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Integrated Pest Management in the Small Farmer's Maize Crop in Nicaragua

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Integrated Pest Management in the Small Farmer's Maize Crop in Nicaragua 633.15:632.93:632.78(728.5) MEDEDELINGEN LANDBOUWHOGESCHOOL WAGENINGEN • NEDERLAND »81-6(1981) INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT IN THE SMALL FARMER'S MAIZE CROP IN NICARAGUA A. VAN HUIS Department of Entomology, Agricultural University, Wageningen, The Netherlands (received 4-IM981) H. VEENMAN & ZONEN B.V.-WAGENINGEN-l 981 CENTRALE LANDBOUWCATALOGUS - £ 0000 0163 9653 Mededelingen Landbouwhogeschool Wageningen 81-6 (1981) (Communications Agricultural University) is also published as a thesis CONTENTS LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS 1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1 1.1. Agriculture in Nicaragua 1 1.1.1. Agropolitics 1 1.1.2. Agricultural services 4 1.1.3. Foodgrain production 4 1.1.4. Small farmers and insecticides 8 1.1.5. Adaptive research 10 1.2. Integrated pest control project 12 1.2.1. History 12 1.2.2. Project activities 12 1.2.3. Research program 13 2. MAIZE AND THE ARTHROPOD PESTS 15 2.1. Themaizecrop 15 2.2. Arthropod pests 16 2.2.1. Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith) 16 2.2.2. Diatraea lineolata (Wlk.) 18 2.2.3. Other maize pests 21 3. AGROECOLOGY OF MAIZE PESTS 23 3.1. Oviposition by D. lineolata and S.frugiperda on maize 23 3.1.1. Stage of plant development 23 3.1.1.1. Introduction .' 23 3.1.1.2. Material and methods (Exp. A I) 24 3.1.1.3. Results and discussion 25 3.1.2. Alternative host (sorghum), fertilizer and bean intercropping 35 3.1.2.1. Introduction 35 3.1.2.2. Material and methods (Exp. A II) 35 3.1.2.3. Results and discussion 36 3.1.3. Summary and conclusions 38 3.2. Abundance of pest insects in maize-bean polycultures 39 3.2.1. Literature 39 3.2.1.1. Polycultures 39 3.2.1.2. Pest abundance in polycultures 40 3.2.2. Introduction 42 3.2.2.1. Experimental site 42 3.2.2.2. Maize-bean intercropping 43 3.2.3. Material and methods 43 3.2.3.1. Experiment BI 43 3.2.3.2. Experiment BII 46 3.2.3.3. Experiment BII I 46 3.2.3.4. Experiment BIV 47 3.2.3.5. Experiment BV 47 3.2.4. Results and discussion 47 3.2.4.1. Yield and plant development 47 3.2.4.2. S.frugiperda and D. lineolata in maize 53 3.2.4.3. Bean pests 58 3.2.4.4. Oviposition by S.frugiperda and D. lineolata 58 3.2.4.5. Aerial dispersal of 5.frugiperda larvae and planting system 60 3.2.4.5.1. Wind direction 60 3.2.4.5.2. Planting system 61 3.2.4.6. Predators and parasites 63 3.2.5. Summary and conclusions 67 3.3. Abundance of insect pests in maize-weed polycultures 68 3.3.1. Introduction 68 3.3.2. Material and methods 68 3.3.2.1. Experiment CI 68 3.3.2.2. Experimentell 70 3.3.3. Results and discussion 70 3.3.3.1. Yield and plant development 70 3.3.3.2. Maize insects 70 3.3.3.3. S.frugiperda in weeds 73 3.3.3.4. Oviposition by S.frugiperda 76 3.3.3.5. Predators and parasites 77 3.3.4. Summary and conclusions 82 3.4. Natural mortality of S.frugiperda and D. lineolata in maize 83 3.4.1. Parasites 83 3.4.1.1. Introduction 83 3.4.1.2. Material and methods 85 3.4.1.3. Results and discussion 85 3.4.2. Predators 93 3.4.2.1. General 93 3.4.2.2. Earwigs as predators of S.frugiperda 93 3.4.2.2.1. Literature 94 3.4.2.2.2. Material and methods (Exp. D) 94 3.4.2.2.3. Results and discussion 95 3.4.3. Rainfall and larval mortality of 5.frugiperda 96 3.4.3.1. Introduction 96 3.4.3.2. Material and methods (Exp. E) 97 3.4.3.3. Results and discussion 97 3.4.4. Summary and conclusions 99 ASPECTS OF CROP LOSS ASSESSMENT IN MAIZE FOR S. FRUGIPERDA AND D. LINEOLATA 101 4.1. S.frugiperda and D. lineolata: damage to maize using different fertilizer levels and plant densities 101 4.1.1. Introduction 101 4.1.2. Literature 101 4.1.3. Material and methods (Exp. F) 103 4.1.4. Results and discussion 104 4.1.4.1. Whorl protection and insect injury 105 4.1.4.2. Yield and plant development 108 4.1.4.3. Fertilizer, plant density and insect injury Ill 4.1.5. Summary and conclusions 115 4.2. S.frugiperda: simulated leaf injury and plant sensitivity at various whorl stages 116 4.2.1. Introduction 116 4.2.2. Material and methods (Exp. G) 117 4.2.3. Results and discussion 118 4.2.4. Summary and conclusions 121 4.3. S.frugiperda: Sensitivity of maize to whorl injury at various growth stages and soil moisture stress 122 4.3.1. Introduction 122 4.3.2. Literature 123 4.3.3. Material and methods (Exp. H) 123 4.3.4. Results and discussion 123 4.3.4.1. Plant sensitivity at various whorl stages 126 4.3.4.2. The effect of whorl protection under soil moisture stress 126 4.3.4.3. The effect of irrigation on whorl infestation 129 4.3.5. Summary and conclusions 131 4.4. D.lineolata : yield and plant development ofartificiall y infested maizecult ivars . Methods of loss assessment 131 4.4.1. Introduction 131 4.4.2. Material and methods 135 