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The Handbook of Psycholinguistic and Cognitive Processes Perspectives in Communication Disorders Jackie Guendouzi, Filip Loncke, Mandy J. Williams

Language Processing in Normal Aging

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9780203848005.ch3 Lise Abrams, Meagan T. Farrell Published online on: 07 Sep 2010

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Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:34 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780203848005, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203848005.ch3 sequent decades, a number of theoretical explanations have of to anumber theoretical proposed decades, sequent been twothe sub- In time. that at findings of empirical number tothe comparison in (1988)Salthouse of was cognitive apaucity of there suggested theories aging that AGING COGNITIVE OF THEORIES older with adults. tocommunicate suggestions ability the for enhancing and research conclude for some with own discussionfuture about directions our We conversational use in settings. well language as as language written and oral old in processing age,language covering comprehension of production both and disc chapter of the remainder ing. The of theories review abrief with of begins chapter comprehension This production. language and cognitive older in adults’ toimpairments lead that circumstances the and lying language aging, cognitive focus under- onthe processes older healthy in aparticular with adults, as they relate specifically (e.g., span life the across occur Verhaeghen, 2003). to that positive of vocabulary are aging,in such consistentthere as aspects increases language process-Meneer, &Trovato, 1994). negative as ofismisleading, This perception aging Ryan, 2004; Ryan, See, Kemper &Lacal, 2004; &Bonnesen, Garstka, Hummert, (e.g., speaker the and listener the from adults’ both Cohen,1994; competence, one’s aconversation negative result in can during of name perceptions older for some- older For retrieving example, adults’ tocommunicate. difficulty ability consequences nonetheless suchthey aphasia, have as disorders clinical important in found the profoundimpairments language than much less significant are difficul- ties these Although 1990). Twohig, & Lovelace (e.g., adults older by reported difficulties language frustrating somemost ofnoticeableproblems and the are itprehending (e.g., Burke, MacKay, word-retrieval particular, &James, 2000). In tocom- compared difficulties when producing language adults experience greater emerges, where older pattern asymmetric an specific ways.only in In general, or universally of language processing the affects aging whether been has study ofcorequestions recentyears. One the in under of interesttoresearchers area an Older been adults’ has toperceive, language ability produce and comprehend, INTRODUCTION The purpose of this chapter is to review the literature on language processing processing onlanguage istoreview chapter literature of this the purpose The 3 Lise Abrams and Meagan T. Farrell in Normal Aging Processing Language usses research-based findings regarding regarding findings usses research-based 49 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:34 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780203848005, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203848005.ch3 given below. evidence are empirical some corresponding and ofBrief descriptions each theory chapter, relevance we specifically. processing their have tolanguage highlighted of this of cognition besidesbutapply for language, aspects purposes toother the can processing. Generally,explain language age-related changes theories in these 50 1998). to haveinhibition some used age-related with explain been also Difficulties (e.g.,ing Connelly, Hasher, 1991; &Zacks, Li,Hasher, Jonas, May, &Rahhal, read- during information distracting visually ignoring havealso difficulty greater words (e.g.,sounding 1996; 1999). Sommers, &Danielson, Sommers Older adults Tun, O’Kane, &Wingfield,from 2002)there iscompetitionsimilar- or when ornoise ispresentspeech (e.g., Pichora-Fuller, 1995; Schneider, &Daneman, background when speech understanding difficulty older havingas greater adults older in adults’ comprehension and perception of such language, impairments deficits Inhibition have interference. to creates used thus explain been various memory, working into is not and deleted, entry gains irrelevant information of that consequence older is adults’ processes main inefficientinhibitory The leaves and enters that sible memory. working information the for regulating respon- which1988). are processes, weakensinhibitory theory, aging this In deficitinhibition theory (e.g., Hasher, Lustig, 2007; Zacks, Zacks, & & Hasher explanation comes for from processing Another language age-related changes in I digit span. and span including reading measures, span memory working ity were positively traditional with correlated complex- (2001) Sumner and several of that grammatical measures reported Swinney, Wingfield,Zurif, & Prather, Brownell, 1995). For example, Kemper 2001;Kemper, &Marquis, Thompson, Obler, 1991; Fein,Nicholas, &Albert, (e.g., Kemper, 1987, 1992; Kemper&Kemtes, 1999; Kemper&Sumner, 2001; content difficult orsemantically comprehensiontion and of complex grammar memory, onworking dependent produc- such the are as that tasks language with deficits in old age,of memory working difficulty dohaveolderadults greater able concurrently. toprocess are they cause Regardlessof that the information of amount the constrains system,turn which in language of networks the the have less efficient processing, such as slower spreading of activationthroughout (e.g., capacity view, 2002).sarily this In older &Christiansen, adults MacDonald efficiencymemory, byin processing changes in working not neces- accompanied (e.g.,time 1983; Craik, 1991). Salthouse, is aging viewpoint isthat alternative An held be atagiven can that capacity, of information memory amount working the 1986). suggest older Some that theorists in adultssuffer overall decreases cognitive(e.g., we as tasks perform information manipulates and Baddeley, holds temporarily system that memory isalimited-capacity Working memory W NHIBITION The Handbook of Psycholinguistic and Cognitive Processes Cognitive and ofPsycholinguistic Handbook The ORKING