Progress on the Gender Pay Gap: 2019

Home , Gender pay gap

Andrew Chamberlain, Ph.D., Chief Economist

Daniel Zhao Senior Economist & Data Scientist

Amanda Stansell Economic Research Analyst Contents

03 KEY FINDINGS 48 GERMANY

07 I. INTRODUCTION 52 FRANCE

PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 ON THE GENDER PAY PROGRESS 08 II. OUR APPROACH 56 THE NETHERLANDS

13 III. THE GENDER PAY GAP 60 CONCLUSION: PAY GAPS AROUND THE WORLD

14 UNITED STATES

62 IV. DO WOMEN ASK FOR EQUAL 32 UNITED KINGDOM PAY FOR EQUAL WORK?

36 CANADA 71 V. CONCLUSION

40 AUSTRALIA 74 REFERENCES

44 SINGAPORE 75 END NOTES

2 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 and howthismay contributetotheoverall pay gap. between thepay menandwomenseekwhenapplyingtojobs, U.S. Also,weconsiderwhethera“salaryconfidencegap” exists rate, howlongitcouldtake toachieve genderpay equalityinthe Using Glassdoor’suniquedata,weproject,given thecurrent Germany, France, theNetherlands,Singapore,andAustralia. eight countries:theUnitedStates,Kingdom,Canada, by employees onGlassdoor, weestimatethegenderpay gapin worker andjobinformationsharedvoluntarily andanonymously hundreds ofthousandssalaryreports,includingdetailed have changedsinceGlassdoor’sinitialstudyin2016.Leveraging This studyexamines howgenderpay gapsaroundtheworld Key Findings • last studyin2016. is slowlybeingmade;thepay gaphasnarrowedsinceour women donotreceive equalpay forequalworkyet, progress ensure anapples-to-applescomparison.Even though statistical controlsforworker andjobcharacteristics to average inalleight countrieswestudied,even afterapplying States andaroundtheworld.Menearnmorethanwomen on Key takeaway. Thegenderpay gappersistsintheUnited

0% 1% 2% 3% 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% Source: GlassdoorEconomicResearch (Glassdoor.com/research). •

2010 gap basedonthedownward trendbetween2010 and2018. scenarios forhowlongitmay take toclosetheU.S. genderpay close untiltheyear 2070.Thechartbelowshowstwopossible at thesamepace,adjustedgenderpay gapstillmay notfully contribute tothisprogress.However, ifthesetrendscontinue women andgreaterawareness ofthegenderpay gapalllikely 2018. Atighterlabormarket, higherlaborforceparticipationby has steadilydroppedfrom6.5percentin2011to4.6 The genderpay gapisnarrowing.TheU.S. adjustedpay gap Time toClosetheU.S. GenderPay Gap 2020 A 2030 2040 E 2050 2060 O E 2070 3 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 • (95.1 centsperdollar). and location,thegenderpay gapintheU.S. fallsto4.9percent after comparingworkers withthesamejobtitle,employer experience shrinksthatgapto19.1percent.Furthermore, However, comparingworkers ofsimilarage,educationand earn 21.4percenthigherbasepay thanwomenonaverage. salaries sharedby full-timeU.S. employees onGlassdoor, men How largeisthegaprightnow?Basedonover 425,000 Source: GlassdoorEconomicResearch (Glassdoor.com/research).

United Kingdom United States Netherlands Singapore Australia Germany Canada France by Women Per Dollar/Pound/Euro Average Cents/Pence Earned “UNADJUSTED” BASEGENDERPAY GAP of MaleEarnings 0.85 0.88 0.84 0.79 0.82 0.87 0.78 0.81 The GenderPay GapByCountry Percentage Male Pay Advantage 15.1% 11.6% 16.1% 21.4% 17.9% 12.8% 22.3% 18.9% • the largestadjustedgapwithwomenearning93centspereuro. earning 97centsperdollarmenearn,whiletheNetherlandshas euro menearn.Australia hasthesmallestadjustedgapwithwomen smallest unadjustedgapwithwomenearningabout88centsper earning about78centspereuromenearnwhileFrance hasthe are added.Germany hasthelargestunadjustedgapwithwomen shrinks toasmalleradjustedpay gaponcestatisticalcontrols countries weexamined, thelargeunadjustedgenderpay gap How doesthepay gapcompareinternationally?Acrossalleight by Women Per Dollar/Pound/Euro Average Cents/Pence Earned of MaleEarnings “ADJUSTED” BASEGENDERPAY GAP 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.94 0.93 Percentage Male Pay Advantage 3.1% 3.7% 4.0% 4.9% 5.0% 5.2% 6.4% 6.6% 4 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 how muchremainsafterstatisticalcontrols. industry helpsusunderstandwhatdrives theoverall genderpay gapand similar education,experience andjobcharacteristics like occupationor What factorsdrive thegenderpay gap? • • inventory specialist,social worker, logisticsmanagerand smallest formerchandiser, researchassistant, fieldservices, representative, anddriver occupations.Thegenderpay gapis C-suite executive, deputymanager, branch manager, retail U.S., theadjustedgenderpay gapislargest forpilot,chef, collar jobstopthelistforlargestgenderpay gaps.Inthe Job titlesmatter. Ingeneral, many executive, techandblue- in themiddleofpackamongindustries. gender pay gaps,theoverall informationtechnologysectorfalls seen thelargestincrease.Althoughmany techjobshave large travel &tourism;andoil,gas,energyutilitiesindustrieshave in genderpay gapswhereasrestaurants, bars&foodservice; health care;andrealestateindustrieshadthelargestreductions and aerospace&defenseindustries.Since2015,non-profit; industries. Itissmallestinbiotech&pharmaceuticals;education; largest inmedia;retail;andconstruction,repair&maintenance Industry matters.IntheU.S., theadjustedgenderpay gapis Comparing workers with

• • • percent oftheoverall pay gap—by farthelargestfactor. the U.S., occupationalandindustrysortingexplains about56.5 women tosortintojobsandindustriesthatpay differently. In biggest causeofthegenderpay gapisthe tendencyofmenand largest driver ofthegenderpay gapintheU.S. Thesingle industrysegregationcontinuestobe the Occupational and universities andworkers gainingexperience inthelaborforce. last study, aswomenmake up an increasingshareofstudentsat and experience shrank from14percentto7.9sinceour percentage ofthepay gapexplained by differencesineducation Differences ineducationandexperience areshrinking.The gap of12.3percent,over twicethenationalaverage. By contrast, olderworkers aged55to64years faceagenderpay to 24years faceasmalladjustedgenderpay gapof1.4percent. gender pay gapthanolderworkers. IntheU.S., workers aged18 The pay gapgrowswithage.Younger workers faceasmaller its pay gapsinceour2016study. pay gaps,computerprogrammer saw themostimprovement in purchasing specialistoccupations.Amongjobswiththelargest

5 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 for equalwork. from Glassdoor, toseewhetherwomenandmenseekoutequalpay examine thesalaryconfidencegapusingreal-worldjobapplications lower pay thanmenwhenthey applytonewjobs.Inthisstudy, we than women—couldtranslate intoagenderpay gapifwomenseek Aconfidencegap—menbeingmoreself-confidentintheworkplace Does a“salaryconfidencegap” contributetothegenderpay gap? • • When we compare job applications women lookingforjobs.Whenwecomparejobapplications The gapdisappearswhenwecomparesimilarmenand and experience. with differentpay scales,andhave differentlevels ofeducation women areoftenlookingfordifferentkindsofjobsthanmen, women applytoonGlassdoor. However, thisis largelybecause apply tojobsthatpay 18.3percentmoreonaverage than jobs Overall, mendoapplytohigherpaying jobsthanwomen.Men

tools inhelpingtoachieve equalpay intheworkforce. salary transparency andbetterinformationsharingarepowerful is criticaltoidentifyingthebestways tofixit.Researchshowsthat How canweclosethegap?Understandingkey drivers ofthepay gap • women doesn’t likely explain much oftoday’s genderpay gap. percent). Thatmeansagapinpay expectations betweenmenand the “salaryconfidencegap” drops tolessthanonepercent(0.7 from equally-qualifiedmenandwomenseekingsimilarjobs, considering banningemployers fromaskingaboutsalaryhistory. advance fromjobtojob—akey reasonmany policymakers are can propagatepay gapsfromearlyinawoman’s careerasthey percent. Sincewomenstartfromaloweraverage basepay, that both seeksimilarpercentagepay raises onGlassdoor, about33 switching jobs.Whenaimingfornewjobs,menandwomen Women andmenseekthesamepercentageraises when

6 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 I. Introduction We expand thecountriesinouranalysistoincludeCanada,Singapore Additionally, last 3years? to answer:whatprogresshasbeenmadeonthegenderpay gapinthe pay gapusingnewGlassdoorsalarydata collected from2016to2018 the genderpay gaphastranslated intoprogress,we revisit thegender harassment andassault.To examine whether increasedawareness of to disclosetheirpay gapstothe#MeToo movement againstsexual the worldfromnewlaws acrossEuroperequiring companies issues affectingwomenintheworkplacehave beenelevated around Since ourstudywasreleased,awareness ofthegender pay gapand gap remains. worker andjobcharacteristics, apersistentadjustedpay We showedthat,even afteraddingstatisticalcontrolsforavarietyof controlling forfactorslike education,experience, jobtitleandindustry. used Glassdoor’suniquedatatoexplore thedrivers ofthepay gapby research confirmingtheexistence ofagenderpay gap,butwealso Glassdoor salarydata.Inthatstudy, weaddedtothelargebodyof In 2016,wereleasedthefirst-ever studyofthegenderpay gapusing

what isthestateofgenderpay gapinternationally?

What doesthismeanforjobseekers, employers andpolicymakers? in theU.S. Finally, weconcludeourfindings andprovide insightinto: IV presentsthefindingsofconfidencegapinsalary expectations Australia, Singapore,Germany, France andtheNetherlands.Section and showsoverall resultsforseven othercountries:theUK,Canada, of thegenderpay gapintheU.S. by industry, occupationandage, identifying factorsthatexplain it.SectionIIIpresentsourestimates explains ourmethodologyformeasuringthegenderpay gapand We’ve organizedtheremainderofthisstudyasfollows.SectionII the question—dowomenseekoutequalpay forequalwork? pay thatmenandwomenaimforwhenthey applytojobs,answering explore howtheconfidencegapmay actthroughadifferenceinthe but itisnotwellunderstoodhowmay affectthegenderpay gap.We a confidencegapbetweenmenandwomenintheworkplaceexists, in theworkplace—theconfidencegap.Theconventional wisdomisthat Lastly, wedive intoacommonlydiscussedbarriertowomen’s success and France. study, theUnitedStates,Kingdom,Australia, Germany and theNetherlandsontopoffive countriesfromouroriginal

7 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 Our Approach II. We explain eachofthesethreeapproaches. pay gapinGlassdoorsalarydatausingthreeapproaches. In thisstudy, weprovide anupdateonthestateofgender • • •

studied onGlassdoor. of genderpay differencesthathasnever beforebeen apply tojobswithhigherorlowerpay—a possible cause Glassdoor totestwhethermenandwomensystematically Finally, weexamine real-worldjobapplicationson Measuring theConfidenceGapinSalaryExpectations: factors orgenderbiasintheworkplace. how muchcan’t beexplained—either duetounobserved today’s pay gapcanbeexplained by ourdata,comparedto Explaining thePay Gap:Second,weshowhowmuchof other factors. for differencesinmenandwomen’s education,jobsand has changedsince2015,bothbeforeandafteraccounting Measuring thePay Gap:First,weshowhowthepay gap

8 o Applied Job Estimated oOnline To aayof Salary

PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 Y a Gap Pay Y ¯ Salary Gender M i Y − i Y ¯ F = o Applied Job = Estimated oOnline To aayof Salary = Indicator Male o Applicant Job niao for Indicator β Male Y a Gap Pay equation is: education, jobtitle,industryandotherfactors.Ourbasicestimating of genderonpay afterwe’ve statisticallycontrolledfordifferencesin We useordinaryleastsquares(OLS) regressiontomeasuretheimpact To dothis,wefollowthesamemethodologyasourprevious study. that affectpay. differences ineducation,jobtitlesandotherfactorsasidefromgender and femalepay, bothbeforeandafteraddingstatisticalcontrolsfor The firststepinmeasuringthegenderpay gapistocomparemale Measuring thePay Gap Y ¯ ˆ Salary Male M “Explained” Gender M i Male ( Y i Portion X − β i ¯ 1 M Y i ¯ β + F = = − 1 okradJob and Worker 1 = Characteristics Indicator X Male o Applicant Job ¯ niao for Indicator β Male F + ˆ Male M “Explained” ) okradJob and Worker X + Male Characteristics ( o Applicant Job i Portion X β i ¯ “Unexplained” β X 1 M ¯ 2 i F β + X − 1 Portion ( for okradJob and Worker 1 β i ˆ Characteristics β X M ¯ 2 F + + − ) okradJob and Worker X + Characteristics β o Applicant Job ˆ F i ϵ “Unexplained” β X i ) ¯ + 2 F X Portion ( for β i ˆ ϵ β M i 2 + − β ˆ F ϵ i ) + ϵ i (3) (1) (2) 1 (3) (1) (2) The estimatedcoefficientonthemaledummy termβ factors aboutworkers andjobswedon’t observe inourdata. name. Thetermε occupation, company size,year, state,jobtitleandspecificemployer highest level ofeducation,years ofrelevant workexperience, industry, observe aboutworkers, jobsandcompaniesincluding:worker age, collection ofcontrols(knownas“fixed effects”)foreverything we binary indicatorequalto1formenand0women,X the impactofotherfactors. salary advantageheldby menover womenoncewe’ve accountedfor where gap as“adjusted.” By contrast, oncewe’ve accountedforallotherfactors,we refertothe difference betweenmaleandfemalepay as theunadjustedpay gap. Y isthesalaryreportedonGlassdoorforemployee i is the usual mean-zero error term for all other istheusualmean-zeroerrortermforallother 2 Throughoutthisstudy, werefertotheraw 1 tells us the tellsusthe , is a large isalarge is a Male isa 9 o Applied Job Estimated oOnline To aayof Salary

PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 Y a Gap Pay Y ¯ Salary Gender M i Y − i Y ¯ F = o Applied Job = Estimated oOnline To aayof Salary = Indicator Male o Applicant Job niao for Indicator β Male Y a Gap Pay as aOaxaca-Blinderdecomposition, other factorswecan’t observe aboutworkers andjobs.Thisisknown characteristics, andhowmuchisunexplained by discriminationor how muchofthegenderpay gapisexplained by differencesinworker As asecondapproach,weperformsimpledecompositiontoshow Explaining thePay Gap where following: Our estimatingequationforthedecompositionisgiven by the labor market. used methodstodetectthepresenceofgroupdifferencesin and Y ¯ ˆ Salary Male M “Explained” Gender M i Male ( Y i Portion X X − β i ¯ F 1 arecharacteristics ofmaleandfemale workers, and β M Y Y i ¯ M β + F = andY = − 1 okradJob and Worker 1 = Characteristics Indicator X Male o Applicant Job ¯ niao for Indicator β Male F + F ˆ areaverage pay formaleand femaleworkers, X Male M “Explained” ) okradJob and Worker X + Male Characteristics ( o Applicant Job i Portion X β i ¯ “Unexplained” β X 1 M ¯ 2 i F β + X − 1 Portion ( for okradJob and Worker 1 β i ˆ Characteristics β X M ¯ 2 F + + − ) okradJob and Worker X + Characteristics β o Applicant Job ˆ F i 3 ϵ “Unexplained” and is one of the most widely andisoneofthemostwidely β X i ) ¯ + 2 F X Portion ( for β i ˆ ϵ β M i 2 + − β ˆ F ϵ i ) + ϵ M i and and (3) (2) (1) M

