INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION IN THE USE OF ELITE MILITARY FORCES TO COUNTER TERRORISM: THE BRITISH AND AMERICAN EXPERIENCE, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THEIR RESPECTIVE EXPERIENCES IN THE EVOLUTION OF LOW-INTENSITY OPERATIONS BY JOSEPH PAUL DE BOUCHERVILLE TAILLON A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY THE LONDON SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS AND POLITICAL SCIENCE LONDON, ENGLAND, 1992 UMI Number: U615541 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI U615541 Published by ProQuest LLC 2014. Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 F 7 0 XJl\lbj6S3 ABSTRACT J. Paul de B. Taillon "International Co-operation in the Employment of Elite Military Forces to Counter-Terrorism: The British and American Experience With Special Reference to Their Respective Experiences in the Evolution of Low-Intensity Operations." This thesis examines the employment of elite military forces in low-intensity and counter-terrorist operations, and in particular, placing the principal emphasis on the aspect of international co-operation in the latter. The experiences of Great Britain and the United States in such operations are the main elements of the discussion, reflecting their heavy involvement in such operations. However, to analyze the experiences of those two countries out of context would be difficult and would distort the perceptions of the problems and desiderata as they evolved historically. Therefore, a survey of contemporary international terrorism, and the reaction to it, is also incorporated within the body of this paper. The British and American sections of the thesis begin by addressing their respective military experiences in the wider realm of low-intensity operations before dealing specifically with modern counter-terrorism. Equally necessary, for a balanced perspective, is the inclusion of the Israeli and West German experience in counter-terrorism? this is briefly addressed in two short case studies on Entebbe and Mogadishu. The main Anglo-American focus of the study gives primary importance to the development and doctrine for the employment of special forces, as well as an analysis of more recent low-intensity and counter-terrorism operations, such as the 1980 Iranian embassy siege in London and the failure that same year of the American hostage rescue attempt in Tehran. At this point this thesis attempts to identify and highlight those key aspects of co-operation at an international level which have, at least in part, been the sine qua non of successful counter-terrorist operations in the past and seem to be destined to remain so in the future. While it will be shown that international co-operation is essential in the areas of intelligence, exchanges and attachments between counter-terrorist forces, 'forward-basing' in relevant countries, as well as the acquisition of secure internal and external communications, it will also be argued, nonetheless, that the historical experience and state interest of different countries makes such co-operation more difficult than might appear at first sight. All of these, however, are impossible without the political will on the part of potential co-operating governments to undertake such initiatives. Particularly when one considers the very delicate nature of elite counter-terrorist force employment and the potential for embarrassment which is inherent in their activities and, therefore, cannot always be taken for granted. The findings of this study suggest that such co-operation can indeed provide significant advantages when low-intensity operations call for a response including 'the final option' — the employment of elite counter-terrorist forces. Also clear from this analysis is that the greatest progress in such international co-operation is likely to come from joint activities by countries having a similarly heightened sense of the threat which also implies that they share a common Sociology* in their view of these historical developments. INTRODUCTION This thesis proposes to demonstrate that terrorism in its current form has resulted in government and military reactions which, when successful, are often so because of the high degree of co-operation with other countries. In addition it appears from this research that elite forces, organized, armed, trained and structured for the counter-terrorist role can be, in such circumstances as the hostage-takings and aircraft hijackings included here, the most effective arm of such governments in dealing with terrorism. In this regard an overview of the development of terrorism is included, particularly its late twentieth-century expression in aerial-hijacking and hostage-taking. Accompanying this is a definitional section as well as a look at governmental reactions to the phenomenon. A second chapter addresses the spread of terrorism onto the international scene and the ways governments have reacted to this type of warfare. That is to say warfare by which the weak wage a ruthless war against the strong. In order to underscore the international aspects of this response to terrorism two short case studies are included. Also discussed in detail are the experiences of Great Britain and the United States in low-intensity conflict up to their most recent and notable counter-terrorist operations. Terrorism is not a specific phenomenon: it is a part of a continuum embracing low-intensity conflict, subversion and guerrilla warfare tactics to acts of spectacular violence designed to make a political rather than a military point. Similarly, counter-terrorist operations are also a part of a continuum and are employed appropriately and concomitantly as required by the authorities to meet each of these eventualities. Furthermore, the employment of elite military forces is a political decision and depends upon, for the most part, the appropriateness of their use within the national and international context. Based on these extended studies of British and American involvement in low-intensity conflict — particularly the terrorist dimension — the following conclusions are drawn: the importance of intelligence gathering and dissemination, the creation and organization and training of counter-terrorist forces, the requirement for forward-basing of these forces during international incidents, and the nature of the pre-crisis co-operation between the countries concerned are stark necessities if a counter-terrorist action is to be successful on the contemporary scene. All the issues identified above, including the technical and operational aspects of the problem, fit within an all encompassing factor of inter-governmental co-operation in the struggle against terrorist activity. The problem of maintaining the national will to co-operate in the face of all political costs lies behind the failure to advance in what might be considered full security co-operation. Elite forces may then epitomize the national resolve to combat terrorism. This does not mean, however, that governments will consider the terrorist threat so serious that they would risk open co-operation with regimes with which they feel they have little in common. It is not even certain that given the risks incurred by states in attempting to combat terrorism, that they will co-operate with their allies. However, in the end, it is the national will of governments to assist their friends and allies that has occasioned a number of successful counter-terrorist operations executed by elite military forces. TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Chapter I - AN OVERVIEW OF TERRORISM Section I - The Use of Terrorism for Political Objectives 1 Section II - An Historical Perspective on Terrorism 11 Section III - The Pre-1972 Response to Terrorism 20 Section IV - The Nature of Current Terrorist Activities and Governmental Response 52 Chapter II - INTERNATIONAL ASPECTS OF COUNTER-TERRORISM Section I - Terrorism as an International Phenomenon in Recent History 61 Section II - The Counter-Terrorist Reaction 66 Chapter III - THE ROLE OF ELITE FORCES IN COUNTER TERRORISM THE BRITISH EXPERIENCE Section I - An Historical Perspective 138 Section II - Historical Overview of British Special Forces 179 Section III - 'Operation NIMROD' The Iranian Embassy Siege — London 30 April- 5 May 1980 205 Chapter IV - THE ROLE OF ELITE FORCES IN COUNTER TERRORISM THE AMERICAN EXPERIENCE Section I - An Historical Perspective 229 Section II - Historical Overview of US Special Forces 270 Section III - 'Operation EAGLE CLAW' - Delta's Raid Into Iran 304 Chapter V - FINAL CONSIDERATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS 332 CONCLUSIONS 361 BIBLIOGRAPHY 365 APPENDIX I _ tOperation NIMROD' APPENDIX II - International Terrorists Incidents, 1990 APPENDIX III - The Pattern of Revolutionary Warfare APPENDIX IV - Graphs CHAPTER I AN OVERVIEW OF TERRORISM Section I The Use of Terrorism for Political Objectives Man has always had to frighten adversaries, whether they were animals or other human beings. To survive, he tried to instill the fear of pain or death in his enemies.