M D EMORY EFICITS Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:34 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780203848005, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203848005.ch3 G Arbuckle, & Schwartzman, 1988). Gold, Andres, is off-topic 2000; (e.g., &Pushkar, Nohara-LeClair, Arbuckle, deficits production,in language suchas that older adults producing more speech Aging inNormal Processing Language Abrams, 2007). (e.g., errors ing &Stanley, Abrams MacKay 2004; 1998; &Abrams, & Margolin (e.g., slips tongue offrequent the spell- MacKay increased &James, 2004), and (e.g., Burke, MacKay, Worthley, &Wade, 1991; 2002), &Abrams, more White aword toproduce despite its knowing inability meaning atemporary experiences, (TOT) tip-of-the-tongue in increase age-associated an comesHypothesis from Deficit Transmission of the support Evidence in form. phonological/orthographic representationof aword’s semantic the tions between word’s the and meaning deficits because toage-relatedit relies transmission vulnerable on single connec- systems particularly network of leaves the phonological orthographic ture the and architec- nodes. between The of activation amount istransmitted and that speed 1997; MacKay 1996; &Abrams, MacKay &Burke, 1990),the which influences network &MacKay, (Burke entire the throughout degraded gradually becomes 1998).Abrams, nodes these between of connections people age, As strength the system for(MacKay, spellings orthographic 1987; an for and sounds, MacKay & system aphonological for system asemantic systems, word including meanings, multiple into network separated avastly nodesin tion as isstored interconnected representations (e.g., relative well-preserved adulthood, ally late into tophonological orthographic and Burke et al., actu- are retrieval, processing, representationsand of namely language semantic 2000). In this framework, aspects processing, where certain effectonlanguage of aging asymmetric the linguistic informa- to explain mechanism Transmissionthe most Deficit specific The offers Hypothesis T (e.g.,tasks 1985). Salthouse, onamuch toexplain of range older used broader cognitive adults’are performance generally they slowing havegeneral tasks, tosome applied language theories been to help resolve Although (e.g., 2006). ambiguity &Harm, MacDonald, Dagerman, comprehension,sentence information useof contextual the such in areduction as deficits to havespeed some used explain been of also olderadults’ difficulties with Processing Lowe, & 1985). Lombardi, Poon, Wingfield, (e.g.,1996; Wingfield, suchtasks, as comprehension speech adults’ of speeded deficitstime-limited in 1996). have toexplain speed processing used older in Age-related been declines slowmay too be agiven (e.g., in of atask time toaccomplish amount Salthouse, atwhich older execute speed adults the cognitive speed, processing operations, Myerson, Wagstaff, Hale, 1990; Poon, &Smith, 2000). Salthouse, Specifically, duetoslowing are ing of component processes of slowing general process- age-related deficitsin language that Theories propose RANSMISSION ENERAL S LOWING D EFICIT H YPOTHESIS

(e.g., 1965; Birren, Cerella,1985; 51 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:34 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780203848005, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203848005.ch3 effect oninput-side some deficits although doemerge. processes, level. tohaveword, discourse sentence, and appears aless Aging deleterious comprehension and letters atthe and sounds refer of perception speech tothe James &MacKay,et al., 2000; We 2007). input which on focus processes, first of input- (Burke tooutput-side comparison processes by the language strated isclassically demon- abilities linguistic in asymmetry age-linked This process. the cognitiveby aging corrupted significantly capacities are other adulthood, late oreven most of improved throughout maintained are functions some language while for ofobservation that toaccount cognitive the need theories aging Current LANGUAGE COMPREHENSION 52 talker (e.g.,talker 1997; Sommers, 1999; & Danielson, Sommers Tun &Wingfield, 1999), relative atonce 2003),Peelle, &Grossman, toasingle multiple people talking &Fitzgibbons, 1999;Gordon-Salant Wingfield, Stine, & Poon, 1986; Wingfield, et al., 1995; Tun, 1998; Tun & Wingfield, 1999), accelerated rates speaking (e.g., hension, noise (e.g., such background as 1997; &Frisina, Frisina Pichora-Fuller compre- and for perception successful required of resources amount the increase For example, conditions that older listening show under adults declines exacerbated older that experience. adults of impairment degree the comprehension determines and perception onspeech cognitive the demands ordecreasing increasing that ing for areview). 2008, Sommers, view show- for studies comes Support from this (see processing spokenhave in language toexplain age proposed differences been earlier, such as working memory capacity, processingWingfield & 2001). Tun, described resources speed,in processing reductions Specifically, or inhibitory control, (e.g., 1988; CHABA, 1997; &Frisina, Frisina Schneider &Pichora-Fuller, 2000; processing spoken language in impairments toage-related contribute may also emerge, suggesting higher-level still that sometimes differences cognitive deficits words, situations and (e.g., evensounds listening ideal in Humes,1996). identification topoorer lead individual changesof can age-related auditory These (e.g., 1988; CHABA, 1997; 1997; Cheesman, &Frisina, 1991). Frisina Willott, cusis, or loss by frequencies of the higher loss characterized hearing pure-tone by presby- accompanied system, isfrequently where aging auditory the in occur declines 1998). perceptual and Steenbekkers, 2002; sensory Scialfa, Similar text (e.g., words reading and recognizing Legge, Ross, &Schuebel, Akutsu, 1991; of accuracy and speed the processing, such in areduction for language as visual (e.g., retina to the 2002). Scialfa, changes vision in These have consequences 1999), &Skaloud, transmitted light (e.g., Pratt, reduced and Hamaluk, Scialfa, eyeNavarro, 1993), saccadic ofmovements voluntary accuracy the in areduction ence declines deficits.vision, to With respect olderadults perceptual and experi- sensory in visual cause of deficitsA common in olderadults’ comprehension is of language acuity, retinalS blurring (e.g., Artal, Ferro, Miranda, & ENSORY The Handbook of Psycholinguistic and Cognitive Processes Cognitive and ofPsycholinguistic Handbook The However, ability, age onhearing when younger equated older and are adults /P ERCEPTUAL V ERSUS C OGNITIVE D EFICITS Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:34 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780203848005, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203848005.ch3 MacKay 1996; &Miller, 2000). Wingfield,Goodglass, Lindfield, & Koh, &Rosen, 1999), isprovided (e.g., information syntactic orwhenand prosodic Tun, Wingfield, 1999; Ducharme, slower& (e.g., are Wingfield rates speaking when 1999;Danielson, Wingfield, & Stine, Aberdeen, 1991; 2000), & Sommers, Yonan contextstic (e.g., 1997; &Frisina, etal., 1995; Frisina Pichora-Fuller & Sommers speech perception is improved by presenting words in highly predictive or seman- younger moresothan adults. For often example,adults’ older performance, adults’ older offacilitate cognitive processing spoken the language demands reduce that (e.g., talkers Yonanor unfamiliar 2000). Conversely, &Sommers, circumstances Aging inNormal Processing Language no change in their ability to process and organize the meanings of words. meanings The the organize and toprocess ability no their change in or little tobe ableolder seems tocomprehend are lexical adults items,there James &MacKay, 2007). words ornot (e.g., actual itemsare presented decisionsas visually about whether such stimuli, of linguistic decisions lexical status about the making in accurate 1984;if not more &Wingfield, Stine equally are olderadults 1994). Furthermore, tosingle-word prior sentences related comprehension (e.g., tasks Burke &Yee, Similarly,rable for younger older and (see adults Laver &Burke, 1993 for ameta-analysis). both age-groups(e.g., iscompa- prime semantic the TABLE), offrom facilitation degree the and (e.g., prime related by word asemantically unrelated toan NURSE), compared benefit word atarget (e.g., faster toidentify are Individuals DOCTOR) when it is equivalently preceded Yonelinas, 2004). &Abrams, Lazzara, &Ober, 2003; Tree White 2002; &Hirsh, from1987; Faust, & Multhaup, Howard, Balota, 2004; McAndrews, 1981; &Lasaga, exposure (e.g.,adults Watson, 1999; Balota, &Diaz, &Ferraro, Duchek, Burke, White, to contextuallyas younger degree the same at to least benefit priming the of semantic rience older network, have that expe- semantic adults the in demonstrated organized and &Light, 2006). Thornton olderamong single-word atleast atthe adults, level (e.g., Burke &MacKay, 1997; knowledge, many aspects of language comprehension markedly remain intact semantic onto existing information linguistic current tolink rely ability onthe 2008; Kemper, 1992; Sincelexical &Light, input-type processes 2006). Thornton of cognition (e.g., domains other in observed Burke &Shafto, Burke etal., 2000; knowledge, toresist age-related semantic the served which appears degradation may ableadults be toemploy useof pre- make effective that strategies top-down 1986; 1999;Craik, 2008). &Kramer, Humphrey Sommers, Alternatively, older cognitive and changes sensory, (e.g., tooffset their perceptual, strategy pensatory acom- cuesas contextual and may useof ableadults be environmental tomake (e.g.,of settings One that explanationolder is 2006). WingfieldGrossman, & avariety in communicate tosuccessfully ability an olderhealthy maintain adults of majority loss cognitive the additive and Despite the declines, of effects hearing W ORD In sum, although age-related sensory declines restrict the speed with which with speed the restrict declines age-related sensory although sum, In processed how are word which examine meanings studies, priming Semantic -L EVEL C OMPREHENSION 53 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:34 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780203848005, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203848005.ch3 S most of adulthood. togrow throughout which continues network, adensesemantic and vocabulary of product asuperior the likely are consistently that perform olderthese comprehensionadults well on findings tasks 54 during reading because they are able to utilize existing knowledge existing able when forming toutilize are they because reading during comprehension textbase and information. and formemory surface & Zwaan, 2003; Radvansky, 2001), &Copeland, Zwaan, Curiel, despite impaired Morrow, Stine-Morrow, 1997; Andrassy, Leirer, &Kahn, Radvansky, Copeland, (e.g., reading during situation necessary models as update and tions of discourse representa- mental toconstruct ability intact an Olderconcepts. demonstrate adults multiple explicitly links meaning text provided and semantic the in the captures base of next sentences. At the level, structure text- of syntactic the words the and meaning Stine-Morrow exist reader’s of independent and the data-driven which are knowledgetations, (e.g., et al., 2008). 1998). from Radvansky, differ models Situation Surface-level (e.g.,tures 1983; vanDijk &Kintsch, Zwaan, &Graesser, Magliano, 1995; Zwaan & representations knowledge preexisting with struc- information textual the wellas toincorporate as consist development, theme and space, character and time in shifts about the information of the individual toinclude reading while updated constantly resentation oftext. and It the iscreated comprehension Areader’s of discourse. the deficits knowledge processing during semantic tocounteract and vocabulary rior older ability. adultsmay reading ablesupe- be in usetheir a decline Furthermore, memory in episodic (e.g.,reflect age-related declines and not 2008) & Burke Shafto, comprehension in text; aresult,may older as moreaccurately adults’ impairments 2009). &Abrams, age with (Margolin to increase comprehension sentence do not seem negation processing with during difficulties However, al., 1999). et (e.g., Wingfield memory working on demands the offset to 1997; etal., 1995) order in prefer Zurif and chunks text segmenting smaller into (e.g., sentences ambiguous Kemper, Crow, Kemtes &Kemtes, &Kemper, 2004; complex tosyntactically text. aresult, morevulnerable As the older or adultsare it acohesive previously with ordertocreate in representation of material read integrating input and linguistic current processing comprehensioncourse requires Stine-Morrow, &Hertzog, 