(3) (2) (1) unobserved factorsabout workers we’re not abletoseeinourdata. same characteristics. Thismay beduetodiscrimination,orsimply to rewards maleandfemaleworkers differently even when they have the female regressioncoefficients differintermsofhowthejobmarket the unexplained portion ofthegap,andisduetohowmaleversus have thesameexperience, educationandotherfactors.Thisiscalled in howthelabormarket rewardsmenandwomen,even whenthey The secondtermshowshowmuchofthepay gapisduetodifferences we canobserve inourdatabetweenmen andwomen. gap, becauseitisduetogapsinexperience, educationorotherfactors β characteristics, much ofthepay gapisduetodifferencesbetweenmaleand female On theright,pay gapisdividedintotwoterms.Thefirstshowshow average maleandfemalesalariesinourdata—theunadjustedpay gap. On theleftsideofabove equationisthedifferencebetween characteristics onpay. F are regression coefficients for the impact of male and female areregressioncoefficientsfortheimpactofmaleandfemale X M -X F . Thisisknownastheexplained portionofthe 4 10 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 real-world behavior. relied onsurveys orself-reportingwhich may notaccurately reflect question. Past researchonthesalaryconfidencegaphasmostly Our researchleverages Glassdoor’s uniqueabilitytoanswerthis “salary confidencegap” inthisstudy. expectations onwhatsalarythey deserve—a phenomenonwecall a be inadvertently fuelingtheoverall pay gapby having different jobs butwithunequalpay. Inthatcase,menandwomenmay is ifwomenandmenwithsimilarbackgroundsapplyto One way aconfidencegapcouldcontributetotheoverall pay gap gender pay gap. workplace, buttherearemany ways thiscouldtranslate intoa has suggestedwomenmay sufferfromaconfidencegapinthe on Glassdoortounderstandthe“confidence gap”. Past research As ourthirdapproach,weanalyzeonlinejobapplicationbehavior Measuring The Salary Confidence Gap whether menandwomenactually applytojobswithdifferentpay. salary expectations intotheirdecisions,andallowingustosee estimated basepay forjoblistings,allowingthemtoincorporate when candidatessearchforjobsonGlassdoor, they areshown reveal salarytojob seekers beforethey decidetoapply. Bycontrast, 5 6 Also,mostotherjobsearchsettingsdonot Source: GlassdoorEconomicResearch (Glassdoor.com/research). including SalaryEstimates Figure 1:Example Screenshot ofGlassdoor’sJobSearch, similarly-qualified candidatesapplyingtosimilarjobs. confidence gapbeforeandafteraddingstatisticalcontrolstocompare are appliedtoby menandwomen,allowingustoestimatethesalary Glassdoor salaryestimateforthejob.We thenobserve whichjobs returns many openjobs,withtheemployer, company rating, and 1. Inthiscase,asearchforprojectmanagerjobsinNewYork City An example ofatypicaljobsearchonGlassdoorisshowninFigure 11 o Applied Job Estimated oOnline To aayof Salary PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 Y a Gap Pay Y ¯ Salary Gender M i Y − i Y ¯ F = = = Indicator Male o Applicant Job o Applied Job education, experience andjobtitles. apples-to-apples comparisonofmenandwomenwith similar real-world jobapplicationsonGlassdoor, oncewe’ve madean results showwhetherthereisasalaryconfidencegap in statistical controlsforworker andjobcharacteristics. The for jobsappliedtoby mencomparedtowomen,afteradding the approximate percentagedifferencebetweenthesalary The estimatedcoefficientonthemaledummy termβ title andotherfactors.Ourestimatingequationisgiven by: indicator, alongwithasetofcontrolsforage,education,job estimated salaryforjobsappliedtoonabinarymale-female measuring thepay gap.We performalinearregressionofthe we followthesamestatisticalapproachoutlinedabove for To estimatethesalaryconfidencegapforjobapplicants, niao for Indicator Estimated oOnline To β Male aayof Salary ˆ Male M “Explained” Male ( Y i a Gap Pay Portion Y ¯ X Salary β Gender ¯ M i 1 M Y i β + − i − 1 okradJob and Worker 1 Y ¯ Characteristics X F = ¯ = F + = Indicator Male o Applicant Job ) niao for Indicator okradJob and Worker X + Characteristics β Male o Applicant Job ˆ Male M “Explained” i “Unexplained” β X ¯ Male ( 2 i Portion X F β ¯ X Portion ( 1 for M β i i ˆ β + β M − 1 2 okradJob and Worker 1 Characteristics + − X ¯ β F + ˆ F ) ϵ okradJob and Worker X i ) + Characteristics + o Applicant Job i “Unexplained” β X ¯ 2 ϵ F X i Portion ( for β i ˆ β M 2 + − 1 tellsus β ˆ F ϵ i ) + (1) (3) (2) ϵ i pay gapsinthis study. easily comparable topaststudies,we reportonlyapproximate For simplicity, easeof interpretation,andtomake ourresults reported inourtables. where constant. male andfemalepay, holdingallotherworker characteristics 1 gives theapproximate percentagegenderpay gapbetween Thus, thecoefficienton“male” dummy variableinequation explanatory factor. percentage changeinsalaryfromaone-unitthe in equation1)theestimatedcoefficientsgive theapproximate When thelogofsalaryisregressedonworker characteristics (as makes foreasyinterpretationofstatisticalresults. regressions rather thanraw dollaramounts.Why? Becauseit It’s conventional tousethenatural logarithmofsalariesin How toInterpretOurPay Gaps pay betweenmaleandfemaleworkers. That’sgiven by e^ some readersmay wanttheexact percentagedifferencein Rather thanusingtheapproximations given inthisstudy, the logofsalary. (1) (3) (2) β istheestimatedcoefficientonmaledummy variable 7 For thisreason,weestimateallofourregressionsin β -1, 12 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 below ineachcountry’sspecific section. the otherseven countriesweexamined aregiven 426,512 salariesreportedon Glassdoor. Detailsfor III. 2016 through2018. on Glassdoorby currentandformeremployees from using alargesampleofsalariessharedanonymously We focusonthethreeyears sinceouroriginal study, United States. largest tosmallestsamplesizebeginningwiththe separately, eachintheirownsection,orderedfrom salary data.We presentresultsforeachcountry France andtheNetherlands—basedonGlassdoor Kingdom, Canada,Australia, Singapore,Germany, gap ineightcountries—theUnitedStates,the Below, wepresentourestimatesofthegenderpay the worldinyears since. with thegenderpay gaparound happened has what through 2015.Thisstudyprovides anupdateon using Glassdoorsalarydatafortheyears 2006 In 2016,wereleasedastudyofthegenderpay gap Pay Gap The Gender

8 Intotal,ourU.S. samplecontains

13 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 United States our samplearemale,while 45 percentarefemale—nearlyidentical terms ofgenderbalance,roughly54percenttheU.S. salariesin total compensationissignificantlyhigherat$73,370per year. per year, ranging from$14,500to $800,000peryear. The mean 29,843 uniquejobtitles.Theoverall meanbase salaryis$63,289 information on71,857uniqueU.S. employers, andapproximately pay gaps, public andshareholderpressureoncompaniestodisclosegender in theU.S. Withtheriseof#MeToo movement in2017,growing In recentyears, thegenderpay gaphasgottenmuchmoreattention About Our U.S. Data establishments between2016and2018. between ages17and92years old(asof2018)workinginU.S. analysis. Itconsistsof426,512salariesforfulltimeworkers Table 1showssummarystatisticsforthedatausedourU.S. pay gap? gender pay issuestranslated intoprogressonAmerica’s gender in mediaandpoliticaldiscussions.Hastheincreasedattentionto 2018, theissueofequalpay forequalworkhasfiguredprominently 9 andarecordnumberofwomenelectedtoCongressin 10 Thedatacontain 11 In January 2019. to theroughly53percentofmalesinoverall U.S. workforceasof high schooldiploma. 17 percentholdamaster’sdegree,whilejust10only For education,71percentofthesampleholdabachelor’sdegree, more than2millionemployees. small single-employee companiestothe largestU.S. employer with skewed upwardby ahandfulofvery largeemployers) ranging from size of4,134employees (or ameanof51,300 employees, anaverage of relevant workexperience. Employers inthesamplehave amedian as of2018(thosebornin1984).Workers have, onaverage, 5.4years In termsofage,theaverage ageofworkers inthesampleis34years Americans andthegeneral workforce. different onlinejobsearchingbehavior betweencollege-educated This over-representation ofcollege-educatedworkers likely reflects of graduate degree,and29percentholdonlyahighschooldiploma. roughly 21percentholdabachelor’sdegree,12any type 12 13 Bycomparison,intheoverall U.S. population 14 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 Source: GlassdoorEconomicResearch (Glassdoor.com/research). Table 1.SummaryStatisticsfortheU.S.SalariesUsedinOurAnalysis Year Base Salary Total Compensation Gender (Male=1) Birth Year Years ofExperience Associate’s Degree Bachelor’s Degree High SchoolDiploma J.D. Master’s Degree M.B.A. M.D. Ph.D. (# Employees) Firm Size VARIABLE OBSERVATIONS 426,512 426,512 426,512 426,512 426,512 426,512 426,512 426,512 426,512 426,512 426,512 426,512 426,512 426,512 426,512 (Median =4,134) $63,289 $73,370 51,300 MEAN 1984 0.54 0.01 0.71 0.10 0.00 0.17 0.01 0.00 0.00 n.a. 5.4 DEVIATION STANDARD $38,205 $71,238 190,900 0.50 0.11 0.45 0.29 0.03 0.37 0.09 0.02 0.06 n.a. 6.0 9 $14,500 $14,500 2016 1926 MIN 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 $6,823,000 2,300,000 $800,000 2018 2001 MAX 60 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 15 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 similar towhat’sfoundinsurveys fromtheU.S CensusBureau. online, thepicturethey provide ofthe U.S. genderpay gapisvery Although Glassdoorsalariesaredrawn fromanonymous employees shifted totheright. overall gap betweenmaleandfemalepay, withthemaledistribution low endandafewvery largesalaries.Inbothpanels,there isaclear “lognormal” distribution,withmostsalariesclustered toward the and Censussalarydatafrom2014.Bothfollowanapproximately consistent withourprevious studywhichcomparedGlassdoor The twodatasourcesareremarkablysimilar, afindingthat’s distribution ofGlassdoorfull-timesalariesin2017. year 2017fromtheCensusBureau.Thebottompanelshows the distributionofsalariesforfull-timeU.S. workers incalendar widely usedofficialsourceforsalariesintheU.S. Thetop panelshows to officialestimatesfromtheCurrentPopulation Survey, themost The figuretotherightshowsacomparisonofGlassdoorsalaries government surveys oftheU.S. labormarket? How accurate areGlassdoorsalariescomparedtofederal Are Glassdoor Salaries Representative? F Distribution ofCensusSalaries(201)

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a 215000 l e 225000 235000 245000 255000 265000 275000 285000 Freuency 295000 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 segregation”—the factthatmenandwomentendtoworkin One ofthemaincausesgenderpay gapis“occupational market gains. been growingfasterthanmen’s inrecentyears, fuelingrecentlabor economy. Recentdatashowwomen’s laborforceparticipationhas This recentimprovement islikely dueinparttotoday’s robust since 2011,asignificant29percentdrop. 2018, itfelltojust4.6percent,adeclineof1.9percentagepoints to Glassdoorsalarydatahassteadilyimproved inrecentyears. In After risingtoapeakof6.5percentin2011,thepay gapaccording and femalepay eachyear since2010. improving over time.Figure2showstheadjustedgapbetween male pay gapisthatwefindevidence thatthenation’s pay gapisslowly The moststrikingresultfromourlatestanalysisoftheU.S. gender The U.S. Pay Gap Is Narrowing in Today’s Strong Economy occupational barriersforwomen. jobs intraditionally male-dominatedindustries,helpingbreakdown has tightenedinrecentyears, womenaredisproportionatelytaking 14 Inaddition,researchshowsthatasthelabormarket 15

A P G Adusted U.S. GenderGapinBasePay IsFallingOver Time Source: GlassdoorEconomicResearch (Glassdoor.com/research). gap inrecentyears. occupational segregation,andlikely plays aroleintheimproved pay and intomale-dominatedfieldsmay alsobehelpingerodegender the U.S. labormarket thatispullingmorewomenintotheworkforce systematically differentjobsintheeconomy. Therecentstrengthin 0% 1% 2% 3% 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% Figure 2.TheU.S.GenderPay GaponGlassdoorisSlowlyImproving

2010 2011 1 2012 9 2013 1 2014 1 2015 2016 2017 2018 17 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 would fullyclosein2035. gap. Underthesemoreoptimistic assumptions,thenation’s pay gap roughly 16.9years tofullyclose today’s 4.6percentadjustedpay year duringthepast7years. Ifthattrendcontinued,itwould take a dropof-1.9percent,oranaverage of-0.27percentage pointsper adjusted U.S. genderpay gapshrank from6.5percentto4.6percent, the gapin2018weretocontinue.Between2011and2018, the the gapifmorerapid paceofdeclinefromthepeak2011 to Under asecondscenario,weshowhowlongitmay take toclose 2070. assumptions, thenation’s pay gapwouldnotfullycloseuntiltheyear fully closetoday’s 4.6percentadjustedgenderpay gap.Underthose per year. Ifthattrendcontinued,itwouldtake roughly51.8years to Glassdoor salarydatafellby anaverage of-0.09percentagepoints the future.Between2010and2018,adjustedgenderpay gapin adjusted gapfrom2010to2018werecontinueeachyear into gender pay gapiftheaverage annualpaceofimprovement inthe In thefirstscenario,weshowhowlongitmay take toclosetheU.S. the samepace. would beexpected tofullydisappearifrecentprogresscontinues at In Table 2,weshowtwoscenariosforwhentheadjustedU.S. pay gap future, howlongwouldittake toclosethenation’s genderpay gap? If today’s trendsinGlassdoorsalarydataweretocontinuethe How Long to ClosetheGap? 18 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 Source: Glassdoor EconomicResearch (Glassdoor.com/research). Recent Trends Continue? Table 2:WhenWilltheU.S.GenderPay GapCloseif 2018 AdjustedPay Gap Year U.S. Pay GapCloses Years toClose Average AnnualImprovementin U.S. Pay Gap Current Level Conservative Estimate Conservative Estimate Conservative Estimate Optimistic Estimate Optimistic Estimate Optimistic Estimate 2035 2070 16.9 51.8 -0.27% -0.09% 4.6%

the U.S. pay gap,including: future. Inreality, many factorswillimpactthefuture of Glassdoor salarydatawillcontinueindefinitelyintothe based ontheunlikely assumptionthatrecenttrendsin actual futureofpay equity. Theabove calculationsare shouldn’t beconsideredaconfidentpredictionaboutthe pace ofimprovement intheU.S. genderpay gap,they While theestimatesprovide someperspective onthe • • • • differently paying occupations,and otherfactors. Trends inthespread ofmenandwomenacross and women’s careerdecisions; Parental leave andotherpoliciesthatimpact men Trends inthegenderbalancecollegemajors; The stateoftheeconomy; 19 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 comparison ofmaleandfemaleworkers. 2 through5showhowthepay gapchangesasadditionalstatisticalcontrolsareaddedweattempttoprovide anapples-to-apples have beenapplied.Column1showstheraw orunadjustedgender pay gapwithnostatisticalcontrols.Moving totheright,columns percentage gapbetweenmaleandfemalepay forU.S. workers onGlassdoorbetween2016and2018,before andafter statistical controls Below weshowourmostrecentestimatesoftheU.S. gender pay gapfromGlassdoorsalarydata.Figure3showstheapproximate Overall and Adjusted U.S. Pay Gap 20% 25% 30% 10% 15% Source: GlassdoorEconomic Research (Glassdoor.com/research). 0% 5%

