the picture lie a pair of lovers (Marc Chagall and Bella), in a gesture like a bubble, and it is this that provides him with the emotional space, sheltering and shielding of affection and courtship, on the banks of the river Dvina, whose hues change from orange him from the evil that lies ahead: the persecutions, the wanderings, the deportations, the to yellow. Above the couple is the emotional space, like a dream in a bubble. By means of a pogroms and the catastrophes. These are alluded to by the black clouds and the impending Fig #7 blurry outline, this blue space is separated from the background of the painting with its shades storm, threatening the little houses in the town, the church steeples and the buildings of of red and orange, and within it reality, imagination and illusion are mixed. This emotional the town.16 The dangers awaiting are a recurring pattern of the pogroms that have been space conveys what emerges in the imagination of the artist, the lover and the daydreamer. the fate of the Jewish people throughout history, and so the artist's fears are loyal to the His hometown – Vitebsk – links here and there; between the small houses of the Jewish town period and justified, with the winds of the impending Holocaust and destruction hanging

106 107 overhead. 17 The painting expresses the feelings of Chagall and of many Jews in Europe, when of an external factor enforcing the isolation of the Jew in 1933. Even if the image of Jeremiah the anti-Semitic laws made their lives absurd and unpredictable, causing them to flee their lamenting is to be witnessed in the very foundations of the Jew's existence – concealed in countries with their belongings. With the outbreak of World War II, there were already about his prayer shawl – there was still the potential for salvation and even for escape despite the 110,000 Jewish refugees scattered throughout Europe. The profound concern of the Jew in decrees and horrors of the Holocaust that were gathering on the horizon. the painting is conveyed by his body language – the hand supporting his head – a position that has become an iconographic pattern18 ever since the prophet in Jeremiah Lamenting In Over the Town – 1914–1918 [Fig #8], Marc Chagall enchants the viewers by describing one the Destruction of Jerusalem – 1630, by Rembrandt. Despite the similarity, the moment with of the pinnacles of perfect love, both physical and emotional, when the couple – the artist which the two artists deal is fundamentally different: Unlike Rembrandt's Jeremiah, who and his wife – hover over a typical ‘Chagallian’ town,21 as they merge into each other. The 19 mourns the past, Chagall’s Jew fears the future and the destruction that will befall him. artist emphasizes the earthliness of the daily life below, versus the perfection and idyll of Fig #8 the pair. The open skies provide the two with an emotional space in which they float, a space On the other hand, the prayer shawl – the emotional space – isolates the Jew, protects him that envelops them on the one hand and liberates them, on the other.22 Chagall’s gravitation- and prevents his exposure to the possibilities surrounding him. If he had not withdrawn into defying motif is well-known and in this painting, is an expression of boundless love and his worries, and if he had opened his prayer shawl even a little, the Jew would have enabled freedom. The two are portrayed, each of them separately, but even more so together, as a the cow to enter his life.20 The cow is a symbol of the female figure in Chagall's work. Her unified image that is reminiscent of stringed instruments. Chagall sought artistic means human eye corresponds to that of the Jew; her sad, melancholy expression corresponds to that could express the beauty of the love he experienced with Bella, who was his faithful the expression on his face, and the color white, like the color of his prayer shawl, is the color friend, his fiancée, his wife, and the source of his artistic inspiration. Only the lyrical metaphor of spirituality. Its yellow horns – the color of mysticism – correspond to the scrolls of the Torah of the sky – the infinite space – can serve as an emotional, spiritual and personal space to that he is holding. If he had turned to the cow, he would have seen the violin – a typically contain and convey the depth and intensity of their special relationship. By thus merging Jewish instrument of the soul that is next to the cow, corresponding with the scroll of the himself with his beloved muse Chagall "claims" that only through the tremendous physical Torah beside it. It is an instrument whose sounds could comfort him and lift his soul; the and emotional attraction of the two can gravitation of the earth be overcome. melody that would emerge from its strings would move the very depths of his soul. If he had loosened the prayer shawl slightly and turned his head upwards, he would also have noticed Chagall uses the sky stretching over Vitebsk as an emotional space for the wandering Jew, Fig #9 the white angel, who opens a blue "window" of hope and salvation in the sea of gloom. as in Over Vitebsk – 1913 [Fig #9], and for the couple in the painting discussed above. In the Contrary to the prevailing view, according to which the Jews were forced to be separate, to former, the Jew escapes from his hardships in a place that is bleak and oppressive and in the seclude themselves and cut themselves off from society, in this painting it is implied that the latter, the couple is drawn into renewed poetic horizons. choice might have been in the hands of the Jew; however, he preferred to separate himself from the outside world because of his religious faith; with its help, by means of the prayer Chagall, an artist of imagination and invention, excelled at transforming a pictorial space into shawl that protected but also isolated him – his emotional-religious space – it prevented his a new entity by turning conceptual-tangible and mathematical-physical spaces, according exposure to the possibilities of salvation that surround him. In this work, there is no evidence to John Welwood's definition, into a psychological-emotional one. The head of a cow, a clock,