2008). Miller, Gagne, Soederberg dis- and Sentence (e.g., memory 2009; 2007; &Abrams, Margolin Borella, Beni, &Carretti, De working component cognitive in like todeclines processes largely attributed been Wingfield2006; & Stine-Morrow,in comprehension 2000). differences Age have 2001; reviews also see &Light, Kemper, by Thornton Burke 2008 &Shafto, 2006; retention longer of and sentences texts (e.g., 2003; Johnson, Kemper&Sumner, level comprehension, comprehension older in adultsdoshow and impairment word- in level. pattern observed discourse hension the and sentence atthe Unlike issomewhat picture morecomplexThe when older considering adults’ compre- ENTENCE The Handbook of Psycholinguistic and Cognitive Processes Cognitive and ofPsycholinguistic Handbook The Older adults may actually depend more on self-constructed situation models moreonself-constructed depend Older may adults actually Most rely research comprehension in for onreaders’ used measures memory the

AND D ISCOURSE C OMPREHENSION situation model surface level surface refers global to his/her rep- and textbase represen- Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:34 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780203848005, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203848005.ch3 by allocating additional resources as needed. as resources additional by allocating well as as understanding, contextual preserved knowledge-based and processing capacity, memory in deficits, working suchas declines by relying on superior older (2008)et al. that may for adults compensate proposed obvious processing were texts for and lessexpository pronounced the narrative texts. Stine-Morrow for disappeared age by as facilitation, differences contextual were diminished of new However, sentences. concepts) individual when reading differences these syllabic introduction spent words) onthe time (increased textbase processes and for low-frequency times reading to surface-level multi- (increased and processes toyounger moreresources foundthey compared older adults, that allocated adults level, textbase-level, discourse-level type, and genre processing. across Collapsed toreflect thought spentsurface- ontext readers features of time amount of the afunction as was measured allocation Resource expository narratives. texts, and of strategies younger scientificand sentences, older using and individual readers et al., 2003). Recently, abilities reading (2008) the etal. Stine-Morrow compared (e.g.,about history etal., 2001) Radvansky (e.g., well as narratives as Radvansky for was toyounger superior situationory model information for adults passages text. of orgist For the example, global of meaning older the adults’standing mem- comprehension ontypical asked measures)to be have but will under- preserved (likely representations. Asaresult, older details may adults specific not remember Aging inNormal Processing Language (Shafto, Burke, Stamatakis, insula the left in from toderiveatrophy Tam,& Burke, 1990), seems that adifficulty & Tyler, 2007). Consistent of excitation transmission reduces tophonologicalaging representations (MacKay with this explanation,retrieve phonology age, with (and presumably increases because aTOT) result in to word. inability selection The appropriate the of an after failure logical encoding (e.g.,vocabularies Verhaeghen, 2003). toreflect thought phono- are TOTstates Heine, Ober, &Shenaut, 1999; Maylor, 1990), despite older having adults larger &Brown, Gollan 2006; 2002; Cross&Burke, Evrard, 2004; Austin, &Chae, 2004; (e.g., Brown 2008; 1996; Abrams, &Nix, Burke etal., 1991; Burke, Locantore, 1966). TOT states toretrieve word aknown increase (e.g., inability frustrating often and Brown &McNeill, with aging, both atemporary aTOTstate, some results in occasions, wordOn and fails production in the laboratory and in everydayT life form. spoken in orwritten lexical retrieval, MacKay, 2007; MacKay 1998). &Abrams, Tasks involve of typically production relative tasks, production tocomprehension (e.g., tasks James & Burke etal., 2000; age-related deficitsgreater on output-side significantly and demonstrate processes production). (forof input- language information Comparisons written orthographic (for of phonological retrieval information and production) spoken language and activation the input side, output tothe side the contrast requires ofIn language SPOKEN LANGUAGE PRODUCTION IP - OF - THE -T ONGUE (TOT) S TATES 55 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:34 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780203848005, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203848005.ch3 words morecompetitive become for we as age. retrieval alternative TOTword potential the these with forcompete that and production TOT word class the as may grammatical same words the in sounding similar that reading after notdid benefitfrom reading aged 61–73adults aged 75–89 adults not only while pattern, showed asimilar butTOT state, reading that after pronouncing a list of alist pronouncing words included abstract that after that 2007a for& Margolin, areview). For example, Burke (2000) showed James and phonology TOTword the with (e.g., Trunk, Abrams, see James &Burke, 2000; achieved be by can of production prior to causeTOTstates words share that old age (e.g., Burke etal., 1991; &Burke, Rastle 1996). James, 2006; 2002; Evrard, in 2003), especially have toTOTstates, susceptibility names proper greatest and the for words low- tooccur (e.g.,more likely high-frequency than Vitevitch &Sommers, (e.g., Burke etal., 1991; 2002). Heineet al., 1999; are &Abrams, TOTstates White overlaps often and comesinvoluntarily tomind phonologically TOTword the with word that incorrect an aTOTstate, word less likely tohave during are alternate an et al., 1991; Brown 1996; &Nix, Heineetal., 1999; they James &Burke, and 2000), TOTword,about of the such number syllables as and last letters (e.g., orfirst Burke toyoungercompared retrieve older adults, less can phonological adults information 56 TOT state for nounbandannaTOT state the TOTword. the as For of example, speech a when in part adifferent from are phonologically words related onlyhelp toresolve words when these TOTstates (2005) discovered Rodriguez TOTresolution. that and do not facilitate Abrams 2002).