21 Figure 3.NewEstimatesoftheUnadjustedandAdjustedU.S.GenderPay Gapfrom 2016to2018 No Controls. Before andAfterAddingStatisticalControls

years ofexperience. Adding controlsfor 191 age, educationand U.S. GenderPay Gap

state, yearandﬁrmsize. industry, occupation, Adding controlsfor

P company-speciﬁc controls. Adding

T 9 job-title-speciﬁc controls. Adding

20 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 controls fordifferencesinjob titlesandemployers formenand Using Glassdoorsalarydata, weareabletoaddpowerfulstatistical made ourmostdetailedcomparison ofmaleandfemaleemployees. Finally, incolumns 4and5weshowthegenderpay gap after we’ve total compensation. gender pay gapto7.6percentforbasepay and10.8percentfor percent male. percent femalein2018,whilecomputerprogrammers were79 gap. For example, humanresourcesworkers in the U.S. were69 industries intheeconomy, whichisawell-known causeofthepay that menandwomentendtosortintodifferentlypaying jobsand year, andcompany size.Thesecontrolshelpadjustforthefact In column3,weaddmorecontrolsforindustry, occupation,state, gap—about 2percentagepointsoftheoverall 21.4percentgap. for menversus womenonlyeliminatesasmallpartoftheU.S. pay shows thataccountingfordifferencesineducationandexperience they’re oftenlinked toproductivitydifferences amongworkers. This types ofpersonalworker characteristics as“humancapital,” as and 23.0percentfortotalcompensation.Economistsrefertothese column 2,thegenderpay gapshrinksto19.1percentforbasepay By addingcontrolsforage,educationandyears ofexperience in pay gapwaslargerat25.3percent. pay thanwomenasagroup.For totalcompensation,theunadjusted from 2016to2018reportedearningabout21.4percenthigherbase column 1.Thismeansthatonaverage, menasagrouponGlassdoor For basepay, theunadjustedmale-femalepay gapis21.4percentin 16 Adding thesecontrolssharplyreducestheU.S. and 7.1percentfortotalcompensation. see thefullyadjustedU.S. genderpay gapis4.9percentforbasepay, differences injobtitlesbetweenmenandwomen.Inthatcolumn,we most detailedestimatesoftheadjustedpay gapthataccount for percent fortotalcompensation.Finally, incolumn5weshowour women worklowersthepay gapto6.3percentforbasepay and8.8 In column4,addingcontrolsfordifferentemployers wheremenand who workinsimilarjobsandcompanies. women. Thisletsusisolatetheadjustedpay gapformenandwomen academic studiesaswell. salary data—aconclusionsupported by alarge numberof remains apersistentU.S. genderpay gapaccordingtoGlassdoor Overall, theseresultsshowthat despiterecentprogress,there unadjusted gapto4.9percentfortheadjustedgap. pay gapisdownsignificantly, tobetween21.4percentforthe latest analysisof2016through2018salarydata show the down to5.4percentfortheadjustedgap.Bycomparison, our pay gapranging from24.1percentfortheunadjusted pay gap examined thepay gapbetween2006and2015,findingagender smaller thanwhatwefoundinour2016study. Inthatstudy, we Across theboard,U.S. pay gapover thepastthreeyears is PAY GAP ISDOWN 21 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 in ourdata. unobserved characteristics ofworkers we’re notabletosee and thepartthatisunexplained duetogenderbiasor explained by differencesbetweenmaleandfemale workers, decomposition oftheunadjustedpay gapintothepartthatis between maleandfemalepay. ItshowstheOaxaca-Blinder Figure 4showswhichfactorshelpbestexplain theoverall gap What ExplainstheGap? 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% Source: GlassdoorEconomicResearch (Glassdoor.com/research). 0% 5%

Figure 4. Decomposing the2016–2018U.S.GenderPay Gapinto U.S. ExplainedandUnexplained GenderPay Gap (OaxacaBlinder Decomposition) 1 Explained andUnexplained Portions

T 1 1 0

E 22 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 much isexplained orunexplained haschangedlittle. narrowed considerably since2015,thebreakdown ofhow 2016 study. Althoughthegenderpay gapintheU.S. has Overall, theseresultsaresimilar towhatwefoundinour percent is“unexplained.” similar: 14.7percentisexplained whiletheremaining10.5 characteristics. Theresultsfortotalcompensation are with thesamecharacteristics, orunobserved employee differences inhowthejobmarket rewardsmenandwomen The remaining36percentisunexplained, anddueto 2016 to2018isexplained by worker characteristics. percent) oftheoverall U.S. gendergapinbasepay from This findingmeansthatabout64percent(13.8/21.4= observe ortogenderdiscrimination. gap is“unexplained,” dueeithertofactorswearen’t ableto sizes andlocations.Theremaining7.6percentofthepay education, experience, industries,occupations,company between maleandfemaleworkers: differentages,levels of pay, wefindthat13.8percentisexplained by differences Of theoverall U.S. genderpay gapof21.4percentinbase other unexplained factors. in theeconomy, notdifferencesinexperience andeducation,or forces thatpushmenandwomenontodifferentcareer tracks gender pay gap.Mostoftoday’s pay gapintheU.S. isdueto This isanimportantfindingforpolicysolutionstoaddress the the gap,largestfactorby far. and industriesintheeconomy—explains about56.5percentof segregation—the sortingofmenandwomenintodifferent jobs a smallerrolethaninthepast.Bycontrast, we foundthatjob of menandwomenarenarrowingover time,andareplaying It suggeststhatgapsbetweentheeducationandexperience down sharplyfromroughly14percentinourprevious study. between menandwomenintheU.S. from2016to2018.That’s pay canbeexplained by differencesineducationandexperience We foundthatonly7.9percentoftheoverall gendergapinbase women intodifferentoccupationsandindustries in theeconomy. economists call“humancapital”;and(2)thesortingofmen between theeducationandexperience ofworkers, orwhat pay gapcanbeexplained by twodistinctfactors: (1) differences As anadditionalstep,welooked athowmuchoftheU.S. gender HOW MUCHISEXPLAINEDBYJOBSEGREGATION? 23 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 and experience. Thatgapisroughly31percentlargerthanthe same jobtitle,company, andwithsimilarbackground average 93.6cents perdollarearnedby menworking inthe retail, bothat6.4percent.Thisamountstowomenearning on newspapers, aswellmany onlinemediaproviders—and book publishers,television networks,videogameproducers, gap inGlassdoorsalarydata:media—anindustrythatincludes industries. Figure 5showstheadjustedgenderpay gapforour22 statistically largerorsmallerpay gap. being maleandworkinginaparticularindustryresults The coefficientsonthoseinteraction termstelluswhether model whileincludinginteraction termsformalexindustry industries. To dothis,were-estimatetheabove regression Next weshowdifferencesintheU.S. genderpay gapamong Industries with theBiggest Pay Gaps 18 Two industriesaretiedforthelargestgenderpay 17 . 24 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 controls forage, education,experience, state,year, andemployer jobtitle name. Note: Onlyindustrieswithatleast4,000salary reports inour sampleare reported. Includes Source: GlassdoorEconomicResearch (Glassdoor.com/research) Source: GlassdoorEconomicResearch(Glassdoor.com/research). Construction, Repair&Maintenance Arts, Entertainment&Recreation Restaurants, Bars&FoodService Adusted GenderGapinBasePay by U.S. Industry Figure 5:AdjustedGenderPay GapinU.S.Varies WidelybyIndustry Biotech &Pharmaceuticals Transportation &Logistics Oil, Gas,Energy&Utilities Information Technology Aerospace &Defense (Percentage HigherAverage MalePay) Telecommunications Accounting &Legal Business Services Travel &Tourism Manufacturing Government Health Care Real Estate Non Proﬁt Education Insurance Finance Media Retail 0 1% 2% 22 2

29 4% 9

1 1 2

2 2

national average of4.9percent. adjusted genderpay gapof5.4percent, slightlyabove the in themiddleofpackamong U.S. industries,withan discussed techindustry(information technology)falls is significantlybelowthenationalaverage. Themuch- percent). Inallofthesesectors,theU.S. genderpay gap defense (2.9percent);andthenon-profitsector(3.6 average include education(2.4percent);aerospaceand Other industrieswithadjustedpay gapsbelowtheU.S. pay gap. and experience—less thanhalfoftheoverall U.S. adjusted same jobtitle,company, andwithsimilarbackground on average 97.8centsperdollarearnedby meninthe industry (2.2percent).Thatamountstowomenearning industries arefoundinthebiotechandpharmaceuticals The smallestadjustedgenderpay gapsamongU.S. 2015 stillpersistintheseindustriestoday. causing genderpay gapsweidentifiedbetween2006and U.S. pay gapsinourprevious study, suggestingthefactors same industrieswerealsoamongthosewiththelargest percent); andhealthcare(5.7percent).Many ofthese gas, energyandutilities(6.2percent);insurance (5.9 construction, repairandmaintenance(6.2percent);oil, The secondlargestgenderpay gapsarefoundin U.S. average adjustedgenderpay gapof4.9percent. 25 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 points), andbusinessservices(down 1.3percentagepoints). 1.5 percentagepoints);realestate(down 1.4percentage profit sector(down 2.1percentagepoints);healthcare(down the genderpay gapsinceourlastanalysisincludethenon- By contrast, theindustrieswithbiggestimprovements in and retail(up0.5percentagepoints). points); oil,gas,energyandutilities(up0.6percentage points), in recentyears includetravel andtourism(up0.9percentage from 2006–2015.Otherindustrieswithwideningpay gaps percentage pointsin2016–2018comparedtoourlastanalysis our laststudywasrestaurants, barsandfoodservice,up1.8 The industrywiththebiggestincreaseingenderpay gapsince based on2006–2015data. from 2016–2018,alongwithchangessinceourlastestimate previous study. Itshowsestimatesofthepay gapby industry estimates ofthegenderpay gapby industrycomparetoour gender pay gapsinrecentyears? Table 3showshowourlatest Which U.S. industrieshave seenthebiggestchangesin Industries with Growing andShrinking Gaps Source: GlassdoorEconomic Research (Glassdoor.com/research) Table 3.ChangesinAdjustedGenderPay GapbyIndustrySinceourLastStudy Restaurant, Food and Bars Service Education Travel Tourism and Non Profit Care Health Real Estate Services Business Insurance Transportation Logistics and Recreation and Arts, Entertainment Pharmaceuticals and Biotech Finance Information Technology LegalAccounting and Government Media Telecommunications Manufacturing Maintenance and Construction, Repair Defense and Aerospace Retail Utilities and Oil, Gas,Energy INDUSTRY ADJUSTED PAY GAP 2016 —2018 3.6% 5.7% 4.4% 4.2% 5.9% 5.5% 5.6% 2.2% 5.6% 5.4% 4.1% 4.4% 6.4% 4.5% 4.1% 6.2% 2.9% 6.4% 6.2% 3.9% 5.0% 2.4%

ADJUSTED PAY GAP 2006 —2015 5.7% 7.2% 5.8% 5.5% 7.2% 6.7% 6.6% 3.0% 6.4% 5.9% 4.5% 4.7% 6.6% 4.6% 4.0% 5.9% 2.5% 5.9% 5.6% 3.0% 3.2% 3.3%

CHANGE -2.1% -1.5% -1.4% -1.3% -1.3% -1.2% -1.0% -0.8% -0.8% -0.5% -0.4% -0.3% -0.2% -0.1% -0.9% 0.1% 0.3% 0.4% 0.5% 0.6% 0.9% 1.8% 26 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 computer programmer (11.6percent). retail representative (12.2percent), driver (11.7 percent)and manager (17.1percent),branch manager(12.8percent), with larger-thanaverage genderpay gapsincludedeputy among executive-level positionsintheU.S. Otheroccupations with academicresearchshowingapersistentgenderpay gap executives (24.0 percent),afindingthatisbroadlyconsistent with agapof24.6percent.They arefollowedby C-suite Chef wasthejobwithsecondhighestgenderpay gap, percent. larger thantheU.S. average adjustedgenderpay gapof 4.9 job titles,companiesandworkers. Thatgapisover five times earned by men,aftercontrollingforalldifferencesbetween amounts towomenearningonaverage 73centsperdollar gender pay gapwaspilot,withaof26.6percent.This between jobsandworkers. Theoccupationwiththehighest gender pay gaps,afterstatisticallycontrollingfordifferences Figure 6showsthe15occupationswithhighestadjusted or smallerpay gap. working inacertainoccupationresultsstatisticallylarger on thoseinteraction termstelluswhetherbeingmaleand interaction termsformalexoccupation. we re-estimatetheabove regressionmodelwhileincluding gender pay gapsaccordingtoGlassdoorsalarydata.To dothis, Next, weshowtheU.S. jobswiththelargestandsmallest Jobs with the Biggest Pay Gaps The coefficients job titlesare notreported. for age,education,experience, state,year, jobtitleandemployer name.Ambiguousorduplicative Note: Onlyjobtitleswithatleast200salaryreports inoursampleare reported. Includescontrols Source: GlassdoorEconomicResearch (Glassdoor.com/research) Top 15U.S. Occupationsby AdustedGenderGapinBasePay Source: GlassdoorEconomicResearch(Glassdoor.com/research). Figure 6.15JobswiththeLargestAdjustedGenderPay GapsintheU.S.Study Bioinformatics Scientist Computer Programmer Facility Administrator Retail Representative Business Operations Medical Technician Technical Support Deputy Manager Branch Manager Data Specialist (Percentage HigherAverage MalePay) Professor C Suite Driver Chef Pilot 0 5% 10% 10 10 10 109 110 110 11 11 11 122 12 15%

11 20%

25% 20 2 2

30%

27 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 Source: GlassdoorEconomic Research (Glassdoor.com/research) (2019 vs.2016Study) Table 4.ChangesAmongthe15JobswithLargestPay Gaps Compter ProgrammerCompter C Suite Medical Technician Chef Driver Retail Representative Data Specialist Professor Technical Support Branch Manager OperationsBusiness Scientist Bioinformatics AdministratorFacility Manager Deputy Pilot JOB TITLE ADJUSTED PAY GAP 2016 —2018 11.6% 24.0% 10.7% 24.6% 11.7% 12.2% 11.5% 11.0% 10.9% 12.8% 11.0% 10.7% 10.7% 17.1% 26.6%

ADJUSTED PAY GAP 2006 —2015 28.3% 27.7% 14.4% 28.1% 14.9% 14.6% 13.6% 11.2% 10.4% 11.8% 16.0% 7.9% 7.5% 4.8% 9.9%

CHANGE -16.7% 10.6% -3.7% -3.7% -3.5% -3.2% -2.4% -2.1% -0.2% 3.1% 3.2% 5.9% 7.2% 0.5% 1.0% far thelargest decreaseoutofthese15occupations. dropped 16.7percentagepoints fromourlastanalysis,by By contrast, thegender pay gapforcomputer programmer 3.2 percentagepoints). (up 5.9percentagepoints)andbioinformaticsscientist (up manager (up7.2percentagepoints),facilityadministrator with wideningpay gapsinrecentyears includedeputy to ourlastanalysisfrom2006–2015.Otheroccupations pilot, up10.6percentagepointsin2016–2018compared the onewithlargestincreasesinceourlaststudywas Among the15occupationswithlargestpay gapstoday, based on2006–2015data. 2016–2018, alongwiththechangefromourlastestimate shows ourlatestestimateofthepay gapusingdatafrom gap by occupationabove comparetoourprevious study. It Table 4showshowourlatestestimatesofthegenderpay 28 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 percent) andsocialworker (minus3.0percent). 5.8 percent),inventory specialist(minus5.6 at variousU.S. universities—field services(minus comprised ofmany graduate studentsworkers assistant (minus5.9percent)—anoccupation and experience. They arefollowedby research same company, andwithsimilarbackground dollar earnedby menworkingthesamejobtitle, to womenearningonaverage 108centsper merchandiser (minus7.8percent).Thisamounts pay gap.Theoccupationwiththesmallestgapis female pay advantage,ora“reverse” gender of theseoccupations,thereisasignificant smallest adjustedgenderpay gaps.For many Figure 7showstheU.S. occupationswiththe job titlesare notreported. for age,education,experience, state,year, jobtitleandemployer name.Ambiguousor duplicative Note: Onlyjobtitleswithatleast200salary reports inoursampleare reported. Includescontrols Source: GlassdoorEconomicResearch (Glassdoor.com/research) Regulatory AffairsManager Communications Associate Bottom 15U.S. Occupationsby AdustedGenderGapin Environmental Specialist Procurement Specialist Figure 7.15JobswiththeSmallestAdjustedGenderPay GapsintheU.S. Purchasing Specialist Inventory Specialist Solutions Specialist Research Assistant Event Coordinator Base Pay (Percentage HigherAverage MalePay) Logistics Manager Military Ofﬁcer Social Worker Merchandiser Field Services Therapist - 9 %