4.4.2.1. Experiments J 135 4.4.2.2. Statistical analyses 135 4.4.2.2.1. Correlation 136 4.4.2.2.2. Regression 138 4.4.3. Results and discussion 139 4.4.3.1. Physiological damage and anatomy of the plant 139 4.4.3.2. Between-plots analysis 142 4.4.3.3. Within-plots analysis 144 4.4.3.3.1. Variety Nic-Synt-2: infestation at whorl stage 144 4.4.3.3.2. Variety Nic-Synt-2: infestatio n at silking stage 151 4.4.3.3.3. Hybrid X-105-A: natural infestation after tasseling 155 4.4.3.3.4. Hybrid X-105-A: midwhorl infestation 157 4.4.4. Summary and general discussion 160 4.4.4.1. Methods of crop loss assessment 160 4.4.4.2. The effect of borer variables 161 4.4.4.3. The effect of feeding site 162 4.4.4.4. Tunneling activity 162 4.4.4.5. Yield loss 163 CONTROL OF S. FRUGIPERDA AND D. LINEOLATA 166 5.1. Chemical control of S. frugiperda: evaluation of insecticides, economic thresholds, selective applications and timing 166 5.1.1. Introduction 166 5.1.2. Control of S.frugiperda and the effect on D. lineolata 168 5.1.2.1. Material and methods (Exp. K I) 168 5.1.2.2. Results and discussion 171 5.1.2.2.1. Programmed applications 171 5.1.2.2.2. Economic thresholds for S.frugiperda and carbofuran applied at sowing . 174 5.1.2.2.3. Mefosfolan and chlorpyrifos 174 5.1.2.2.4. Chemical control after tasseling 175 5.1.2.2.5. Chemical control and yield: regressio n analysis 176 5.1.2.2.6. Economic analysis 176 5.1.3. Chemical control appropriate to small farmer's conditions 178 5.1.3.1. Material and methods (Exp. K.II ) 178 5.1.3.2. Results and discussion 178 5.1.3.2.1. Insecticide treatments 180 5.1.3.2.2. Economic thresholds 180 5.1.3.2.3. Selective application 180 5.1.4. Soil applied to the whorl as a control method against 5.frugiperda .... 182 5.1.4.1. Material and methods (Exp. K III) 182 5.1.4.2. Results and discussion 182 5.1.5. Summary and conclusions 184 5.2. Biological control 185 5.2.1. Introduction of parasites 185 5.2.2. Parasite inundation 187 5.2.3. Microbial control 187 5.3. Host plant resistance 188 6. INTEGRATION OF CONTROL STRATEGIES (A SUMMARY) 189 6.1. General 189 6.2. Crop loss assessment and economic threshold 190 6.3. Natural mortality factors 192 6.4 Pesticides and their selective usage 193 6.5. Cultural control 194 6.6. Biological and varietal control 196 6.7. Development and implementation of integrated pest management .... 196 ABSTRACT 198 RESUMEN 200 SAMENVATTING 203 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 206 REFERENCES 207 APPENDIX 218 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS Statistics ** highly significant (P (= probability level) ^.01) * significant (P ^.05) + weakly significant (P^.10) NS not significant (P> .10 ) Thesymbol s **,*,+,an d NS,use di ntable san d figures,relat et oeffect s (F-test), differences of contrasts from zero, differences between means, in analysis of variance, regression analysis and other test procedures. arcsin Jx arcsine transformation (arc in radians) of fraction x ß standardized regression coefficient (Nie et al., 1975) df number of degrees of freedom r correlation coefficient (Pearson) R2 squared multiple correlation coefficient (proportion of variation explained by the variables in the regression equation; Nie et al., 1975) RFSC regression factor structurecoefficien t (Cooley and Lohnes, 1971) SD standard deviation SPSS Statistical Package for the Social Sciences; a system of computer programmes (Nie et al., 1975) v.c. variation coefficient Measures cm centimetre ha hectare 1 litre m metre mm millimetre s seconds Technical terms insecticide EC emulsifiable concentrate G granular SP soluble powder a.i. active ingredients IPM Integrated Pest Management Organizations BCN Banco Central de Nicaragua BNN Banco Nacional de Nicaragua CIBC Commonwealth Institute of Biological Control CIMMYT Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo, El Batân, Mexico CONAL Comisión Nacional del Algodón, Managua DIPSA Dirección Nacional de Planificación Sectorial Agropecuaria, Managua FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome IAN Instituto Agrario de Nicaragua ICTA Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnologia Agricolas Guatemala INCEI InstitutoNaciona l deComerci o Exterior yInterior , Managua INTA Instituto Nicaragüense de Tecnologia Agropecuaria INVIERNO Instituto Nicaragüense de Bienestar Campesino IRRI International Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines MAG Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia, Managua OECD Organization ofEconomi cCooperatio n and Development, Paris PCCMCA Programa Cooperativo Centroamericana para el Mejoramiento de Cultivos Alimenticios PNUD Programa de Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo (= UNDP) UNASEC Unidad de Analysis Sectorial (since 1975: DIPSA) UNDP United Nations Development Program, New York UNEP United Nations Environmental Program, Nairobi USA United States of America 1.
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