108 109 workers, who came to the market in the city, got drunk and demonstrated their physical a bouquet of flowers, a rooster’s tail, a prayer shawl and the sky have become a nest for strength. There were also primitive and uneducated Jews: these Jews were called 'poyers' lovers, a shelter from the horrors of war, and those in which feelings of freedom, liberation (workers of the land); in other words ignorant, rude and having no education or learning, and security lead to a storm of emotions, ecstatic excitement and transcendental reality. but they observed the basic Jewish commandments".

6 Alexander, S. 1990, Marc Chagall – An Intimate Biography Vol. I, Ladori Publications, Israel, 20 This article was edited by Nili Laufert "Since Vitebsk was the second largest city in the sector, and more than half of its population was Jewish, it had no ghetto, neither physical nor even psychological, and Jews moved freely everywhere in the city." 1 The Hebrew Encyclopedia, 1965, Encyclopedia Publishing Company Ltd., Jerusalem Tel Aviv, Vol. 17, 502. 7 Wullschlager, J. 2008, Chagall, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 141.

2 Webster's Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary, 1970, G. & C. Merriam Company Publishers "The painting I and the Village with its mystical union between man and animal, day Springfield, Massachusetts, 836. and night, earth and sky, and the nostalgic Hassidic celebration of the connections between nature and human life in Vitebsk brought to the highest level the intense series inspired 3 Ibid. 103 by the Cubism of 1911-1912, in which Chagall changed Russia into a fantastic vision and "The open space is a passageway to the refined psychological dimensions, and it is in the at the same time froze it in time as a memory." direction of the ontological level of our basic existence. Our attraction to the deeper, more 8 Meyer, F. 1964, Marc Chagall, Harry N. Abrams Inc. New York, 162. dynamic or the spread out physical and psychological spaces, from the broad expanses of countries that have thus far not been researched, from the rolling spaces of restless oceans, "The fact that I and the Village is the pinnacle of his 'geometric' series is significant not from the vastness of outer space the "expansion" of consciousness itself, can all appear only in the context of 'form'. In this painting, for the first time, the individual form to be like a craving and yearning for 'open space' that is the basis of our existence". transcends itself, thus creating the figurative space that contains the symbolic motifs in a new way."