- 8

- 7 % 9

- 6

- 5 %

- 4 0 0 %

2 -

3 %

1 1 - 2 11 % 0

- 02 1

0 %

02 1 0 %

2 %

29 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 support role–(down 8.0percentagepoints). points) andsolutionsspecialist–acommonsales inventory specialist(down 10.4 percentage affairs manager(down 10.7percentagepoints), pay gapsinrecentyears includeregulatory 2006–2015. Otheroccupationswithshrinking in 2016–2018comparedtoourlastanalysisfrom logistics manager, down14.5percentagepoints improvement sinceourprevious studywas gender pay gaps,theoccupationwithbiggest Among thesefifteenjobswiththesmallest estimates basedon2006–2015data. 2018, alongwiththechangefromourprevious estimate ofthepay gap usingdatafrom2016– smallest genderwagegaps.Itshowsourlatest our previous studyfortheoccupationswith gender pay gapby occupationabove compareto Table 5showshowourlatestestimatesofthe Table 5.ChangesAmongthe15JobswithSmallestPay Gaps(2019vs. 2016Study) Source: GlassdoorEconomic Research (Glassdoor.com/research) Social WorkerSocial Purchasing Specialist Specialist Procurement Associate Communications Assistant Research Event Coordinator Therapist Merchandiser Environmental Specialist Services Field Officer Military Specialist Solutions Inventory Specialist Manager Affairs Regulatory Logistics Manager JOB TITLE ADJUSTED PAY GAP 2016 —2018 -3.0% -2.5% -1.1% -5.9% -0.6% -7.8% -0.8% -5.8% -1.5% -1.5% -5.6% -0.2% -3.0% 0.6% 0.2% ADJUSTED PAY GAP 2006 —2015 10.5% 11.5% -7.8% -5.5% -2.2% -6.6% -0.5% -7.6% -0.8% 4.5% 1.4% 6.5% 6.5% 4.8% 0.2% CHANGE -10.7% -14.5% -10.4% -0.1% -0.2% -5.3% -7.2% -8.0% -8.0% 4.8% 3.0% 1.1% 0.7% 0.0% 1.4% 30 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 workers facedin previous generations. Second,olderwomen beginning theircareerstoday facefewerbarriersthan older gap islikely smalleramongyoung workers because women Why doesthepay gaprisewithage?For one,thegenderpay average. years facea12.3percentpay gap—morethantwicetheU.S. face a10.3percentgenderpay gap,whilethoseaged55to64 2.8 percentpay gap.Bycontrast, workers aged45to54years of 4.9percent.Similarly, workers aged25to34years exhibit a percent adjustedgenderpay gap,wellbelowtheU.S. average Workers aged18to24years experience arelatively small1.4 and early-careerworkers butgrowssteadilywithage. and employers. Thegenderpay gapissmallestamongyoung statistically controllingfordifferencesbetweenworkers, jobs Figure 8showsthegenderpay gapby agegroups,after from ourprevious study. salary datafrom2016–2018,consistentwiththefindings and aroundtheworld.We findasimilarpatterninGlassdoor larger genderpay gapsthanyounger workers—both intheU.S. with age.Olderworkers typicallyexperience significantly A well-knownfactisthatgenderpay differencestendtogrow How thePay Gap Changes with Age interpretation. pay gapforolderworkers. Atleastsomeresearchpointstothislatter may faceagediscriminationinthejobmarket, amplifyingthegender A P G their careers. penalties notfacedby menwhohave notleftthelaborforceduring force duetochildbearingresponsibilities,andwhomay faceearnings such aswhetherolderwomenhave spentmoretimeoutofthelabor Finally, ourresultsmay beduetofactorswedon’t observe inour data, Note: Includescontrols forage,education,experience, state,year, jobtitle andemployer name. Source: GlassdoorEconomicResearch (Glassdoor.com/research) 10% 12% 14% 0% 2% 4% 6% 8% Adusted U.S. GenderGapinBasePay by AgeGroup

Figure 8.TheU.S.GenderPay GapGrows withAgeofEmployee 18 -24years 1 (Percentage HigherAverage MalePay)

19 25 -34years 2

35 -44years 2

45 -54years 1 0 55 -64years 1 2 65+ years 9 31 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 United Kingdom base pay: 20.7percentformedian totalpay. compensation intheUKisslightly highercomparedto men onaverage.The unadjusted genderpay gapfor total women earningroughly82p forevery poundearnedby the UKgendergapis17.9percent.Thatamountsto pay betweenmenandwomen.Intermsof medianpay That amountstoagenderpay gapof£7,081inbase was £39,740peryear formenand£32,659women. In ourGlassdoorUKsalarysample,theaverage basepay such asage,educationandyears ofexperience. full timeforwhomwehave basicdemographic information we restrictouranalysistoworkers over age16working salaries reportedby UKemployees. AsinourU.S. sample, For ouranalysis,weuseasampleof40,764Glassdoor percent in2014to4.32018. UK. Theadjustedpay gaphasbeensteadilyfallingfrom6.8 between maleandfemalepay eachyear since2014inthe improving over time.Figure9showstheadjustedgap Similar totheU.S., wefindthattheUK’spay gapisslowly gender pay gapreportedonlineby UKemployees. sample ofGlassdoorsalarydata,wefindacomparable gender pay gapisroughly17.9percentin2018. The OfficeofNationalStatisticsestimatesthattheUK 21 20 Inour

Source: GlassdoorEconomicResearch (Glassdoor.com/research) A P G Adusted UKGenderGapinBasePay isFallingOver Time 0% 1% 2% 3% 4% 5% 6% 7% 8%

Figure 9.TheUKGenderPay GaponGlassdoorisGradually Improving 2014

1 2015

2 2016

2017

2018

32 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 employer sizewas40,900employees, ranging fromsmallonepersonfirmstoemployers with2,300,000employees. percent ofthesamplehadbachelor’sdegrees,20master’sand10onlyahigh schooldiploma. Theaverage sample is63percentmaleand37female,theaverage age(asof2018)was32years with4.6years ofrelevant workexperience. 68 2016 through2018. Table 6provides asummaryoftheUKsampleusedinourregressionanalysis.Thecontains40,764salariesreported fromcalendaryears in thesamplewas£37,122,ranging from£7,800toahighof£816,000. 22 Thedatacontainsinformationonapproximately 8,609uniqueUKemployers and7,495jobtitles.Theaverage basepay Source: Glassdoor EconomicResearch (Glassdoor.com/research) Firm Size(#Employees) Ph.D. M.D. M.B.A. Master’s Degree J.D. High SchoolDiploma Bachelor’s Degree Associate’s Degree Years ofExperience Birth Year Gender (Male=1) Total Compensation Base Salary Year VARIABLE Table 6.SummaryStatisticsfortheUnitedKingdomSalarySample OBSERVATIONS 40,764 40,764 40,764 40,764 40,764 40,764 40,764 40,764 40,764 40,764 40,764 40,764 40,764 40,764 40,764 £43,934 £37,122 40,900 MEAN 1986 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.20 0.00 0.10 0.68 0.01 0.63 n.a. 4.6 23 Average totalcompensationwassignificantlyhigherat£43,934.The DEVIATION STANDARD 116,805 £58,740 £24,939 0.08 0.01 0.07 0.40 0.02 0.30 0.47 0.12 0.48 n.a. 5.4 8 £7,800 £7,800 1926 2016 MIN 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 £5,060,000 2,300, 000 £816,000 2001 2018 MAX 60 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 33 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 percent genderpay gapintotalcompensation. unadjusted gapinbasepay betweenmalesandfemales,a20.7 between workers orjobs.Overall, thereisa17.9percent the unadjustedpay gapwithnostatisticalcontrolsfordifferences gender pay gapinUKsalariesfromGlassdoor. Column1shows Figure 10presentsourestimatesoftheunadjustedandadjusted UK Gender Pay Gap Figure 10.Overall UKResults:EstimatesoftheUnadjustedandAdjustedGenderPay GapforComparable Workers Source: GlassdoorEconomic Research (Glassdoor.com/research) 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 0% 5%

19 No Controls. Before andAfterAddingStatisticalControls

years ofexperience. Adding controlsfor 129 age, educationand

UK GenderPay Gap 1

metro, yearandﬁrmsize. industry, occupation, Adding controlsfor 0 percent fortotalcompensation. an adjustedgenderpay gapof5.0percentforbasepay, and7.1 rich setofcontrolsforcompany andjobtitle,incolumn5wefind pay, and15.6percentfortotalcompensation.Finallyaddingina the genderpay gapincolumn2shrinksto12.9percentforbase Applying controlsforage,educationandyears ofexperience,

P company-speciﬁc controls. Adding

0 T 0 job-title-speciﬁc controls. Adding

34 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 systematically workindifferent rolesexplains almost40percent. the UKgenderpay gap.Bycontrast, thefactthatmenandwomen individual worker characteristics explain onlyaboutonequarter of and experience betweenmalesandfemales. occupations, whilejust23percentisduetodifferences ineducation is duetosortingofmenandwomenintodifferentindustries and Of the61percentofgendergapthatisexplained, 37percent characteristics. the way thelabormarket rewardsmenandwomenwiththesame remaining 39percentisunexplained, andduetodifferencesin pay gapinbasepay isexplained by worker characteristics. The about 61percent(10.9/17.9=percent)oftheoverall UKgender remaining 7.0percentisunexplained. Thisfindingmeansthat is explained by differencesinworker characteristics, whilethe Of theoverall 17.9percentgendergapinbasepay, 10.9percent workplace biasanddiscrimination. unexplained dueeithertounobserved factorsorsubtleformsof differences inworker characteristics, andtheportionthatremains in Glassdoorsalarydataintotheportionthatisexplained by Figure 11showsthedecompositionofUKgenderpay gap What ExplainstheGap? 24 Putdifferently, 10% 15% 20% 25% Source: GlassdoorEconomicResearch (Glassdoor.com/research) 0% 5%

UK ExplainedandUnexplained GenderPay Gap Figure 11.DecomposingtheUKGenderPay Gapinto (OaxacaBlinder Decomposition) 109 0 Explained andUnexplained Portions

T 1 1 0 02

E 35 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 Canada dollar earnedby menonaverage. Theunadjustedgenderpay gapfor amounts toCanadianwomenearningroughly84cents forevery terms ofmedianpay theCanadiangendergapis16.1percent.That a genderpay gapof$10,277inbasepay betweenmenandwomen.In $64,966 peryear formenand$54,740women.Thatamountsto In ourGlassdoorCanadasalarysample,theaverage basepay was years ofexperience. have basicdemographic informationsuchasage,educationand our analysistoworkers over age16workingfulltimeforwhomwe reported by Canadianemployees. AsinourU.S. samplewerestrict For ouranalysis,weuseasampleof21,008Glassdoorsalaries by Canadianemployees. salary data,wefindaslightlyhighergenderpay gapreported online pay gapisroughly13percentin2017. The OfficeofNationalStatisticsestimatesthattheCanadiangender 25 InoursampleofGlassdoor 18.2 percentformediantotalpay. total compensationinCanadaisslightlyhighercomparedtobasepay: calendar years 2016through2018. regression analysis.Thesamplecontains21,008salariesreportedfrom Table 7provides asummaryoftheCanadasampleusedinour to ahighof$672,000. The average basepay inthesamplewas$61,085,ranging from$21,000 approximately 5,496uniqueCanadianemployers and4,755job titles. employees. ranging fromsmallonepersonfirmstoemployers with2,300,000 high schooldiploma.Theaverage employer sizewas49,200employees, degrees, 19percenthadmaster’sand8onlya of relevant workexperience. 70percentofthe samplehadbachelor’s female, andtheaverage age(asof2018)was33years with4.7years higher at$69,030.Thesampleis62percentmaleand38 28 Average totalcompensationwassignificantly 26 27 Thedatacontaininformationon 36 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 Source: GlassdoorEconomicResearch (Glassdoor.com/research) Table 7.SummaryStatisticsfortheCanadaSalarySample Year Gender (Male=1) Associate’s Degree Years ofExperience Birth Year Total Compensation Bachelor’s Degree Base Salary High SchoolDiploma J.D. Master’s Degree M.B.A. M.D. Ph.D. (# Employees) Firm Size VARIABLE OBSERVATIONS 21,008 21,008 21,008 21,008 21,008 21,008 21,008 21,008 21,008 21,008 21,008 21,008 21,008 21,008 21,008 $69,030 $61,085 49,200 MEAN 1985 0.62 0.02 0.70 0.08 0.00 0.19 0.01 0.00 0.00 n.a. 4.7 DEVIATION STANDARD $49,717 $31,108 191,400 0.49 0.13 0.46 0.27 0.01 0.39 0.09 0.01 0.06 n.a. 5.4 9 $21,000 $21,000 1927 2016 MIN 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 $1,614,000 2,300,000 $672,000 2001 2018 MAX 46 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 37 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 gap of4.0percentforbasepay, and5.9percentfortotalcompensation. percent fortotalcompensation.Finallyaddinginarichsetofcontrolscompany andjobtitle,incolumn5wefindanadjustedgenderpay Applying controlsforage,educationandyears ofexperience, thegenderpay gapincolumn2shrinksto13.6percentforbasepay, and15.7 pay betweenmenandwomen,a18.2percentgenderpay gapintotalcompensation. unadjusted pay gapwithnostatisticalcontrolsfordifferencesbetweenworkers orjobs.Overall, thereisa16.1percent unadjustedgapinbase Figure 12presentsourestimatesoftheunadjustedandadjustedgenderpay gapinCanadasalaries fromGlassdoor. Column1showsthe Canada Gender Pay Gap 10% 15% 20% 25% Figure 12.Overall CanadaResults:EstimatesoftheUnadjustedandAdjustedGenderPay GapforComparable Workers 0% 5% Source: GlassdoorEconomic Research (Glassdoor.com/research)

11 No Controls. Before andAfterAddingStatisticalControls

years ofexperience. Adding controlsfor 1 age, educationand Canada GenderPay Gap

metro, yearandﬁrmsize. industry, occupation, Adding controlsfor 9

P company-speciﬁc controls. Adding

0 T 0 job-title-speciﬁc controls. Adding

38 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 females. differences ineducationandexperience betweenmalesand industries andoccupations,whilejust11percentisdue to 52 percentisduetosortingofmenandwomenintodifferent Of theroughly62percentofgendergapthatisexplained, characteristics. the way thelabormarket rewardsmenandwomenwiththesame remaining 38percentisunexplained, andduetodifferencesin pay gapinbasepay isexplained by worker characteristics. The percent (10.0/16.1=62percent)oftheoverall Canadagender of thetotalgap) isunexplained. Thisfindingmeansthatabout62 characteristics, whiletheremaining6.1percent(or 38percent 62 percentofthetotalgap) isexplained by differencesinworker Of theoverall 16.1percentgendergapinbasepay, 10.0percent(or workplace discrimination. unexplained dueeithertounobserved factorsorsubtleformsof differences inworker characteristics, andtheportionthatremains gap inGlassdoorsalarydataintotheportionthatisexplained by Figure 13showsthedecompositionofCanadagenderpay What ExplainstheGap? differences inoursample. explains 52percent—by farthelargestfactorexplaining gender pay fact thatmenandwomensystematically workindifferentroles only 11percentoftheCanadagenderpay gap.Bycontrast, the 29 Putdifferently, individualworker characteristics explain 10% 15% 20% Source: GlassdoorEconomicResearch (Glassdoor.com/research) 0% 5%

Canada ExplainedandUnexplained GenderPay Gap Figure 13.DecomposingtheCanadaGenderPay Gapinto (OaxacaBlinder Decomposition) 100 1 Explained andUnexplained Portions