& Abrams, resolution following phonologically words related (e.g., etal., Heine 1999; White have 80s 70s2002), late and their significantly whereas adultsin less or no TOT younger (e.g., adults &Abrams, Heineetal., 1999; White James &Burke, 2000; following TOTstates as their phonologically degree words same related tothe early resolving 70s in and show 60s increase Adults 80s. an 70s their late and in phonologically their to in words, related are specific adults deficitsolder but the toresolve ability some the age-related changesfollowing in TOTstates are There 2002). &Eitel, age (Abrams, &Abrams, groups both White, 2003;tion in White Meyer2000; &Bock, 1992), syllable key isthe initial toTOTresolu- the and Heineetal., 1999; 2007b; James &Burke, &Merrill, Trunk, 2005; Abrams, TOT, wordthe intended of (e.g., the retrieval in resulting &Rodriguez, Abrams help also toresolve phonologically aTOTcan words related Pronouncing during connections between words and their phonology is also supported by research on by research phonology supported words their between isalso and connections the activatingin suggestion olderThe difficulty that have adults increased an P cate ICTURE The Handbook of Psycholinguistic and Cognitive Processes Cognitive and ofPsycholinguistic Handbook The Research has shown activation has Research that of phonological representationsthought Recent research has documented instances where phonologically words related instances documented has Recent research , tradition N AMING banjo , and locate , and compared with an unrelated word. These findings word.suggest findings These unrelated an with compared banjo , people were less likely to have a TOT for abdicate banish, banish, (a noun) (2007b) etal. not. did Abrams found that , reading , reading but their retrieval of retrieval but their banish (a verb) helped toresolve the bandanna , indigent was worse , trun- . Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:34 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780203848005, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203848005.ch3 2000; White & Abrams, 2004). &Abrams, White 2000; (e.g., tasks production other in by research age, supported aclaim James &Burke, stable with remains process “priming” this words that and connected toall tation of exci-presentation of transmission phonologically the words related strengthens of phonological degree suggests in facilitation lack age of that difference the an subsequently Conversely, and moreinterference. concepts torelated priming greater older idea that have adults the network, which results in semantic amoreelaborate consistentare with was equivalentfacilitation findings for age These groups. both this and picture, the werewhen after phonologically presented distractors related (faster facilitation youngerlatencies) contrast, In adults. than occurred interference older and showed adults pictures, the greater preceded distractors when semantic (slower interference Relative distractors, appeared. tounrelated latencies) emerged picture the either before presented phonological and orafter semantic distractors of auditory younger in afunction older effects word as and adults interference ofstudy aware which weisTaylor are Burke (2002), and picture– who examined older with onlypublished no studies adults. The virtually are but there distractors, 2003; &Duggan, Nicholas, 1985). Obler,&Goodglass, Hirsh, Albert, MacKay,Obler, 2004; &Obler, &Albert, Connor, Morrison, Albert, 2002; 70s (e.g.,their Nicholas, Connor, Spiro, Barresi, Connor, Obler,2000; &Albert, found onlywhen are older reach adults naming picture in age differences the older the of adult many group, namely that within differences are there states, onTOT toresearch similar Vesneski,Edgecombe, &Jones, Furthermore, 2000). words the (e.g., with familiar were age groups both equally if Schmitter- appeared would that have naming picture in decline age-linked the masks which then younger than adults, names picture rarer the with familiarity give greater them 1994).Kahn, possible One explanation older isthat adults’ vocabularies larger not always (e.g., studies are found individual in naming & Ska, picture Goulet, more slowly younger than adults (e.g., Feyereisen, 1997). However, age deficitsin have pictures presented shown less and objects older accurately that name adults of visually names older the toproduce adults requiring Studies naming. picture Aging inNormal Processing Language of speech production, a word’s frequency appears to influence the likelihood of likelihood aword’s production, the of speech toinfluence appears frequency of instead to myletter I’m tomymother aletter writing ofinstead rearranges one or more sounds dysfluencies. a when speaker and slips-of-the-tongue occurs A slip-of-the-tongue across words to be produced,tion moregenerally. Two include aging have in that such studied classes of been errors as produc- speech underlie have that mechanisms given insight the into researchers emerge that errors of speech patterns The articulation. in lead toerrors and awry go sometimes can planning how and this isplanned how production language about provide understanding an uswith errors Speech errors. speech and on aging isconsiderably there less naming, research picture and toTOTstates Compared S PEECH Another use of picture naming studies has been to measure the influence of influence the tomeasure been has studies naming useof picture Another E RRORS barn doorbarn , orswaps words, for entire example, . Similar to other forms forms to other . Similar I’m writing a mother I’m amother writing darn bore 57 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:34 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780203848005, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203848005.ch3 pose of giving them more time to locate the intended word. intended the tolocate moretime ofpose them giving retrieval problems (e.g., Bortfeld etal., 2001), dysfluencies as the pur- could serve dysfluenciesthought in from toresult are olderadults havingincreases more word tions (e.g., Bloom, Bortfeld, Leon, Schober, 2001). &Brennan, These age-related (e.g., 2003), &Lian, Kemper, conversational 2004; and Herman, interac- Altmann, 1998;Bédard, Heller &Dobbs, 1993; Kemper, Kynette, & 1990; Rash, Dorze Le &Norman, content of the (e.g., tasks description such picture as Cooper,utterance, 1990; the on that place fewtasks constraints and during tasks difficult during cially younger adults(see