4 In this article, the concepts "psychological space", "emotional space" and "emotional- 9 Harshav, B. The Lost Jewish World, 63. psychological space" will be used simultaneously or alternately, in the same order of importance. "As far as he was concerned, animals were able to represent a living entity with a characteristic 5 Ibid. 12 of warmth and closeness, and could also symbolize the emotional and unexplained influence of unspoken communication, or embody the ideal of people living closely "The distinction between the three categories: large city, town (‘shtetl’) and village, reflect connected with nature... Chagall during his life had little contact with animals. He felt demographic and ethnic differences, and should not be confused with each other. The that he was suffocating from his poor control of the language, when he became attached Yiddish word ‘shtetl’ (an abbreviation of the word Stadt, 'city') is often translated in Western to the Russian culture. Stuttering in the Russian class because he was embarrassed by languages as ‘village', while its meaning is ‘small city’. This creates unnecessary confusion. those circumstances, which he felt was a sign of being a Jew in Russian society. His ambition Villages were the places where the Christian farmers lived, while the cities were mostly during his youth was to sing, to play the violin, to dance or to paint – all of which were in the emotional populated by Jews, and they did not have land or farmers. In Yiddish the term 'village' arts which did not require the use of language, and enabled communication through imagination." meant something completely different: it was a place populated by coarse, illiterate field 10 Cassou, J. 1965, Chagall, Frederick A. Prager Publishers, New York, 26.

110 111 "This matter is not realistic, since the observer cannot clearly distinguish between the hopeless isolation of the future victim. " front and the back and is unable to compare it with spaceships from outer space". Some 16 . Ibid shapes, but not all of them, can be distinguished as 'an image' and as 'earth', and by doing so can advance or retreat. Characteristic of this is the pose in the scene of milking in "The Jew is located against a background that integrates the small houses of Vitebsk and the cow’s head, which in this way achieves the objective character and the spatial character. its churches with green domes, with the towers of French or German Gothic churches; so the fate of the Jew is seen against the background of Eastern and Western Europe: he 11 Kamensky, A. Chagall – The Russian Years 1907-1922, 120. seems to have been expelled from both of them – a refugee who mourns his fate but is "The flowery stem in the center of the composition is a sign or a symbol of beauty and unable to escape." ‘joie de vivre’: it provides the basic, primary color of this memory. Chagall loved the term 17 Sweeny, J. 1969, Marc Chagall, The Museum of Modern Art, New York, 60. 'color' and applied it not only to objects but also to emotions, moods, sounds...“ "In fact, with a painting like Solitude, an atmosphere of spiritual threat is beginning to 12 In this design Chagall draws inspiration from an ancient painting motif – the icon of the appear in his work, as if something inside him was sensitive to developments; that from Virgin Mary who has conceived and given birth, with a newborn baby on her stomach. all sides they were preparing for the tragedy that would begin six years later." 13 Baal-Teshuva, J. Chagall, 168. 18 Rajner, M., The Continuity of Jewish Iconography, Yad Vashem, Vol. 3, 34. "This description is my passion, more tense and aggressive than any of the previous "In order to create an iconography that is appropriate to the new situation, Chagall used paintings, and it is also true of its colors. The artist's love for Virginia produced a work models that are familiar, both from Jewish art and from non-Jewish art. As we shall see that is full of life and vibrancy". below, such use was also made by other Jewish artists. Their purpose was to create a new 14 Harshav, B. 2004, Marc Chagall and his times: A documentary narrative, Stanford University but familiar visual language that would express their concern and raise public awareness Press, Stanford, 436-437. of the impending dangers."