T 99

E 39 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 for every dollarearned by menonaverage. Theunadjustedgender percent. ThatamountstoAustralian womenearningroughly85cents women. Intermsofmedianpay theAustralian gendergapis15.1 to agenderpay gapofA$13,714inbasepay betweenmenand A$97,719 peryear formenandA$84,005women.Thatamounts In ourGlassdoorAustralia salarysample,theaverage basepay was experience. basic demographic informationsuchasage,educationandyears of analysis toworkers over age 16workingfulltimeforwhomwehave by Australian employees. AsinourU.S. samplewerestrictour For ouranalysis,weuseasampleof6,795Glassdoorsalariesreported pay gapreportedonlineby Australian employees. sample ofGlassdoorsalarydata,wefindasomewhatsmallergender Australian genderpay gapisroughly16.2percentin2018. The Australian Workplace GenderEqualityAgencyestimatesthatthe Australia 30 Inour 2,300,000 employees. employees, ranging fromsmalltwo-personfirmstoemployers with had onlyahighschooldiploma.Theaverage employer sizewas43,442 bachelor’s degrees,22percenthadmaster’sand8 5.5 years ofrelevant workexperience. 68percentofthesamplehad 34 percentfemale,andtheaverage age(asof2018)was33years with somewhat higheratA$104,559.Thesampleis66percentmaleand percent formediantotalpay. pay gapfortotalcompensationisslightlyhigherthanbasepay: 17.4 years 2016through2018. regression analysis.Itcontains6,795salariesreportedfromcalendar Table 8provides asummaryoftheAustralia sampleusedinour A$35,500 toahighofA$1,428,000. The average basepay inthesamplewasA$93,085,ranging from approximately 1,982uniqueAustralia employers and1,901 jobtitles. 32 Thedatacontaininformationon 31 33 Average totalcompensationwas 40 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 Source: GlassdoorEconomicResearch (Glassdoor.com/research) Table 8.SummaryStatisticsfortheAustralia SalarySample Year Gender (Male=1) Total Compensation Base Salary Years ofExperience Birth Year Associate’s Degree Bachelor’s Degree High SchoolDiploma J.D. Master’s Degree M.B.A. M.D. Ph.D. (# Employees) Firm Size VARIABLE OBSERVATIONS 6,795 6,795 6,795 6,795 6,795 6,795 6,795 6,795 6,795 6,795 6,795 6,795 6,795 6,795 6,795 $104,559 $93,085 43,442 MEAN 1985 0.66 0.01 0.68 0.08 0.00 0.22 0.01 0.00 0.00 n.a. 5.5 DEVIATION STANDARD $84,969 $48,455 87,190 0.47 0.09 0.47 0.27 0.02 0.41 0.09 0.00 0.05 n.a. 5.5 8 $36,000 $35,500 2016 1932 MIN 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 $4,390,000 $1,428,000 2,300,000 2018 2000 MAX 60 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 41 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 gap of3.1percentforbasepay, and5.4percentfortotalcompensation. percent fortotalcompensation.Finallyaddinginarichsetofcontrolscompany andjobtitle,incolumn5wefindanadjustedgenderpay Applying controlsforage,educationandyears ofexperience, thegenderpay gapincolumn2shrinksto10.5percentforbasepay, and12.8 pay betweenmalesandfemales,a17.4percentgenderpay gap intotalcompensation. unadjusted pay gapwithnostatisticalcontrolsfordifferencesbetweenworkers orjobs.Overall, thereisa15.1percent unadjustedgapinbase Figure 14presentsourestimatesoftheunadjustedandadjustedgenderpay gapinAustralia salariesfromGlassdoor. Column1showsthe Australia Gender Pay Gap Figure 14.Overall Australia Results: EstimatesoftheUnadjustedandAdjustedGenderPay GapforComparable Workers Source: GlassdoorEconomic Research (Glassdoor.com/research) 10% 15% 20% 25% 0% 5%

11 No Controls. Before andAfterAddingStatisticalControls

years ofexperience. Adding controlsfor 10 age, educationand Australia GenderPay Gap

metro, yearandﬁrmsize. industry, occupation, Adding controlsfor 2

P company-speciﬁc 1 controls. Adding

T 1 job-title-speciﬁc controls. Adding

42 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 pay differences inoursample. explains 37percent—by farthelargestfactorexplaining gender fact thatmenandwomensystematically workindifferentroles about one-fourthoftheAustralia genderpay gap.Bycontrast, the Put differently, individualworker characteristics explain only differences ineducationandexperience betweenmenandwomen. industries andoccupations,whilejust24percentisdue to 37 percentisduetosortingofmenandwomenintodifferent Of theroughly61percentofgendergapthatisexplained, characteristics. the way thelabormarket rewardsmenandwomenwiththesame remaining 39percentisunexplained, andduetodifferencesin pay gapinbasepay isexplained by worker characteristics. The percent (9.2/15.1=61percent)oftheoverall Australia gender of thetotalgap) isunexplained. Thisfindingmeansthatabout61 characteristics, whiletheremaining5.9percent(or 39percent 61 percentofthetotalgap) isexplained by differencesinworker Of theoverall 15.1percentgendergapinbasepay, 9.2percent(or workplace discrimination. unexplained dueeithertounobserved factorsorsubtleformsof differences inworker characteristics, andtheportionthatremains gap inGlassdoorsalarydataintotheportionthatisexplained by Figure 15showsthedecompositionofAustralia genderpay What ExplainstheGap? 10% 15% 20% Source: GlassdoorEconomicResearch (Glassdoor.com/research) 0% 5%

Australia ExplainedandUnexplained GenderPay Gap Figure 15.DecomposingtheAustralia GenderPay Gapinto (OaxacaBlinder Decomposition) 92 9 Explained andUnexplained Portions

T 9

E 43 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 Singapore amounts toSingaporeanwomenearningroughly87cents forevery terms ofmedianpay theSingaporegendergapis12.8percent.That a genderpay gapof$9,978inbasepay betweenmenandwomen.In $71,631 peryear formenand$61,653women.Thatamountsto In ourGlassdoorSingaporesalarysample,theaverage basepay was experience. basic demographic informationsuchasage,educationandyears of analysis toworkers over age 16workingfulltimeforwhomwehave by Singaporeanemployees. AsinourU.S. samplewerestrictour For ouranalysis,weuseasampleof5,096Glassdoorsalariesreported employees. data, wefindalargergenderpay gapreportedonlineby Singaporean pay gapis11.8percentin2018. The MinistryofManpowerestimatesthattheSingaporeangender 34 InoursampleofGlassdoorsalary to ahighof$864,000. The average basepay inthesamplewas$68,391,ranging from$2,000 approximately 1,477uniqueSingaporeanemployers and1,656jobtitles. person firmstoemployers with2,300,000 employees. average employer sizewas51,127employees, ranging fromsmalltwo- had master’sdegrees,and4percentonlyahighschooldiploma.The experience. 67percentofthesamplehadbachelor’sdegrees,27 average age(asof2018)was32years with4.8years ofrelevant work $82,925. Thesampleis68percentmaleand32female,the percent formediantotalpay. total compensationinSingaporeisslightlyhigherthanforbasepay: 13.3 dollar earnedby menonaverage. Theunadjustedgenderpay gapfor calendar years 2016through2018. regression analysis.Thesamplecontains5,096salariesreportedfrom Table 9provides asummaryoftheSingaporesampleusedinour 37 Average totalcompensationwashigherat 35 36 The datacontaininformationon 44 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 Source: GlassdoorEconomicResearch (Glassdoor.com/research) Table 9.SummaryStatisticsfortheSingapore SalarySample Year Gender (Male=1) Total Compensation Base Salary Years ofExperience Birth Year Associate’s Degree Bachelor’s Degree High SchoolDiploma J.D. Master’s Degree M.B.A. M.D. Ph.D. (# Employees) Firm Size VARIABLE OBSERVATIONS 5,096 5,096 5,096 5,096 5,096 5,096 5,096 5,096 5,096 5,096 5,096 5,096 5,096 5,096 5,096 $82,925 $68,391 51,127 MEAN 1986 0.68 0.00 0.67 0.04 0.00 0.27 0.01 0.00 0.00 n.a. 4.8 DEVIATION STANDARD $114,826 $49,189 91,470 0.47 0.06 0.47 0.20 0.00 0.44 0.09 0.02 0.07 n.a. 4.9 6 $2,000 $2,000 2016 1928 MIN 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 $5,840,000 2,300,000 $864,000 2018 1999 MAX 60 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 45 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 gap of5.2percentforbasepay, and6.0percentfortotalcompensation. percent fortotalcompensation.Finallyaddinginarichsetofcontrolscompany andjobtitle,incolumn5wefindanadjustedgenderpay Applying controlsforage,educationandyears ofexperience, thegenderpay gapincolumn2shrinksto5.9percentforbasepay, and6.2 pay betweenmalesandfemales,a13.3percentgenderpay gap intotalcompensation. unadjusted pay gapwithnostatisticalcontrolsfordifferencesbetweenworkers orjobs.Overall, thereisa12.8percent unadjustedgapinbase Figure 16presentsourestimatesoftheunadjustedandadjustedgenderpay gapinSingaporesalaries fromGlassdoor. Column1showsthe Singapore Gender Pay Gap Figure 16.Overall Singapore Results:EstimatesoftheUnadjusted andAdjustedGenderPay GapforComparable Workers Source: GlassdoorEconomic Research (Glassdoor.com/research) 10% 15% 20% 0% 5%

12 No Controls. Before andAfterAddingStatisticalControls 1 years ofexperience. Adding controlsfor age, educationand Singapore GenderPay Gap 9

2 industry, occupation, Adding controlsfor year andﬁrmsize. 9

P company-speciﬁc controls. Adding

T 2 job-title-speciﬁc controls. Adding

46 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 16 percent. and womensystematically work indifferentrolesexplains only of theSingaporegenderpay gap.Bycontrast, thefactthatmen differently, individualworker characteristics explain 45percent in educationandexperience betweenmalesandfemales.Put industries andoccupations,while45percentisdueto differences 16 percentisduetosortingofmenandwomenintodifferent Of theroughly60percentofgendergapthatisexplained, same characteristics. in theway thelabormarket rewardsmenandwomenwiththe The remaining40percentisunexplained, andduetodifferences gender pay gapinbasepay isexplained by worker characteristics. about 60percent(7.7/12.8=percent)oftheoverall Singapore percent ofthetotalgap) isunexplained. Thisfindingmeansthat worker characteristics, whiletheremaining5.1percent (or 40 (or 60percentofthetotalgap) isexplained by differences in Of theoverall 12.8percentgendergapinbasepay, 7.7percent forms ofworkplacediscrimination. remains unexplained dueeithertounobserved factorsorsubtle by differencesinworker characteristics, andtheportionthat gap inGlassdoorsalarydataintotheportionthatisexplained Figure 17showsthedecompositionofSingaporegenderpay What ExplainstheGap? 10% 15% Source: GlassdoorEconomicResearch (Glassdoor.com/research) 0% 5%

Singapore ExplainedandUnexplained GenderPay Gap Figure 17.DecomposingtheSingapore GenderPay Gapinto (OaxacaBlinder Decomposition) 1 Explained andUnexplained Portions

T 9

E 47 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 Germany amounts toGermanwomenearningroughly78cents for every euro In termsofmedianpay theGermangendergapis22.3percent.That a genderpay gapof€12,231inbasepay betweenmenandwomen. €60,303 peryear formenand€48,072women.Thatamountsto In ourGlassdoorGermany salarysample,theaverage basepay was experience. basic demographic informationsuchasage,educationandyears of analysis toworkers over age 16workingfulltimeforwhomwehave reported by Germanemployees. AsinourU.S. samplewerestrictour For ouranalysis,weuseasampleof4,794Glassdoorsalaries gap reportedonlineby Germanemployees. sample ofGlassdoorsalarydata,wefindaslightlyhighergenderpay German genderpay gapisroughly21.0percentin2017. Germany’s Federal StatisticalOffice(Destatis)estimatesthatthe 38 Inour percent formediantotalpay. compensation inGermany isslightlyhigherthanforbasepay: 25.1 earned by menonaverage. Theunadjustedgenderpay gapfortotal calendar years 2016through2018. regression analysis.Thesamplecontains4,794salariesreportedfrom Table 10provides asummaryoftheGermany sampleusedinour to ahighof€534,000. The average basepay inthesamplewas€57,157,ranging from€17,040 approximately 1,680uniqueGermanemployers and1,420jobtitles. person firmstoemployers with1,300,000 employees. average employer sizewas50,600employees, ranging fromsmallone- had master’sdegrees,and6percentonlyahighschooldiploma.The experience. 61percentofthesamplehadbachelor’sdegrees,28 average age(asof2018)was33years with5.3years ofrelevant work €63,351. Thesampleis74percentmaleand26female,the 41 Average totalcompensationwashigherat 39 40 Thedatacontainsinformationon 48 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 Source: GlassdoorEconomicResearch (Glassdoor.com/research) Table 10.SummaryStatisticsfortheGermany SalarySample Year Gender (Male=1) Total Compensation Base Salary Years ofExperience Birth Year Associate’s Degree Bachelor’s Degree High SchoolDiploma J.D. Master’s Degree M.B.A. M.D. Ph.D. (# Employees) Firm Size VARIABLE OBSERVATIONS 4,794 4,794 4,794 4,794 4,794 4,794 4,794 4,794 4,794 4,794 4,794 4,794 4,794 4,794 4,794 €63,351 €57,157 50,600 MEAN 1985 0.74 0.01 0.61 0.06 0.00 0.28 0.03 0.00 0.01 n.a. 5.3 DEVIATION STANDARD €36,937 €26,149 102,604 0.44 0.10 0.49 0.23 0.05 0.45 0.17 0.03 0.12 n.a. 5.3 7 €17,400 €17,040 2016 1926 MIN 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1,300,000 €534,000 €534,000 2018 2001 MAX 38 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 49 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 gap of6.4percentforbasepay, and8.2percentfortotalcompensation. percent fortotalcompensation.Finallyaddinginarichsetofcontrolscompany andjobtitle,incolumn5wefindanadjustedgenderpay Applying controlsforage,educationandyears ofexperience, thegenderpay gapincolumn2shrinksto15.3percentforbasepay, and17.7 pay betweenmenandwomen,a25.1percentgenderpay gapintotalcompensation. unadjusted pay gapwithnostatisticalcontrolsfordifferencesbetweenworkers orjobs.Overall, thereisa22.3percent unadjustedgapinbase Figure 18presentsourestimatesoftheunadjustedandadjustedgenderpay gapinGermansalaries fromGlassdoor. Column1showsthe Germany Gender Pay Gap Figure 18.Overall Germany Results:EstimatesoftheUnadjustedandAdjustedGenderPay GapforComparable Workers Source: GlassdoorEconomic Research (Glassdoor.com/research) 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 0% 5%

22 No Controls. Before andAfterAddingStatisticalControls

years ofexperience. Adding controlsfor 1 age, educationand Germany GenderPay Gap

metro, yearandﬁrm size. industry, occupation, Adding controlsfor 100

P company-speciﬁc 9 controls. Adding

T job-title-speciﬁc controls. Adding

50 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 differences inoursample. 29 percent—thesinglelargest factorexplaining genderpay men andwomensystematically workindifferentrolesexplains our findingsintheUKandAustralia. Bycontrast, thefactthat 26 percentoftheGermany genderpay gap,comparable to differently, individualworker characteristics explain onlyabout in educationandexperience betweenmalesandfemales.Put industries andoccupations,while26percentisdueto differences 29 percentisduetosortingofmenandwomenintodifferent Of theroughly55percentofgendergapthatisexplained, same characteristics. in theway thelabormarket rewardsmenandwomenwiththe The remaining45percentisunexplained, andduetodifferences gender pay gapinbasepay isexplained by worker characteristics. about 55percent(12.3/22.3=percent)oftheoverall Germany percent ofthetotalgap) isunexplained. Thisfindingmeansthat worker characteristics, whiletheremaining10.0percent (or 45 (or 55percentofthetotalgap) isexplained by differences in Of theoverall 22.3percentgendergapinbasepay, 12.3percent forms ofworkplacebiasanddiscrimination. remains unexplained dueeithertounobserved factorsorsubtle by differencesinworker characteristics, andtheportionthat gap inGlassdoorsalarydataintotheportionthatisexplained Figure 19showsthedecompositionofGermangenderpay What ExplainstheGap? 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% Source: GlassdoorEconomicResearch (Glassdoor.com/research) 0% 5%