Meyer, Mortensen, for areview), &Humphreys, 2006 espe- errors in stress and intonation. Older adults produce more dysfluencies than or lexical (e.g., Dysfluencies fluentbe nonlexicalcan speech. otherwise (e.g.,tions in was rate relatively when rate the desired atthe speech fast. out some methodologicalpointed issues, such older as toproduce adults’ inability but they rates, younger as older equivalent had error and of adults errors, number younger in older and errors adults. found the They in no age-related increase repetition of tongue twisters (e.g., findings ofthe with agewith conflicts and Vousden Maylor the who used (2006), as misproduced (e.g., substitution error anonsequential older tomake adults more likely than an omission error (e.g., omission error an For example,others. older younger were adults morelikely tomake than adults but not for types some error occurred responses their in errors speech in ences to /p/, word. presented Age whenever avisually in differ- was a/p/or/b/ there youngerwith older and where adults, were they tochange asked /p/to/b/, or/b/ technique MacKaytransform James (2004) the and used errors. speech making elicitation lead to wereerror that developed circumstances processing tocreate of methods experimental speech, relatively spontaneous in infrequently occurred (e.g., speech of 1971; spontaneous 1975). Fromkin, errors Garrett, speech Since samples large in features of linguistic distribution the which examined methods, (e.g.,errors 1990). Dell, speech induce that experiments in 1986) misorderings moresound result in and (e.g., corpuses error speech Stemberger natural &MacWhinney, in more often words, tohigh-frequency low-frequency error. Compared a speech words appear 58 Abrams, 1998; Margolin & Abrams, 2007), and this intuition has been supported supported been has intuition 1998; this and Abrams, 2007), &Abrams, Margolin to spell(e.g., ability their in they notice adecrease that report often MacKay & (i.e., production older adults’ orthographic spelling). Subjectively, older adults focused on has of research area main The form. written in language to produce isconsiderably there tospeech, onolder lessCompared research adults’ ability LANGUAGEWRITTEN PRODUCTION The Handbook of Psycholinguistic and Cognitive Processes Cognitive and ofPsycholinguistic Handbook The Another type of speech error isdysfluencies, error of speech interrup- representwhich type Another The majority of research on speech errors initially emerged via observational emerged observational via initially errors onspeech of majority research The Schmitter-Edgecombe et al., 2000), sentence production tasks tasks production sentence etal., 2000), Schmitter-Edgecombe you know puck ). This selective increase in certain types of speech errors errors of speech types selective certain ). in This increase pans ) and include pauses, stutters, word include ) and repetitions,and pauses, stutters, misproduced as pan as misproduced a bucket of blue bug’s blue of a bucket blood ), whereas younger adults were ) to induce speech speech ) toinduce uh, um uh, pug )

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:34 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780203848005, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203848005.ch3 sound. For example, the spelling For example,sound. spelling the given isused for a spelling with aparticular which frequency the as is defined explored ahomophone’sof influence also et al. the probability, spelling which etal., 2008a). younger (White adults fewer than duced homophoneerrors (e.g., meanings and spellings different but identically have pronounced are words that Homophones sentences. are in homophones presented context, specifically in words used embedded commonly for more errors susceptible older whether tostudy towritten are adults method 2010; Zoller, Abrams, &Gibson, 2008b) White, have developed innovative an McWhite, Abrams, &Hagler, (White, 2010; leagues &Abrams, Protasi, White, context toexplore Recently, hercol- production. older and adults’ written White changesrelated (e.g., MacKay 1998; &Abrams, MacKay etal., 1999). lower-levelidea that susceptible toage- particularly representationsare language tophonological representations,consistent the with age,weaken with similar by poor spelling. any case, representations In access to orthographic to seems problems existing caused compounds but instead oftion orproduction spelling underlying recogni- processes tothe isnot alone detrimental aging that indicate for results goodspellers. These occurred no age differences contrast, spellers. In younger than spelling adults who producing correct and were poor recognizing in for spellers. Older poor who adults were were spellers poor occurred less accurate only spelling showed (2007) in age-related declines Abrams and that Margolin information. orthographic of retrieval and perception tothe comprehension, asymmetry in extend and this those mentioned earlier, consistentlythan are where deficits larger in production input-side between output-side processes and language asymmetry age-linked an just they saw. that spellings consistentare the with producing in findings These moreerrors but ornot made whether spelled, aword was detecting correctly in briefly, showedas these studies that youngerolderadults accurate as were MacKay, 1999). &Pedroza, Abrams, words Using presented shown visually very rately perceive aword spelled(e.g., that was correctly &Stanley, Abrams 2004; even occur able when spelling older in toaccu- are adults age-related declines Interestingly, for sound. despite spelling that “c” morecommon these the being “c” the in such adults, misspelling as other the than more often of errors types older ofoldest (aged the adult group half certain 73–88) made the college words presented Furthermore, students. than auditorily spelling older (aged adults above) and 60 when were misspellings morelikely toproduce (1998) 50s. MacKay Abrams and their in adults than less found accurate that who were 60s, their in adults less than often spellings correct written produced (1997) Rabbitt 70s and their in adults found that empirically. Stuart-Hamilton Aging inNormal Processing Language beach its homophone, lawyer with forreplaced example, was most proudof “The the ing errors occur when the contextually appropriate word appropriate contextually when (e.g., the occur errors ing for auditorily presented are tences homophone spell- down, and towrite people Spelling rare words in isolation or under time pressure isarelatively pressure words isolation in time orunder rare Spelling limited age, increasing with results suggest spelling these in decline auniversal While tree in his garden.” Unlike traditional garden.” his traditional in Unlike tree older pro- adults errors, spelling ail is a high-probability spelling because it isa because spelling isahigh-probability beech and beach ). In these studies, sen- studies, ). these In beech calendar ) is instead ) isinstead