"In 1934, in a letter to his friend Meir Dizengoff, the mayor of Tel Aviv, he wrote: ‘... the 19 Friedman, M., 2011 The Prophet Jeremiah in the Work of Chagall, Ka’et, Talpiot Academic political turmoil, the persecution by the Hitlerists, can crush our bodies (we are used to College of Education, Publishing House, Vol. 1, 133 it), but our spirit is fresh and impenetrable, as it has always been and as it shall always be ‘". "It is known that Chagall illustrated Bella’s book Burning Lights in 1946 and decorated the 15 Amishai Maisels, Z. 1933, Depiction and Interpretation, Pergamon Press, Oxford, chapter 2, 22. chapter on Tisha B'Av (the Fast of the Ninth of Av – a day of mourning) with a drawing that is very similar to the painting Loneliness, the chapter which ends with the words: "Ekah sat "Another layer of meaning for this picture is in the revelation of the source: John the Baptist alone" – the opening words of the Book of Lamentations which is attributed to the prophet in the Wilderness, by Geertgen Tot Sint Jans. St. John is sitting in exactly the same position, Jeremiah. This drawing, as well as the painting Loneliness, depicts Jeremiah mourning and accompanied by the same symbol, a white lamb – the inspiration for Chagall's comforting lamenting for Jerusalem, which had been destroyed, although the turrets of the churches of white cow. There is no doubt that Chagall saw the painting... and using the painting, that Vitebsk are clearly visible because – like many of his biblical characters, Chagall also he felt represented the German culture as the source of Loneliness, he created identification described Jeremiah as a Jew in a city, against a background of the town in which he was born – Vitebsk. between that culture and his Jewish heritage, at exactly the same time that he felt that Judaism was being threatened by the German Christians, while this identity indicated 20 Friedman, M., The prophet Jeremiah in Chagall's work, 134. the absence of logic in the ideology behind the threat, the identity did not diminish the

112 113 Mira Friedman is looking for an explanation for the cow with the violin which is near her, The Hebrew Encyclopedia, Volume 17, Encyclopedia Publishing Company Ltd., Jerusalem Tel Aviv, 1965, 502. on which she is playing, in her perception. Bibliography in English: "Perusing the treasure of legends of the Jewish Midrash (Commentary) explaining the Book of Lamentations, clarifying this strange combination of mourning for the destruction of Agnew, J. and Livingstone D. (eds.), )2011(, The Sage Handbook of Geographical Knowledge, Chapter Jerusalem, and the expulsion from it together with the merry cow. In the Midrash 23: "Space and Place", London: Sage, 2. Lamentations Rabbah 1:15 a legend is told about a Jew plowing with a plow harnessed Alexander, S., (1990), Marc Chagall – An Intimate Biography, Vol. I, Ladori Publications, Israel, p. 20. to a cow on the day that the enemy entered the city and destroyed the Temple. Suddenly the cow threw itself onto the ground and refused to continue plowing. When he hit her, Amishai Meisels, Z. (1933), Depiction and Interpretation, Pergamon Press, Oxford, chapter 2, p. 22. he heard a voice saying that the cow was lowing about the destruction of the Temple and Baal-Teshuva, J., (2000), Chagall, Tachen, Spain, 19, p. 168. the Temple had been burned down. After a while the cow stood up and started to dance and rejoice, and the voice told him that this was the time when the Messiah was born. Cassou, J., (1965), Chagall, Frederick A. Prager Publishers, New York, p. 26. Chagall seems to have known this Commentary, which contains the consolation of the Harshav, B., (2006), Marc Chagall and the Lost Jewish World, Rizzoli, New York, 12, 63, 135. destruction, and he described the cow being happy and dancing like a musician." Harshav, B. (ed.), 2003, Marc Chagall on Art and Culture, Stanford University Press, California, p. 91, 92. 21 Harshav, B. Marc Chagall and the lost Jewish world, 135. Harshav, B., (2004), Marc Chagall and His Times, a Documentary Narrative, Stanford University Press, "Thus the fantastic, the absurd or the poetic world in painting (the floating)... is perceived Stanford, 436-437. as a deviation from reality as well as its most authentic expression." Kamensky, A., (1989), Chagall – The Russian Years 1907-1922, Thames and Hudson, New York, pp.120, 292. 22 Kamensky, A. Chagall, the Russian Years 1907-1922, 292. Meyer, F., (1964), Marc Chagall, Harry N. Abrams Inc. New York, p. 162. "A town that lies at the bottom of the composition, still covered with a light mist; where goats and humans are seen. A simple town, simple life, an image of the world living Sweeny, J., (1969), Marc Chagall, The Museum of Modern Art, New York, p. 60. its daily life – but two huge people hovering along the sky, swept along by happiness. The Tuan, Y. F., (1977), Space and Place: The Perspective of Experience, University of Minnesota Press, peaceful colors of the background are contrasted with the bold colors of the images, and Minneapolis, Introduction, pp. 3, 6. thus emphasize the wonderful nature of the piece. The realistic and the surrealistic exist Webster, N. (1970), Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary, G. & C. Merriam Company Publishers, Springfield, in happiness, alongside each other”. Massachusetts, 836.