Germany ExplainedandUnexplained GenderPay Gap Figure 19.DecomposingtheGermany GenderPay Gapinto (OaxacaBlinder Decomposition) 12 100 Explained andUnexplained Portions

T 121 10

E 51 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 France amounts toFrench womenearningroughly88centsforevery euro terms ofmedianbasepay theFrench gendergapis11.6percent.That a genderpay gapof€5,974inbasepay betweenmenandwomen.In €51,254 peryear formenand€45,279women.Thatamountsto In ourGlassdoorFrance salarysample,theaverage basepay was experience. basic demographic informationsuchasage,educationandyears of analysis toworkers over age 16workingfulltimeforwhomwehave reported by French employees. AsinourU.S. samplewerestrictour For ouranalysis,weuseasampleof3,471Glassdoorsalaries gap reportedonlineby French employees. In oursampleofGlassdoorsalarydata,wefindalowergenderpay that theFrench genderpay gapwasroughly15.4percentin2017. The EuropeanCommission’s statisticaloffice(Eurostat)estimates 42

a highof€790,000. average basepay inthesamplewas€49,515,ranging from€19,340to approximately 1,323uniqueFrance employers and1,012jobtitles.The total compensationinFrance is12.3percent. earned by menonaverage. Theunadjustedgenderpay gapformedian calendar years 2016through2018. regression analysis.Thesamplecontains3,471salariesreportedfrom Table 11provides asummaryoftheFrance sampleusedinour from smallone-personfirmstoemployers with627,000employees. diploma. Theaverage employer sizewas49,500employees, ranging 42 percenthadMaster’sdegrees,and4onlyahighschool work experience. 51percentofthesamplehadBachelor’sdegrees, the average age(asof2018)was32years with4.9years ofrelevant at €55,272.Thesampleis71percentmaleand29female, 45 Average totalcompensationwasslightlyhigher 44 The datacontaininformationon 43

52 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 Source: GlassdoorEconomicResearch (Glassdoor.com/research) Table 11.SummaryStatisticsfortheFrance SalarySample Year Gender (Male=1) Total Compensation Base Salary Years ofExperience Birth Year Associate’s Degree Bachelor’s Degree High SchoolDiploma J.D. Master’s Degree M.B.A. M.D. Ph.D. (# Employees) Firm Size VARIABLE OBSERVATIONS 3,471 3,471 3,471 3,471 3,471 3,471 3,471 3,471 3,471 3,471 3,471 3,471 3,471 3,471 3,471 €55,272 €49,515 49,500 MEAN 1986 0.71 0.01 0.51 0.04 0.00 0.42 0.01 0.01 0.00 n.a. 4.9 DEVIATION STANDARD €46,941 €36,568 91,800 0.45 0.08 0.50 0.20 0.02 0.49 0.12 0.08 0.05 n.a. 5.1 7 €19,340 €19,340 2016 1933 MIN 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 €950,018 €790,000 627,000 2018 2000 MAX 40 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 53 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 compensation. set ofcontrolsforcompany andjobtitle,incolumn5wefindanadjustedgenderpay gapof3.7percentforbasepay, and3.8percentfortotal experience, thegenderpay gapincolumn2shrinksto7.6percentfor basepay, and7.7percentfortotalcompensation. Finallyaddinginarich pay betweenmenandwomen,a12.3percentgenderpay gapintotalcompensation.Applyingcontrolsforage,education andyears of unadjusted pay gapwithnostatisticalcontrolsfordifferencesbetweenworkers orjobs.Overall, thereisa11.6percent unadjustedgapinbase Figure 20presentsourestimatesoftheunadjustedandadjustedgenderpay gapinFrance salariesfromGlassdoor. Column1showsthe France Gender Pay Gap Figure 20.Overall France Results:EstimatesoftheUnadjusted andAdjustedGenderPay GapforComparable Workers Source: GlassdoorEconomic Research (Glassdoor.com/research) 10% 15% 20% 0% 5%

11 No Controls. Before andAfterAddingStatisticalControls 12 years ofexperience. Adding controlsfor age, educationand France Gender Pay Gap

metro, yearandﬁrmsize. industry, occupation, Adding controlsfor 1

P company-speciﬁc controls. Adding

1 T job-title-speciﬁc controls. Adding

54 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 explains only16 percent. fact thatmenandwomensystematically workindifferentroles compared toourfindingsin theUKandGermany. Bycontrast, the percent oftheFrance genderpay gap,whichissignificantlylarger differently, individualworker characteristics explain about30 in educationandexperience betweenmenandwomen.Put industries andoccupations,while30percentisdueto differences 16 percentisduetosortingofmenandwomenintodifferent Of theroughly46percentofgendergapthatisexplained, same characteristics. in theway thelabormarket rewardsmenandwomenwiththe The remaining53percentisunexplained, andduetodifferences gender pay gapinbasepay isexplained by worker characteristics. about 46percent(5.4/11.6=percent)oftheoverall France percent ofthetotalgap) isunexplained. Thisfindingmeansthat worker characteristics, whiletheremaining6.2percent (or 54 (or 46percentofthetotalgap) isexplained by differences in Of theoverall 11.6percentgendergapinbasepay, 5.4percent forms ofworkplacebiasanddiscrimination. remains unexplained dueeithertounobserved factorsorsubtle by differencesinworker characteristics, andtheportionthat gap inGlassdoorsalarydataintotheportionthatisexplained Figure 21showsthedecompositionofFrance genderpay What ExplainstheGap? 10% 15% Source: GlassdoorEconomicResearch (Glassdoor.com/research) 0% 5%

France ExplainedandUnexplained GenderPay Gap Figure 21.DecomposingtheFrance GenderPay Gapinto (OaxacaBlinder Decomposition) 2 Explained andUnexplained Portions

T 0 2

E 55 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 The Netherlands in 2017. that thegenderpay gap intheNetherlandswasroughly15.2percent The EuropeanCommission’s statisticaloffice(Eurostat)estimates That amountstoDutchwomenearningroughly81cents forevery terms ofmedianbasepay theDutchgenderpay gapis18.9percent. a genderpay gapof€9,161inbasepay betweenmenandwomen.In €53,644 peryear formenand€44,483women.Thatamountsto In ourGlassdoorNetherlandssalarysample,theaverage basepay was experience. basic demographic informationsuchasage,educationandyears of analysis toworkers over age 16workingfulltimeforwhomwehave reported by Dutchemployees. AsinourU.S. samplewerestrictour For ouranalysis,weuseasampleof2,514Glassdoorsalaries gender pay gapreportedonlineby Dutchemployees. 46 InoursampleofGlassdoorsalarydata,wefindahigher at 22.9percent. median totalcompensationintheNetherlandsissomewhatlarger, euro earnedby menonaverage. Theunadjustedgenderpay gapfor calendar years 2016through2018. regression analysis.Thesamplecontains2,514salariesreportedfrom Table 12provides asummaryoftheNetherlandssampleusedinour a highof€372,000. average basepay inthesamplewas€51,315,ranging from€18,444to on approximately 955uniqueDutchemployers and957jobtitles.The from smalltwo-personfirmstoemployers with623,000 employees. diploma. Theaverage employer sizewas76,671employees, ranging 34 percenthadMaster’sdegrees,and5onlyahighschool work experience. 59percentofthesamplehadBachelor’sdegrees, the average age(asof2018)was34years with5.7years ofrelevant at €58,025.Thesampleis75percentmaleand25female, 47 49 Average totalcompensationwasslightlyhigher 48 Thedatacontainsinformation

56 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 Source: GlassdoorEconomicResearch (Glassdoor.com/research) Table 12.SummaryStatisticsfortheNetherlandsSalarySample Year Total Compensation Base Salary Gender (Male=1) Associate’s Degree Years ofExperience Birth Year Bachelor’s Degree High SchoolDiploma J.D. Master’s Degree M.B.A. M.D. Ph.D. (# Employees) Firm Size VARIABLE OBSERVATIONS 2,514 2,514 2,514 2,514 2,514 2,514 2,514 2,514 2,514 2,514 2,514 2,514 2,514 2,514 2,514 €58,025 €51,315 38,015 MEAN 1984 0.75 0.01 0.59 0.05 0.00 0.34 0.01 0.01 0.01 n.a. 5.7 DEVIATION STANDARD €37,994 €26,545 76,671 0.44 0.08 0.49 0.21 0.00 0.47 0.02 0.10 0.10 n.a. 5.9 8 €18,444 €18444 2016 1930 MIN 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 €372,000 €565,200 623,000 2018 1999 MAX 40 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 57 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 gap of6.6percentforbasepay, and8.0percentfortotalcompensation. percent fortotalcompensation.Finallyaddinginarichsetofcontrolscompany andjobtitle,incolumn5wefindanadjustedgenderpay Applying controlsforage,educationandyears ofexperience, thegenderpay gapincolumn2shrinksto9.6percentforbasepay, and13.4 in basepay betweenmenandwomen,a22.9percentgenderpay gapintotalcompensation. unadjusted pay gapwithnostatisticalcontrolsfordifferencesbetweenworkers orjobs.Overall, thereisa18.9percent unadjustedgap Figure 22presentsourestimatesoftheunadjustedandadjustedgenderpay gapinDutchsalaries fromGlassdoor. Column1showsthe Netherlands Gender Pay Gap Figure 22.Overall NetherlandsResults:EstimatesoftheUnadjustedandAdjustedGenderPay GapforComparable Workers Source: GlassdoorEconomic Research (Glassdoor.com/research) 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 0% 5%

19 No Controls. Before andAfterAddingStatisticalControls

229

Netherlands GenderPay Gap years ofexperience. Adding controlsfor age, educationand 9

metro, yearandﬁrm size. industry, occupation, Adding controlsfor 2

121

P company-speciﬁc controls. Adding

9 T job-title-speciﬁc controls. Adding

58 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 differences inoursample. systematically workindifferent rolesexplains only12percent. and Germany. Bycontrast, thefactthatmenandwomen is significantlylargercomparedtoourfindingsintheUK 43 percentofthegenderpay gapintheNetherlands,which differently, individualworker characteristics explain about in educationandexperience betweenmenandwomen.Put industries andoccupations,while43percentisdueto differences 12 percentisduetosortingofmenandwomenintodifferent Of theroughly54percentofgendergapthatisexplained, women withthesamecharacteristics. due todifferencesintheway thelabormarket rewardsmenand characteristics. Theremaining46percentisunexplained, and Netherlands genderpay gapinbasepay isexplained by worker that about54percent(10.3/18.9=percent)oftheoverall 46 percentofthetotalgap) isunexplained. Thisfindingmeans worker characteristics, whiletheremaining8.6percent (or (or 54percentofthetotalgap) isexplained by differences in Of theoverall 18.9percentgendergapinbasepay, 10.3percent forms ofworkplacebiasanddiscrimination. remains unexplained dueeithertounobserved factorsorsubtle by differencesinworker characteristics, andtheportionthat pay gapinGlassdoorsalarydataintotheportionthatisexplained Figure 23showsthedecompositionofNetherlandsgender What ExplainstheGap? 10% 15% 20% 25% Source: GlassdoorEconomicResearch (Glassdoor.com/research) 0% 5% Netherlands ExplainedandUnexplained GenderPay Gap

Figure 23.DecomposingtheNetherlandsGenderPay Gapinto (OaxacaBlinder Decomposition) 10 Explained andUnexplained Portions

T 121 1 0

E 59 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 Around theWorld Conclusion: Pay Gaps earnings allover theworld. large andstatisticallysignificant gapbetweenmaleandfemale comparison ofaverage maleandfemalepay, they represent a Although thosegapsaresmallerthanappearsfromasimple average between 93centsand97perdollarearnedby men. percent intheNetherlands.Thatamountstowomenearning on gender pay gap,ranging from3.1percentinAustralia to6.6 to observe betweenmenandwomen,westillfindanadjusted Once we’ve statisticallycontrolledforevery differencewe’re able (22.3 percent). gender pay gapinFrance (11.6percent)tothelargestinGermany countries weexamined, ranging fromthesmallestunadjusted 11.6 percentand22.3morethanwomenacrosstheeight Before any statisticalcontrols,menearnonaverage between female pay inalleightcountriesweexamined. large andstatisticallysignificantdifferencebetweenmale comparable education,experience andlocations,westillfinda comparing workers withsimilarjobtitlesandemployers, with both intheU.S. and aroundtheworld.Even afterstatistically Our latestanalysisshowsthegenderpay gapremainsreal,

60 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 2016 study, womenandmenworkingindifferentlypaying jobsin countries continuestobeoccupationalandindustrysorting. Inour The biggestfactorcontributingtothegenderpay gapinmost smallest gap(2.2percent)inoursample. to 2.9percent.Today, thebiotech& pharmaceuticalindustryhasthe in our2016study—saw aslightincreaseinpay gapfrom2.5percent smallest pay gaps,aerospace&defense—whichhadthesmallestgap in Glassdoordata,bothat6.4percent.Amongindustrieswiththe Today, wefindthemediaandretailsectorshave thelargestpay gap industries weretiedforlargestadjustedpay gap,bothat7.2percent. somewhat since2016.Inourlaststudy, thehealthcareandinsurance In theU.S., theindustrieswithlargestgenderpay gaphave shifted gender pay gapincreasedslightlyfrom5.5percentto6.4percent. improved since2016.Theoneexception isGermany, whoseadjusted United Kingdom,France andAustralia, thegenderpay gaphas countries weanalyzedinour2016study. IntheUnitedStates, The adjustedgenderpay gaphasnarrowedinfourofthefive How dothesefindingscompare to 2016? whether thatcanexplain muchoftoday’s genderpay gap. gaps amongreal-worldjobapplicationsonGlassdoor, andshow explore thatissue,providing thefirst-ever analysis ofgenderpay In thefollowingsection,weuseuniquedatafromGlassdoorto job search? does itshowupinthesalariesmenandwomenaimforduring barrier topay equitytoday. Istherereallyaconfidencegap?And if they weremoreself-confidentatwork—isacommonlydiscussed of a“confidence gap”—the notion thatwomencouldachieve more on choicesindividualwomenmake intheirowncareers.Theidea driver ofthepay gap,muchpopulardiscussionofpay equityfocuses Despite evidence thatoccupationalandindustrysortingisakey remains themostimportantdriver ofthepay gapinmostcountries. pressures diverting womenandmenintodifferentcareerpaths and experience hasactuallyfallen,14percentto8percent.Societal percent. Thepercentageofthegapduetodifferencesineducation updated analysisshowsthatpercentagehasincreasedto56.5 the economy explained 54percentoftheoverall U.S. pay gap.Our 61 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 Equal Work? for EqualPay for Do Women Ask IV.