as “k,” White 59 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:34 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780203848005, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203848005.ch3 ogy and orthography (MacKay &Burke, 1990). orthography and ogy forcompensate deficitsin lower-level representations, suchas phonol- language away as onsemantics to toareliance older shift isthat might adults shift for this aging. One normal with tosemantics onorthography reliance from explanation suggest findings a These shift meaning. used toaless frequently it corresponded more on spelling probability, producing the high-probability spelling even wheneven was low spelling when the probability. younger contrast, relied adults In meaning used most commonly tothe corresponding spelling ing, the producing iscorrect), older moreonahomophone’s either spelling relied adults that mean- Buckner (2003), spokenisolation homophones who in (so when found spelling that spelling probability was relative to those witholder on homophones adults mademore errors with alow-probability a high- spelling probability spelling, this increase in errors due to more common spelling for those sounds than is than for sounds spelling those more common 60 & Sprott, 1989;& Sprott, Kemperetal., 1990; Wingfield also & see Stine-Morrow, 2000 1998; (James, &Hulme, Burke, Austin, cohort Kemper, Kynette, O’Brien, Rash, own totheir younger apreference than adults, is not limited that storytellers ter 1990; Mergler, Faust, 1985). &Goldstein, bet- as rated older are Overall, adults ics (e.g., of communication &Dixon, 1994; Kurzman, Gould, Kemperetal., dynam- older interpersonal ofthat have the adults aheightened understanding have studies collaborative and communication shown storytelling Results from opposite. suggested the has communication driven adults’ atsocially competence However, conversationengaging in communicators. poorer and onolder research less older that are adults assumption tothe lead might TOTstates, lems during production, Oldersuchas adults’with prob- speech word-finding difficulties S and family. finances, health, about information of allows crucial and for communication the interactions social plays world; language real that the in it function enables enriches pragmatic and and social the However, span. life mind the in tokeep throughout it isimportant abilities of language architecture changing for the useful modeling are laboratory the in of communication? samples procured quality Language the affect cess of olderinteractions adults? pro- Likewise, aging how about the doperceptions the How selectiveeveryday influence dothese processing language changes in practical the into evidence translates empirical 2000). Given (e.g., oreven speaker of goals the individual rial, the Wingfield & Stine-Morrow, this mate- of linguistic type task, of experimental type of such factors, number the as variability, ona todepend seems processing language in of age differences magnitude The it is CONVERSATION IN LANGUAGE important to consider the degree to which TORYTELLING The Handbook of Psycholinguistic and Cognitive Processes Cognitive and ofPsycholinguistic Handbook The These findings are consistent with Cortese, Balota, Sergent-Marshall, and Sergent-Marshall, consistentare Balota, with Cortese, findings These greater for older younger adults. than adults language abilities of abilities older language adults. ale . Although both younger and Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:34 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780203848005, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203848005.ch3 & Stine-Morrow, 2000). (e.g., listener attheir directly prosody, story tofocus the ability Wingfield ortheir moreappealing rate, speech reduced of their because preferred couldbe stories is resolved end(e.g., atthe &Robins, 1991). Pratt older adults’ hand, other the On (e.g.,structures etal., Kemper 1990) that exciting build-up orusing an climactic choices by using made oldermorecomplex like adults, narrative to structural Robins, 1991). isdue Some older have that adults’ storytelling superior argued enjoyableand told those by (e.g., adults younger than middle-aged and & Pratt told by narratives older moreinteresting as of personal adults ages rated variety toyounger (e.g.,pared adult readers Mergler etal., 1985), a from listeners and for areview). Younger by read stories preferred older adult listeners adultscom- Aging inNormal Processing Language & Robins, 1991). above discussed as stories (e.g., quality higher produce James etal., 1998; Pratt toconsistently for topics, them goals lead possibly goals various these because of topics). communicative same the older consistently adults contrast, reported In types (i.e., for stories more succinct designed certain goals toproduce selecting OTSemerged changes onlywhenrelated in and youngerolderquantified adults’ and showed communicative goals age- that situations (e.g.,graphical James etal., 1998). Recently, (2009) Abrams and Trunk autobio- in some ofmunicating, elaborative which encourage particularly speech, & Bielby, 1983; Kemper, 1992), may they simply for goals different possess com- (e.g., life their throughout have stories telling with more experience had Boden older explanation because adults etal., isthat 2000). Another Pushkar typically of older (e.g., adults onlyapplies toaminority impairment etal., 2000; Arbuckle 1995),1993; Gold &Arbuckle, suggest this but claims morerecent that Pushkar Gold, irrelevantmaterial (e.g., cessing deficitPushkar inhibiting in & Arbuckle context whichused. wordsentire in are either on-oroff-topic, which may overestimate for OTSby not the accounting words OTSfocused as onindividual in age-related increase an observed ies that which involve