Bibliography in Hebrew: Welwood, J., (1977), "On Psychological Space", The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, Vol. 9, No. 2, Santa Barbara, California, p. 4. Golani, Y., Gateway to Architecture, Dvir Publishing House, Tel Aviv, 1999, 11. Wullschlager, J., (2008), Chagall, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, p. 141. Friedman, M., The Prophet Jeremiah in the Work of Chagall, Ka’et, Talpiot Academic College of Education, Publishing House, Vol. 1, 2014, 133

Rajner, M., The Continuity of Jewish Iconography, Yad Vashem, 3, 2009, 34.

114 115 "ARCHITECTURE - WHAT NOW? WHAT NEXT? “ RATIONALE

BENI REUVEN LEVY

"Logic will get you from A to B. Imagination will take you everywhere" Albert Einstein

"Architecture is not about invention, it is about discovery" Louis I. Kahn

The freedom to imagine, to take flight from an existing foundation of research knowledge, is a crucial component of thought, of contemplation and creativity in general, and of architectural creativity in particular. This is a basic condition for a worthy intellectual debate; a discussion that stems from the inner world of the thinker and the creator, on the pathway to formulating perceptions and positions of universal value, and expressing them in words, in shapes and in places. The question: "Architecture - what now? What next?” was posed during the 2016-2017 academic year as an appeal and a motto to focus research and discussion, brainstorming and clarifying issues, and as a basis for architectural work in the School of Architecture in general, and in the final project studio in particular. The storms and vicissitudes that occur in our immediate and distant surroundings; the rapid changes in our way of life and, as part of that, in the composition of the nuclear family, in interpersonal relationships, the nature of our dwellings and public institutions; the crowding of our cities, immigration and relocation; Israeli society is multicultural and heterogeneous; the real need to recognize and respect the existence and value of the ‘other’ and the foreigner; not only as a trendy philosophical discussion, but as a basic value for life founded on the dignity and liberty of the individual; the new technologies that accelerate the digital and virtual communication - the information revolution all of which alter the perceptions of time and space; extreme climate change as a by-product of irresponsible behavior by human beings; the existing state of physical and planning of infrastructures in the natural and built environment; the worrying transformation in architectural, academic and professional disciplines – all these require the utmost ethical and responsible attention by thinkers and creators, through architecture, in order to create