62 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 pay forequalwork? and answerthequestion:are womentoday seekingoutequal characteristics toestimate anadjustedsalaryconfidencegap collects, weareabletocontrolfordetaileduserandjob Additionally, becauseofthehighvolume ofdataGlassdoor in away that’snotpossibleinotherjobsearch settings. incorporate salaryexpectations intotheirjobsearchdecisions candidates beforethey decidetoapply, allowingthemto Glassdoor’s jobsearchproductexposes salaryestimatesto Glassdoor dataofferauniqueabilitytoanswerthisquestion. over time. equally qualified.Thatfactalonecouldleadtoalargepay gap they may avoid applyingtohigher-paying jobs,even if they are women arelessconfidentaboutthemselves asjobapplicants, between womenandmencouldtranslate intoapay gap.If powerful mechanismby whichdifferencesinconfidence If asalaryconfidencegapwerereal,itwouldbepotentially lower salariesthanmen,ornot? a salaryconfidencegapexists. Dowomenapplytojobswith real-world jobapplicationsfromGlassdoortoexamine whether gender pay gap.Inthissection,weanalyzeauniquedatasetof well understoodwhetherthatgap–ifreal–may contributetothe “confidence gap” betweenmenandwomenatwork.Butitisnot In recentyears, therehasbeenmuchdiscussionofthe Introduction 63 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 to theuser’sownself-reported salary. job thattheuserappliedto. Bycontrast, “current salary”refers In Table 13,“applied salary”referstothesalary estimateforthe information. to jobsonline,comparedtheirwillingnesssharesalary more willingnessamongcollege-educatedworkers toapply compared to18percent).Thisover-representation may reflect educational attainment(23percentholdgraduate degrees (56 percentcomparedto54percent)andhashigherlevels of is madeupofslightlymoremencomparedtothatdataset the previous sectiontoanalyzethegenderpay gap.Thissample Glassdoor. Itislargelysimilartothedatasetofsalariesusedin analysis. Itconsistsof300,256jobapplicationsstartedon Table 13showssummarystatisticsforthedatausedinour base pay only, anddonotincludeothertypesofcompensation. stand users’currentbasepay. Allpay datainthisanalysisarefor mate. We alsouseuser-submittedsalaryinformationtounder- information onthejoblisting,includingtitleandsalaryesti- on applicants,includingage,genderandeducationaswell records forwhichwehave completedemographic information door intheUnitedStates2018.We restrictoursampleto For thisanalysis,wefocusonjobapplicationsstartedGlass- is thestartingplaceformillionsofjobapplicationsevery month. As oneoftheworld’slargestjobsandrecruitingsites,Glassdoor Data

64 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 Source: GlassdoorEconomicResearch (Glassdoor.com/research) Table 13:SummaryStatisticsfortheJobApplicationsUsedinOurAnalysis Gender (Male=1) Current Salary Applied Salary (# Employees) Firm Size Ph.D. M.D. M.B.A. Master’s Degree J.D. High SchoolDiploma Bachelor’s Degree Associate’s Degree Years ofExperience Age (2018) VARIABLE OBSERVATIONS 300,256 300,256 300,256 300,256 300,256 300,256 300,256 300,256 300,256 300,256 300,256 300,256 300,256 300,256 $62,763 $83,287 31,400 MEAN 0.01 0.00 0.02 0.20 0.00 0.08 0.67 0.03 35.2 0.56 5.4 DEVIATION STANDARD $33,898 $37,904 95,600 0.08 0.02 0.14 0.40 0.04 0.26 0.47 0.16 0.50 6.0 9.8 $10,300 $15,000 MIN 19 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2,300,000 $570,671 $445,000 MAX 40 79 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 65 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 that pay only$3,565(7.0percent) more. apply tojobsintherestaurant, bars&foodserviceindustry $15,221 (18.6percent)morethanwomen,whereasmen jobs intheaccounting&legalindustryaimforthat pay of thegapvariesfromindustrytoindustry. Menapplyingto men overall applytohigher-paying jobsthanwomen,thesize and womenapplyto.InTable 14,weshowthat,even though women varieswidelybasedontheindustryofjobs men For example, thesalaryconfidencegapbetweenmenand important tocompareonlysimilarmenandwomen. To concludetherereallyisapay gapinjobapplications,it’s work indifferentjobsandindustrieswithpay scales. may have differentlevels ofeducationandexperience, or the onlydriver ofsalaryexpectations: Menand womenalso out higherpay innewjobs.However, self-confidenceisnot may beakey driver ofthegenderpay gap,inwhichmenseek At firstglance,thisseemstosuggestthata“confidence gap” that are$13,635higheronaverage, agapof18.3percent. women applytoonGlassdoor. Menapplytojobswithsalaries dollar menearn.We findasimilargapinthesalariesmenand 21.4 percent,orthatwomenearnroughly79centsforevery In theprevious section,weshowedtheoverall U.S. pay gapis Findings 66 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 Source: GlassdoorEconomic Research (Glassdoor.com/research) Table 14:Average SalariesMenandWomen ApplytobyIndustry Restaurants, BarsandFood Service Recreation Arts, Entertainmentand Aerospace andDefense Biotech andPharmaceuticals Manufacturing Information Technology Transportation andLogistics Telecommunications Government Maintenance Construction, Repairand Education Insurance Oil, Gas,EnergyandUtilities Business Services Real Estate Media Retail Non Profit Travel andTourism Health Care Finance Accounting andLegal INDUSTRY

$50,913 $63,836 $81,608 $91,650 $77,579 $97,819 $65,474 $78,736 $69,277 $69,930 $66,915 $76,015 $81,669 $75,850 $70,133 $82,676 $64,670 $67,006 $66,594 $71,802 $86,803 $81,812 MEN WOMEN $47,348 $57,772 $72,956 $81,287 $68,784 $86,248 $57,425 $68,972 $60,298 $60,619 $57,865 $65,281 $69,977 $64,589 $59,468 $69,882 $54,284 $56,216 $55,724 $58,741 $70,767 $66,592 UNADJUSTED GAP($) $10,362 $11,571 $10,735 $11,691 $11,260 $10,665 $12,793 $10,387 $10,790 $10,870 $13,061 $16,036 $15,221 $3,565 $8,049 $9,764 $6,064 $8,653 $8,795 $8,980 $9,311 $9,050 UNADJUSTED GAP (% OFMALEPAY) 12.3% 12.4% 10.6% 11.3% 11.3% 11.8% 13.0% 13.3% 13.5% 14.1% 14.3% 14.8% 15.2% 15.5% 16.1% 16.1% 16.3% 18.2% 18.5% 18.6% 7.0% 9.5%

67 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 confidence gapto1.2percent. companies andjobtitles,which furtherreducesthesalary 5, weapplyourmostgranular statisticalcontrolsforindividual overestimate thetruesalaryconfidencegap.In Columns4and more detailedcontrolsavailable inGlassdoordata,whichmay access tothetypesofcontrolsinColumn3Figure24, notthe Most previous researchonthesalary confidencegaphasonlyhad confidence gapshrinksto3.9percent. as jobcharacteristics like occupationandindustry, thesalary characteristics ofworkers like experience andeducation,aswell 3 ofFigure24,afteraddingcontrolsfor“humancapital” comparison betweenmenandwomen.AsshowninColumn shrinks aswegetclosertomakinganapples-to-apples Overall, theapparentsalaryconfidencegapinjobapplicants gap whencomparingsimilarworkers applyingtosimilarjobs. column addsadditionalcontrolsinordertoshowthesizeof percent highersalariesonaverage thanwomen.Eachsubsequent is theunadjustedgap,indicatingthatmenapplytojobswith18.3 before andafterstatisticalcontrolshave beenapplied.Column1 In Figure24,weshowestimatesforthesalaryconfidencegap with similarbackgroundsapplyingtokindsofjobs. the salaryconfidencegap,weneedtocomparewomenandmen unadjusted salaryconfidencegap.Inordertotrulyunderstand higher-paying jobsandindustries,whichinflatesthesizeof Overall, menmake upadisproportionate shareofapplicationsto 10% 15% 20% 4.9 percent. is, atmost,asmallcontributortothetotalU.S. unadjusted genderpay gapof the genderpay gap.Thisimpliesthataconfidencegapinsalaryexpectations interpreted asanupperboundontheeffectofsalaryconfidencegap control, thesalaryconfidencegapnarrowsfurtherto0.7percent.Thiscanbe incorporated intoworkers’ currentsalaries.Afteradding currentsalaryasa affect pay, suchasworkeffortandability, andthesecharacteristics arepartly Glassdoor. Therearemany unobservablecharacteristics ofworkers thatmay In Column6,weaddonefinalcontrol:users’self-reportedcurrentsalaryon Source: GlassdoorEconomicResearch (Glassdoor.com/research) 0% 5%

No Controls. Figure 24:LittleEvidenceofaSalaryConfidenceGapafterControls 1

years ofexperience. Adding controlsfor Before andAfterAddingStatisticalControls age, educationand 19

Salary ConﬁdenceGap, industry, occupation, Adding controlsfor state andﬁrmsize. 9

company-speciﬁc controls. Adding

job-title-speciﬁc controls. Adding 12

current salary. Adding 0 68 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 recruiters fromaskingapplicantsabouttheirsalaryhistory. reason policymakers areincreasinglyconsideringbanning gap earlyincareersintoonethatcouldlastalifetime—one and womenmove through theircareers,turningasmallpay could propagateagenderpay gapfromjobtoasmen of usingtheiractualmarket valueastheirsalarygoal.This may implythatworkers fixateonpercentageraises instead Why isthisimportant?Becausesimilarpercentage raises equal—both at33.3percent. that themedianpercentageraise menandwomenseekis raises whenthey applytonewjobs.InFigure25,weshow that womenandmenlargelyseekthesamesizepercentage Data fromreal-worldjobapplicationsonGlassdoorshow similarly sizedraises whenapplyingfornewjobs. but littleevidence exists onwhetherwomenandmenseek whether menaremorelikely toaskforraises thanwomen, looking forpay raises. Muchacademicresearchhasasked salary helpsusunderstandhowwomenandmenthinkabout Comparing thesalaryworkers aimforagainsttheircurrent Do Women Ask for Smaller Raises? 50

Source: GlassdoorEconomicResearch (Glassdoor.com/research) $10, $12, $14, $16, $18, $20, $2, $4, $6, $8, 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 $ 0 Women andMenSeeSimilarPercentage Figure 25:Women andMenSeekSimilarPercentage Raises 19000 M e n Raises forNeJobs for NewJobsonGlassdoor

1000 W o m e n R

R 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 0 5 % %

69 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 women isn’t likely amaindriver oftoday’s gender pay gap. that whatever salaryconfidencegapexists betweenmenand However, ourfindingsbasedondatafromGlassdoorsuggest larger salaryconfidencegapthanwhatweseeonGlassdoor. methods wherepay islesstransparent may sufferfroma in theeconomy asawhole.Inotherwords,jobsearch our samplemay have different pay informationthanworkers candidates beforethey applytojobs.Asaresult,candidatesin important way: Glassdoorexposes salaryinformationtojob Glassdoor may differfromtheoverall labormarket inone One limitationofourresearchisthatthejobsearchon applying tonewjobsonline. show thatwomendoaskforequalpay forequalworkwhen the overall genderpay gap.Taken together, datafromGlassdoor apply to.Thiseffectissmall,andnotlikely aprimarydriver of less thanonepercentgapinpay forjobsthatmenversus women similar menandwomenapplyingtojobsonGlassdoor, thereisa 0.7 percentsalaryconfidencegap.Thatis,oncewecompare Our analysisfindsthatthereisastatisticallysignificantbutsmall Conclusion 51 70 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 Conclusion V. V.

71 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 4.6 percent. small tobeanimportantdriver oftheadjusted U.S. pay gapof percent higherthanthosefor women.However, theeffectistoo Men doseekoutjobsthatpay astatisticallysignificant 0.7 ask forequalpay forequalworkwhenapplyingtojobsonline. We foundthat,afterapplyingstatisticalcontrols, womenlargely examined thesalaryconfidencegapbetweenmenandwomen. Using uniquedatafromjobapplicationsonGlassdoor, wealso of 6.6percentintheNetherlandsto3.1Australia. percent inFrance, whiletheadjustedpay gapranges fromahigh ranges fromahighof22.3percentinGermany toalowof11.6 among alleightcountriesweanalyzed.Theunadjustedpay gap Additionally, thepresenceofagenderpay gapisuniversal impact onwomen’s lifetimeearningsisvery significant. While theseadjustedgapsmay seemsmall,theaccumulated has fallento6.3percentin2018,downfrom9.12014. Similarly, intheUnitedKingdomwefindadjustedpay gap has shrunkfrom6.5percentin2011to4.62018. similar experience andjobs,theadjustedpay gapinAmerica 26.6 percentin2011.Whencomparingwomenandmenwith earned 21.4percentmorethanwomenintheU.S., down from in recentyears butisstillsignificant.In2018,menasagroup We findthegenderpay gapintheUnitedStateshasnarrowed pay gapinGlassdoorsalaries.Whathaschanged? Three years have passedsinceouroriginalstudyofthegender 72 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 of onlinepay information. transparency canhelpclosethepay gapifworkers take advantage salary expectations betweenmenandwomen,suggestingthat pay of jobapplicantsonGlassdoorshowsthereisn’t alargegapin inadvertently propagatingthepay gapthemselves. Ouranalysis information orsubconsciousbiasescanresultinworkers like them,orsimplyby usingmentalrulesof thumb. Incomplete that many candidateslookforsalaryinformationfrompeople seek outandnegotiatehighersalaries.Researchshows,however, knowledge. Understandingone’s ownmarket valuehelpsworkers For jobseekers, the gapwithinnext twentyyears. will berequiredtomeetourmostoptimisticprojectionsofclosing But sustainedactionfrombusiness,government andindividuals The progressonthegenderpay gapinthelast3years isencouraging. How Can We Do Better? industry sortingremainsignificant causes.Thatsuggeststhat less ofafactorbehindthegender pay gap,occupationaland pay gap.Second,althougheducationand experience arebecoming differentiator inatightlabormarket, andcanalsohelpclosethe information directlywithcandidatescanbeapowerful cultural For employers, contribute toclosingthepay gap. more widelycanbeavaluableway forindividualworkers to akey findingofourstudyisthatsharingsalary themostimportanttoolforachieving pay equityis 52 Seekingoutandsharinginformation smarter dialogueonhowto closethosegapsforgood. factors behindgenderpay gapsaroundtheworld,and encourages a seekers alike. Ourhopeisthatthisstudyhelpsdraw attentionto gap willrequireactionfrompolicymakers, employers, andjob leave, orcompany pay disclosurerequirements,closingthepay more flexible workplacepolicies,morecomprehensive paidfamily sustained effort.Whetherthroughimproved salarytransparency, Ultimately, progressonthegenderpay gapwillrequiretimeand history may helpreducethepay gapover time. looking fornewjobs,prohibitionsonaskingapplicantssalary because menandwomentargetidenticalpercentageraises when differently paying jobs.Additionally, ourfindingssuggestthat help reduceoccupationalsegregationofmenandwomeninto to encourage womenandminoritiestoenterSTEMfieldscan that promotepaidfamilyleave andinvest ineducationalprograms likely tohave thebiggestimpactongenderpay gap.Policies For policymakers, family responsibilities. family leave, ensuringbothmenandwomencanbalancework workplace policiesthatallowflexibility inworkhoursandpaid driver ofthepay gap,it’simportantforemployers topromote pools. Finally, becauseoccupationalsortingissuchanimportant ensure thatthey areattracting, hiringandretainingdiverse talent employers shouldbeconsistentlyre-evaluating hiringpipelinesto ourresultsofferguidanceonwhatpoliciesare 73 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 Psychological Bulletin,Vol. 136,No.1,pp.103-127. National Patterns ofGenderDifferencesinMathematics:AMeta-Analysis,” Else-Quest, NicoleM.,JanetShibley Hyde, andMarciaC.Lynn (2010).“Cross- Glassdoor EconomicResearch Report.Available athttp://gldr.co/1OUQibk. Chamberlain, Andrew(2015).“IsSalaryTransparency MoreThanaTrend?,” gender-pay-gap/ Economic Research.Available athttps://www.glassdoor.com/research/studies/ Chamberlain, Andrew(2016).“Demystifying theGenderPay Gap,” Glassdoor pp. 84-103. hurt toask,” OrganizationalBehavior andHumanDecisionProcesses,Vol. 103, gender differencesinthepropensitytoinitiatenegotiations: Sometimes itdoes Bowles, HannahRiley, LindaBabcockandLei Lai(2007).“Socialincentives for Scandinavian JournalofEconomics. “Gender andPromotions:EvidencefromAcademicEconomistsinFrance,” The Bosquet, Clément,Pierre-PhilippeCombes,andCeciliaGarcía-Peñalosa (2018). Estimates,” JournalofHumanResourcesVol. 8,No.4,pp.436-455. Blinder, Alan(1973).“Wage Discrimination:ReducedForm andStructural Vol. 23,No.4,pp.1154-1174. vs. merelyexplain unfavorable pay outcomesforwomen,” OrganizationScience, Belliveau, Maura A.(2012).“Engenderinginequity?Howsocialaccountscreate the GenderDivide”. PrincetonUniversity Press. Babcock, LindaandSara Laschever Don’t (2003).“Women Ask:Negotiationand 611-636. ask?," IndustrialRelations:AJournalofEconomy andSociety, Vol. 57,No.4,pp. Artz, Benjamin,AmandaH.Goodall,andAndrewJ. Oswald(2018).“Dowomen References PMC6328104/ One, Vol. 14,No.1.Available athttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/ desired salaries:Astudyononline recruitmentwebsiteusersinChina,” PLoS Zhang, XiaoqiandYanqiao Zheng(2019).“Gender differencesinself-viewand Development International,Vol. 19,No.4,pp.404-425. gender gapinpre-careersalaryexpectations: atestoffive explanations,” Career Schweitzer, Linda,SeanLyons, LisaK.J. KuronandEddyS.W. Ng(2014).“The industrielles, Vol. 6,No. 3,pp.422-444. Career Pipeline:GenderDifferencesinPre-Expectations,” Relations Schweitzer, Linda,EddyNg,SeanLyons andLisaKuron(2011).“Exploringthe 12 (World BankInstitute). Decomposition,” inAnalyzingHealthEquityUsingHouseholdSurvey Data,Chapter O’Donnell, Owenetal.(2008).“Explaining DifferencesbetweenGroups:Oaxaca International EconomicReview, Vol. 14,No.3,pp.693-709. Oaxaca, Ronald(1973).“Male-Female Wage DifferentialsinUrbanLaborMarkets,” Salary InformationisProvided,” Psychology ofWomen Quarterly, Vol. 13,pp.88-96. Martin, BethG.(1989).“Gender DifferencesinSalaryExpectationswhenCurrent Working Paper No.18511.Available athttps://www.nber.org/papers/w18511. Negotiations? EvidencefromaLargeScaleNatural FieldExperiment,” NBER Leibbrandt, AndreasandJohnA.List(2012).“DoWomen Avoid Salary Vol. 76,No.2,pp.256. negotiations by maleandfemaleMBAgraduates,” JournalofAppliedPsychology, Gerhart, Barry, andSara Rynes(1991).“Determinantsandconsequences ofsalary Paper No.21689. Callbacks toJobApplicationsby theUnemployed: AnAuditStudy,” NBERWorking Farber, Henry, DanSilverman, andTillvon Wachter (2015).“FactorsDetermining . 74 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 and menultimatelyenter. self-reported andhave littlevisibilityintothespecificoccupationswomen expectations thanmenbutarelimitedby thefactthatsurveys arenecessarily seekers like ZhangandZheng(2019) indicatethatwomenhave lowersalary and Kuron(2011)Schweitzer, Lyons, KuronandNg(2014)orofjob 6. Surveys ofcollegestudentslike Martin(1989),Schweitzer, Ng,Lyons assistant jobwerelesslikely tonegotiatepay thanmen. while Leibbrandt andList(2012)foundfemaleapplicants toanadministrative found thatfemaleeconomistsinFrance werelesslikely toapplyforpromotion, mechanisms have beenproposed:Bosquet, CombesandGarcía-Peñalosa (2018) there issomeevidence ofaconfidencegapintheworkplace,butmany different higher reportedself-confidenceinmathdespitesimilarperformance.And settings whereElse-Quest,Hyde andLynn (2010)foundmalestudentshave 5. Past researchhasclearlydocumentedagenderconfidencegapineducation female coefficient vectors. command usingatwo-folddecompositionwith50-50weightsonmaleand 4. We implementtheOaxaca-BlinderdecompositioninStatausing“oaxaca” Bank, seeO’Donnell, Owenetal.(2008). Oaxaca-Blinder decompositionisimplementedby researchersattheWorld 3. SeeOaxaca(1973)andBlinder(1973).For apractical overview ofhowthe details onhowthisdiffersfromanexact calculation ofpercentagepay gaps. conditional onotherstatisticalcontrolscontainedinX interpretation ofbeingtheapproximate percentage male-femalepay gap 2. We estimateequation(1)usingthenatural logofsalaries,soβ Economic Research,March2016. 1. AndrewChamberlain,“Demystifying theGenderPay Gap,” Glassdoor End Notes