117 URBAN IMAGE IN THE 21ST CENTURY ALON NEUMAN

a good, healthy and beautiful local and global environment for the present generation, as The project presented is a personal final project conducted in the studio. The title of the well as for future generations. project is "What now? What next?" During the year the question arose: What will the future of urban living environments be? During this academic year the final project studio was conducted via autonomous instruction How can a living environment adapt itself to modern life, which is changing so rapidly? groups, in which five sub-topics were presented by the instructors: "The residential and How would it be proper to live in such an urban environment? And ultimately, what will the urban environment of tomorrow", "The building, the city and the question of residence", future character of the city be? "Urbanism in the reformulation of interpersonal relationships", "Existential Space - Architectural Space - Virtual Space", "Institution". In accordance with these outlines and the values, the Examining the city of Tel Aviv with the help of the concept of "image" understanding and the aspirations of each student, all the projects were developed in the studio. The three projects presented here are an example of the diverse products of the The concept of image is important in order to understand the past and the present of the students and their efforts to expose relevant issues and dilemmas, interpret, define and city of Tel Aviv. As a diverse city with a rich history, Tel Aviv is multi-faceted, and some of its present them in a personal architectural language, deriving from internalizing the past, images are intermingled. The city contains several layers that work simultaneously and from an understanding of the present, and from an inspiring vision for a sustainable future. nurture the city with innovation and constant change. In order to analyze the local images, and to understand what is different or similar about them, we need tools that will assist us As an epilogue, I would like to dedicate a poem to everyone at the School, which I read to in analyzing and recognizing the different parts of the city. the school's audience at the beginning of my term, as a ‘traveler’s prayer’, as a description For the purpose of this project I have created a system that includes four parameters, through of life’s journey, and as an expression of reduction and selection - a basic value of creation: which it will be possible to better understand the local contemporary image: • The urban grid, which derives from the distance between the buildings and the scale of White Bird / T. Carmi each area; White bird on a green river, two • The cross section of an average street (average height / average width); and then three. • The size of the private space compared to the size of the public space (with the help of a Alenby St. elevation One electric pole, two, Nolli map); three bushes. • Number of users at any given time, with reference to the number of pedestrians and of More than this (roofs and clouds and blades of grass) motorized vehicles. it’s hard to count on a train, Graphic and statistical use of these tools makes it possible to intellectually distinguish focal and so I’m not mentioning them. Instructors at the Studio: points, initiating a typological analysis through which to understand the local image of Actually, I think that I’ll draw Prof. Architect Beni Reuven Levy, Architect Itzik every place where they are used, linking the findings to photographs from the field created just one single bird. Elhadif, Architect Yoav Lanir, Architect Shuki the current collective image of that area. With the help of a quick collage of representative Perhaps only the wings. Levy, Architect Udi Mendelson, Arch. Zvi Gersh. photographs from a particular area we discovered that it is possible to create a street that

118 119 appears totally authentic – although it is merely a sort of ideological reflection of a street Test Case: Allenby Street from the same area. I chose to present the future image of Tel Aviv on Allenby Street - an important historical Personal interpretation of the concept of the modern city axis in the city. In addition to the large amount of traffic that passes there, the street also serves to a certain extent as a border between the old Tel Aviv – the one that starts in Jaffa Sometimes in Hebrew the term ‘refuge’ is used to describe a residence. The connection – and the new Tel Aviv, the city with the modern gardens; between the city built in a radian between the concept of ‘home’ and the concept of ‘safety’ is strong, because it stems from Conceptual section manner, with streets ending at the sea; and the city whose streets ignore the sea and have the most basic need of human beings: safety from natural phenomena, from animals and created introverted urban blocks. from strangers. A residence in the modern city also takes another consideration into account – convenience. The city provides us with the opportunity to conduct many functions in our Roaming between the buildings on either side of Allenby reveals another facet to the street. daily lives in safety within the common public space. What appears at first glance as being impermeable is revealed as having depth, containing a mixture of states. The phenomenon of depth is expressed in a variety of ways: small bookstores

The changes that individuals undergo in the 21st century are frequent and rapid. They demand Conceptual section twisting and exploiting every alcove in the wall; silversmiths whose names do not appear at that modern man be flexible and constantly adapt to a changing lifestyle. Modern man's the entrance to the street; the use of space between the buildings for commercial purposes; daily labor has decreased considerably; in order to earn a livelihood one no longer has to go second-hand shops with small display windows at the front of the building on the pavement, out to the pasture, the workshop or the factory; even to purchase routine necessities one no while they are actually located at the back. longer needs to go out to the market or to the supermarket. Since the Internet revolution, more and more people have been working, studying, and shopping from home. As a result, There is, therefore, a divergence between the representation of the population that lives the residence has become, over the years, an almost independent capsule that includes a and works at the back of the street, and the façades on display in Allenby Street itself. This

diverse variety of functions that provide the full array of what people require. While all this raises the question: How will the local characteristics of Allenby affect the future image of Space between buildings is happening, it appears strange to me that the living space has hardly changed over the the street? The future image I present attempts to answer these questions, and raises the last hundred years. conflict between the constant and the variable, between local identity and universal vision; an expression of the disparity that has arisen between the façade of Allenby and its inner layers. The ‘retreat’ into the private cell comes at the expense of public space, and the interaction of individuals with the outdoors is declining. However, I believe that the public space in the Definition of a local urban generator: A building or a group of buildings that serve as an city has the potential and ability to provide flexibility that does not exist and is not offered urban focal point, fulfilling a function for use by the general public, in addition to semi-private within the private home. and semi-public secondary spaces with variable functions. This urban focus encourages interaction between the general public and the local residents, and allows for flexibility in Plan- Depth on both side of Alenby St. respect of the division of the spaces and the existing function. The municipal call center

120 121 CITY HOLE - ABOUT THE MUNICIPAL INSTITUTION, BEER SHEVA AVI SRUR

plays an additional role as an anchor or as a marker in the urban landscape. The project offers an alternative observation of the municipal institution, and its relevance The use of urban generators should be adapted to the selected location. The desire to expose in today’s world. the potential inherent in the phenomenon of depth on Allenby Street required that urban generators be used in a unique manner. On the eastern side of Allenby – the one bordering on The institution is a body that connects society with a particular concept, and it does Yavneh Street and other streets – the urban generator is located in the passageway between so through "institutionalism"; in other words, fixing ideas and principles into the rigid the front and rear of Allenby. In many cases it dominates this passageway and connects two framework that serves as the skeleton of the institution. parts of the same structure. In this situation, the architectural element is part of a building Underlying the project there are two latent basic assumptions: that offers semi-private spaces to the residents of the building. At the ground floor level, 1. As a physical entity, the institution must allow the existence of empty spaces inside it – the architectural element bridges between two urban states: the dynamic movement of the penetrable “voids”, with critical space inside them to allow for discussion of the nature busy street façade and the static space afforded by the broader, inner piazzas. and function of the institution. 2. In view of the rapid transformations reflected in all areas of life, the municipality as an On the western side of Allenby Street, where Nahalat Binyamin and the Carmel Market institution must also always protect the tension between permanency and renewal. The are situated, the generators appear differently. They present themselves on the façade institution, as an entity connected to society, creates new perspectives from and of itself, whereas the greater portion of them is located at the rear. These urban centers ‘float’ above and provides a platform for change and innovation. the ground, bridging between buildings above the streets that lead to the rear portion of Longitudinal section the street, and the streets parallel to it. The urban generators on the western side do not belong to any single building; they form an additional flow of movement that exists above the one actually situated on the ground level, and connects several buildings together. In some instances the architectural element penetrates into buildings in a way that suggests additional urban spaces existing behind or within the buildings. Despite the difference, the purpose of the urban centers in both cases is the same: on both sides of the street the urban generators provide a new meaning to the sense of depth for anyone visiting there. The use of urban generators in the rear portion of Allenby does not compete with the façade of the street; on the contrary, the alternative that the rear portion provides will offer a new way of experiencing the street and its many aspects, exposing something from the "genius loci" and creating a new image that is worthy of this historic street.