. SeeFootnote 7for 1 has the hasthe

1 inourestimatingequation—isgiven by e^β that is,thepercentagepay advantagefromthemaledummy changingfrom0to percentage malepay advantagesonly. Theexact percentagemalepay advantage— 7. Notethattheregressioncoefficientswepresentheregive approximate expressed as anannualfigureassuminga12-monthwork year. a 2,000-hourfull-timeworkyear. Amountsreportedasmonthlysalariesare All amountsreportedashourlywagesareexpressed inannualtermsassuming Including theseindividualsdoesnotmateriallyaffectany estimatesinthestudy. less than$10,000,000peryear, whichremoves 13observationsfromoursample. reported basesalaryoflessthan$5,000,000peryear andtotalcompensationof for 2,000hours,or$14,500peryear. We alsorestrictoursampletosalarieswith as lessthanthe2016federal minimumwageof$7.25perhourworked fulltime the sample2,695individuals(0.6percentofsample) whomisreportedearnings to threecalendaryears inthepast.For ourregressionestimates,weremove from based, full-timeworkers asofFebruary 2019.Userscanreportsalariesfromup 10. Oursampleisbasedon426,512salaryreportsshared Glassdoorby U.S.- payroll/news/12399824/six-major-us-banks-take-steps-on-gender-pay-gap. 26, 2018)CPA Practice Advisor, available athttps://www.cpapracticeadvisor.com/ 9. See,forexample, “SixMajorU.S. BanksTake StepsonGender Pay Gap,” (February human-touch review. a rigorousapproval process,includingacombinationofmachine-learningand sharing. Allsubmissionsofthistype“user-generated content”aresubjectedto of compensationincludingbonuses,tips,commissions,stockoptionsandprofit time vs.part-timeemployment status,andbasepay aswellallotherforms information onjobtitle,employer name, location,years ofexperience, full- The survey canbeviewedonlineathttp://gldr.co/1TzaIcS . Itcollectsdetailed 8. Glassdoorsalaryreportsarebasedonsurveys administeredtositevisitors. see https://goo.gl/t31YCJ . -1.For additionaltechnicaldetail,

75 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 at 13. SeeU.S. CensusBureau,“EducationalAttainmentintheUnitedStates:2018,” Population by Sex andAge,” athttp://goo.gl/YjJJB. 12. SeeU.S. BureauofLaborStatistics,“Employment Status oftheCivilian all ofourmainconclusionsthroughoutarebasedonlyonbasepay results. interpreting any ofthefiguresreportedinthisstudyfortotalcompensation,and for totalcompensationasanillustration only. Ingeneral, wesuggestcautionin users. For thisreason,ourprimaryfocusisonbasepay, andweprovide figures pay. Becausethesefieldsareoptional,they aresubjecttounderreporting by optionally reportincomefromtips,bonuses,commissionsandotherformsof well astotalcompensation.Basesalaryisarequiredfield,butusersmay 11. Glassdoor’sonlinesalarysurvey collectsinformationonbasesalaryas β interaction term.Mathematically, theindustrygenderpay gapsrepresent on maleinthemodelandcoefficient oneachindustry’smalexindustry 17. To calculateeachindustry’sgenderpay gap,wesumtogetherthecoefficient co/21r9Jy7. Wage andSalaryWorkers by DetailedOccupationandSex, 2018”athttp://gldr. 16. SeeU.S. BureauofLaborStatistics, “MedianWeekly Earnings ofFull-Time tightens-women-are-moving-into-male-dominated-jobs.html Available athttps://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/14/upshot/as-labor-market- Tightens, Women AreMoving IntoMale-Dominated Jobs,” NewYork Times. 15. JedKolko andClaireCainMiller(December14,2018),“As Labor Market 11551436214?mod=e2twe wsj.com/articles/female-factor-women-drive-the-labor-force-comeback- the Labor-Force Comeback,” Wall StreetJournal.Available athttps://www. 14. SeeVanessa Fuhrmans (March1,2019),“Female Factor:Women Drive age, education,experience, state,year, jobtitleandcompany name. occupation estimatescorresponds toourfullmodelwithallcontrols,including industry =β https://goo.gl/bb4z4w male +β male xindustry. Thestatisticalmodelforindustryand .

Only full-timeworkers areincludedinthesample. 27. Thesamplewaspulledfrom Glassdoor’ssalarydatabaseonMarch1,2019. total compensationfiguresdue topotentiallylargeunderreportingbias. for totalcompensationasanillustration only. We suggest cautionininterpreting 26. AswithU.S. salarydata,wefocus onbasepay inouranalysis, andprovide figures 25. Source:StatisticsCanada,athttps://bit.ly/2TtWxO6 . 24. Percentages donot addtothetotaldueroundingofindividualfigures. wages areexpressed inannualtermsassuminga2,000-hourfull-timeworkyear. does notmateriallyaffectany estimatesinthestudy. Allsalaries reportedashourly base pay peryear or£10,000,000total pay peryear. Includingtheseindividuals year (Sourcehttp://gldr.co/1TG55eh) orreportedearningstotalingover £5,000,000 minimum wageof£3.87perhourworked full timefor2,000hours,or£7,740per (0.26 percentofthesample) whomisreportedearningsaslessthanthe2016UK 23. For ourregressionestimates,weremove fromthesample107individuals Only full-timeworkers areincludedinthesample. 22. ThesamplewaspulledfromGlassdoor’ssalarydatabaseonMarch1,2019. total compensationfiguresduetopotentiallylargeunderreportingbias. for totalcompensationasanillustration only. We suggestcautionininterpreting 21. AswithU.S. salarydata,wefocusonbasepay inouranalysis,andprovide figures 20. Source:UKOfficeofNationalStatistics,athttps://bit.ly/2BhYfrF summarized athttp://gldr.co/1QEwVao. 19. See,forexample Farber, Silverman andvon Wachter (2015),whosefindingsare Metals wereomittedduetoinsufficientdata. sample. AgricultureandForestry, ConsumerServices,andMining& 18. We onlyreportpay gapsforindustrieswithatleast4,000salaryreportsinour .

76 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 underreporting bias. caution ininterpretingtotalcompensation figuresduetopotentiall provide figuresfortotalcompensationasanillustration only. We suggest 35. As withU.S. salarydata,wefocusonbase pay inouranalysis,and 34. Source:SingaporeMinistry ofManpower, athttps://bit.ly/2xoy7cA. are expressed inannualtermsassuminga2,000-hourfull-timeworkyear. materially affectany estimatesinthisstudy. Allsalariesreported ashourlywages year orA$10,000,000 totalpay peryear. Includingtheseindividualsdoesnot ab.co/2FA0kl2) orreportedearningstotalingover A$5,000,000basepay per minimum wageforfulltimeworkers, orA$35,400peryear (Source: https:// (2.5 percentofthesample) misreportingearningsaslessthanthe2016Australia 33. For ourregressionestimates,weremove fromthesample172individuals Full-time workers onlyare includedinthesample. 32. ThesamplewaspulledfromGlassdoor’ssalarydatabaseon March1,2019. underreporting bias. caution ininterpretingtotalcompensationfiguresduetopotentiall provide figuresfortotalcompensationasanillustration only. We suggest 31. AswithU.S. salarydata,wefocusonbasepay inouranalysis,and ly/2Tu5NgV 30. Source:Australia Workplace GenderEqualityAgency, athttps://bit. 29. Percentages donotaddtothetotaldueroundingofindividualfigures. assuming a2,000-hourfull-timeworkyear. the study. Allsalariesreportedashourlywagesareexpressed inannualterms per year. Includingtheseindividualsdoesnotmateriallyaffectany estimatesin earnings totalingover $5,000,000base pay peryear or$10,000,000totalpay 2,000 hours,or$21,000peryear (Sourcehttps://bit.ly/2U7LdHL ) orreported Canadian jurisdictionminimumwageof$10.5perhourworked fulltimefor (1.8 percentofthesample) whomisreportedearningsaslessthanthelowest 28. For ourregressionestimates,weremove fromthesample368individuals . y large y large

Full-time workers onlyareincludedinthesample. 44. Thesamplewaspulledfrom Glassdoor’ssalarydatabaseonMarch1,2019. total compensationfiguresdue topotentiallylargeunderreportingbias. for totalcompensationasanillustration only. We suggest cautionininterpreting 43. AswithU.S. salarydata,wefocusonbasepay inouranalysis,andprovide figures 42. Source:EuropeanUnion’s Eurostat,athttps://bit.ly/2UbpX3M. expressed inannualtermsassuminga2,000-hourfull-timeworkyear. affect any estimatesinthisstudy. Allsalariesreportedashourly wagesare €10,000,000 totalpay peryear. Includingtheseindividualsdoesnotmaterially ly/2HUXB7l) orreportedearningstotalingover €5,000,000basepay peryear or minimum wageforfulltimeworkers, or€17,000peryear (Source: https://bit. percent ofthesample) misreportingearningsaslessthanthe2016Germany 41. For ourregressionestimates,weremove fromthesample84individuals(1.8 Full-time workers onlyareincludedinthesample. 40. ThesamplewaspulledfromGlassdoor’ssalarydatabaseonMarch1,2019. total compensationfiguresduetopotentiallylargeunderreportingbias. for totalcompensationasanillustration only. We suggestcautionininterpreting 39. AswithU.S. salarydata,wefocusonbasepay inouranalysis,andprovide figures 38. Source:GermanFederal StatisticalOffice(Destatis),athttps://bit.ly/2HF19eI . a 2,000-hourfull-timeworkyear. study. Allsalariesreportedashourlywagesareexpressed inannualtermsassuming year. Includingtheseindividualsdoesnotmateriallyaffectany estimatesinthis year ortotalingover $5,000,000basepay peryear or$10,000,000totalpay per percent ofthesample) whoreportedearningstotalingunder$2,000basepay per 37. For ourregressionestimates,weremove fromthesample2individuals(.04 Full-time workers onlyareincludedinthesample. 36. ThesamplewaspulledfromGlassdoor’ssalarydatabaseonMarch1,2019.

77 PROGRESS ON THE GENDER PAY GAP: 2019 equally likely toaskforraises. (2012) andArtz,GoodallOswald(2018)findthatmen womenare are lesslikely toaskforraises. Incontrast, GerhartandRynes(1989),Belliveau 50. BabcockandLaschever (2003)andBowlesetal.(2007)findthatwomen annual termsassuminga2,000-hourfull-timeworkyear. any estimatesinthisstudy. Allsalariesreportedashourly wages areexpressed in at minimum wageof€18,444peryear (Source:InternationalLabourOrganization, percent ofthesample) misreportingearningsaslessthanthe2016Netherlands 49. For ourregressionestimates,weremove fromthesample48individuals(1.9 Full-time workers onlyareincludedinthesample. 48. ThesamplewaspulledfromGlassdoor’ssalarydatabaseonMarch1,2019. underreporting bias. caution ininterpretingtotalcompensationfiguresduetopotentiall provide figuresfortotalcompensationasanillustration only. We suggest 47. AswithU.S. salarydata,wefocusonbasepay inouranalysis,and 46. Source:EuropeanUnion’s Eurostat,athttps://bit.ly/2UbpX3M. in annualtermsassuminga2,000-hourfull-timeworkyear. any estimatesinthisstudy. Allsalariesreportedashourlywagesareexpressed at per year (Source:France NationalInstituteofStatisticsandEconomicStudies, minimum wageof€9.67perhourworked at 2,000hoursperyear, or€19,340 (3.9 percentofthesample) misreportingearningsaslessthanthe2016France 45. For ourregressionestimates,weremove fromthesample134individuals https://bit.ly/2Yo9NmY ). Includingtheseindividualsdoesnotmateriallyaffect https://bit.ly/2BSiWYI ). Includingtheseindividualsdoesnotmateriallyaffect

y large

differences, seeChamberlain(2015) 52. For anoverview ofresearch onhowsalarytransparency affectsgenderpay more accurate salaryinformationmay, infact,helpequalizesalaryexpectations. comparators morethanmenwhichmay propagatepay gapsand,thus,suggestthat (2014) foundthatwomenrelyoninformationfromsame-sex rolemodelsor estimate istoovaguetobeuseful.Incontrast, Schweitzer, Lyons, KuronandNg level salaryestimatedidnotclosethe gap,butwearguethatanindustry-level close thesalaryconfidencegap.Martin(1989)foundthatproviding anindustry- 51. Past researchhassuggestedsalarytransparency alonemay notbesufficientto 78 About Glassdoor

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