122 123 Drawing- section of wall New city hall square

institutional route that includes, among other things, a university, a hospital, government services and a business district. Urban reading shows that this axis created a disconnect between the eastern part of the city and its western part, which has expanded over time. The project offers a new spatial blueprint in which the municipality functions as an urban link, breaking through the institutional axis in an east-west direction and connecting its eastern part – the one facing the desert, with its modern part – the one facing west. The core of the project consists of an urban square facing west toward Rager Boulevard. The sides of the square contain a mixture of public spaces alongside residential spaces as well Imaging- Interior of the wall as spaces that serve the municipal institution. To the east of the square there is a public park stretching along artificial topography. This garden represents the desert space. In the General view of the project middle there is a tower containing the hall of the city council; this dominates the meeting point between the two spaces. The upper part of the tower is a kind of "void", which marries the spirit of the city with the spirit of the desert. The dense construction and the dissolution of the municipality area into an intensive mixture of residential and commercial – and between them a series of empty spaces (“voids”) – will give the municipality a new interpretation as an institution that serves as a gateway for urbanism, and as a factor connecting the individual with the geographical space in which he has been ‘planted’. The name of the project, CITY HOLE, is actually a play on words; it alludes to the role of the municipal institution as I see it: an institution that is a HOLE, in the sense of an ‘opening’ and an ‘empty space’ (a void), an opening to institutionalism and new urbanism. The modern municipal institution has shed many of its traditional functions; many of its General plan divisions are now scattered throughout the city, and much of the encounter between the municipality and the citizen takes place in cyberspace. These facts raise the question: What is the role of the municipality today? The test case I chose to implement this idea is the city of Be'er Sheva. Founded at the beginning of the last century, the city consists of a historic nucleus, on the one hand, and neighborhoods that grew after the establishment of the State, on the other – unconnected with the Old City, and without any connection between them. Over the years, the city has developed an

124 125 URBANISM IN THE REFORMULATION OF INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS RACHEL LIKONEN

A city must remain open to the fact that it does not know yet what it will be: it is necessary to the question of the reciprocal relationship between the Haredi community and Israeli society. inscribe the respect of this not-knowing into the architectonic and city-planning science and The project reconsiders the dialogue between the two identities, alongside the processes skill, as it were a symbol. and transformations taking place within the Haredi community at the beginning of the 21st Jacques Derrida century (with an emphasis on the process of Israelization) as a means of clarifying fundamental questions concerning the time, place and space of the future urbanization of Bnei Brak. Within the boundaries of the ‘Haredi’ (ultra-orthodox) city of Bnei Brak there is a conflict between its religious identity and urban convergence, and its desire to belong to a nurturing What is the image of the city in the future? functional system. Who is Bnei Brak? What are its boundaries and how are they characterized? What is the difference between the urbanism of Bnei Brak and that of its neighbors? What is the Bnei Brak is at the forefront of an urban construction project in the northern part of the direction of its expansion and development? And what are the concrete objectives of the city? city which emphasizes the territorial schism between the different aspects of the city. In my study I chose to discover, and to re-evaluate the future character of the city of Bnei Brak, An area has been built within the municipal boundaries of this city which is essentially with renewed reference to one of the central cultural enclaves in Israeli society; and to focus on different from the withdrawn and closed social entity that characterizes it. Within this space, Israelization is taking place – so that Bnei Brak is re-examining itself in such a way that it does not want to be separated, and therefore it implements the Western reflection not within it but alongside it. If we use the image of a medieval city, the new business area

Imaging General view of the area Suggested plan of the complex

126 127 General plan of the area General abstract model Simulation and Plan of the proposed structure

is the productive element outside the walls which essentially feeds the city.

In a few decades, the population of Bnei Brak will double in such a way that the city will not be able to continue to exist within the boundaries of the social enclave it has established for itself, and there will be no choice but to deal with urbanism.

The project seeks to discuss the future possibility in which Bnei Brak emerges from its metaphoric walls, expands outwards, and makes room for another urban culture to integrate into it.

The project focuses on the broad façade of the city of Bnei Brak to the north - the business area at the intersection of Abu Hatzeira and Baruch Hirsch streets.

My ambition for this site is to discover and characterize a new relationship in the urban space between the two entities, which translates the impact of the world of values, the cultural affiliation and the Haredi way of life into an urban space that preserves pluralistic diversity; an urban space that succeeds in preserving the possibility of the community to separate, and at the same time allowing it a controlled interface with the urbanism surrounding it.

Spatial planning from a sectorial point of view that needs to be dealt with.

A precedent for the rest of the city's urban spaces.

Principal sections

128 129