moresubjective For example, others. stud- many assessments than OTS, toassess somepossibly of used heterogeneous of measures the because Dixon, 1993; Heller &Dobbs, 1993; James etal., 1998; 2009), &Abrams, Trunk OTS(e.g., in increase age-linked & Gould auniform, todemonstrate failed has 1993; Glosser &Deser, 1992; 1996). Juncos-Rabadan, However, research other Gold, (e.g., &Pushkar onpictures Arbuckle based stories etal., 2000; Arbuckle totell ability the in and contexts tasks, suchcal referential as communication nonautobiographi- in interviews, life-history as such contexts autobiographical in et al., 1988). have Some researchers suggested moreverbose older that adultsare evant present (e.g., topic tothe Gold, athand 1993; &Pushkar Gold Arbuckle irrel- and out on-topic, prolonged, but quickly becomes may unconstrained, start Off-topic (OTS), speech oroff-topic verbosity,that as speech defined been has O FF One explanation for extraneous wordiness in old age has been linked toapro- explanationOne old linked in forwordiness age been has extraneous -T OPIC S PEECH younger adults changed their goals goals their changed adults 61 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:34 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780203848005, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203848005.ch3 quences, such as withdrawing from social interaction. social from withdrawing such as quences, they like feel (e.g., 1999), tonegative lead Kemper&Harden, can conse- adults social turn which in older If 1986). al., et competence language toquestion morelikely their Ryan are they patronized, being (e.g., are affection as such feelings, tive posi- with associated be also it can although ceive condescending, as elderspeak influence on significant older adults’ self-perceptions. per- adultsOlder generally actually impair comprehension. such slower of as elderspeak, exaggerated intonation, and aspects rates speech In addition memory). onworking demands Other the complex (which sentences minimize to comprehension,and as repetitionselaborations as prehension,well less syntactically specifically elderspeak has a older havestudies adults’ increase of elderspeak showncom- some aspects that toolder adults(e.g., ishelpful orharmful speak 1999). Kemper &Harden, Some such “honey.” as of endearment terms elder- whether addressed has Research for intonation pitch using and and emphasis, altering paraphrasing, and repeating moreslowly, complex less syntactically and by speaking sentences, using shorter for speech older adults tosimplify intended 1986). are accommodations These 1999;Kemper, &Henwood, Kemper&Harden, Ryan, 2006; Bartlucci, Giles, are expected (e.g.,al., in communication et 2004; when difficulties Hummert olderadults, address often to used set accommodations of represents aspecific that “elderspeak” style of speech called isatype there older particular, adults. In with people the that style use by when influenced speaking be can Communication E 62 guage samples ofguage younger older and who adults were performing simultaneously fluency, (2003) the Kemper etal. examined complexity,and content of spoken lan- (e.g., Kemper etal., 2005). For &Nartowicz, 2003; example, Kemper, Herman, complexity. grammatical However, in declines claim this support studies not all likely toreveal situations age-related should especially choice, be dual-task then message. intended of the (produce simplerburden integrity sentences) the preserving simultaneously while cognitive the toreduce communicativestrategies may their unconsciously shift Asaresult, olderadultsficient complex toproduce capacity structures. syntactic may leave memory working in older insuf- with declines adults Age-associated 2001), complexity. grammatical older restricted with tousesentences adultstend or essays (e.g., Kemper, 1987; Prenovost, &Mitzner, Kemper, Marquis, Greiner, Sumner, 2001), describing pictures (e.g., shown has when Research toquestions responding utterance. that (e.g., Mackenzie, Kemper & 2000), or writing in diaries clauses of of clauses and embedded per by of types counts different measured complexity language, choices syntactic pragmatic is the of written spoken and these toreflect thought measure One production. speech by older during adults styleschoices made reflect may pragmatic communication also in Age differences C LDERSPEAK OGNITIVE The Handbook of Psycholinguistic and Cognitive Processes Cognitive and ofPsycholinguistic Handbook The If older adults are choosing to produce simpler sentences as a pragmatic choosing simpler apragmatic older toproduce as sentences If are adults D EMANDS

AND C OMMUNICATIVE S TRATEGIES Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:34 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780203848005, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203848005.ch3 limitations and strategy use. strategy and limitations resource between interaction wellcomplexity as production the as of discourse the and processes relationship memory working between the understanding ter bet- to needed is research More obtain. to difficult more complexity grammatical in reductions further complexthe youngermaking content-filledadults, than and task) was less grammatically of absence (in aconcurrent language adults’ baseline because older interpret to result isdifficult This was responses unaffected. their complexity level but rate, the of speech their of bycosts grammatical decreasing dual-task exhibited Older also adults tasks. content whenand doing concurrent complexity, grammatical length, sentence evidenced by decreased some areas, older in tapping. Younger adults than costs dual-task greater experienced adults motoractivities: simpleand complextapping, finger walking, one offinger three Aging inNormal Processing Language ultimately will lead todiscoveringultimately ways will declines. toreducethese cognitiveof theories aging, which current comprehension, ofin refining hopes in those moreprevalent are production why than in age-related declines understand work, tobetter we this aim age. with how factorsings interact Through and these relevant class are find- distractor’stothese the word and frequency grammatical investigatingpicture’s we the whether are naming, picture facilitate generally tors younger of two older groups and Given adults adults. phonological distrac- that with task interference picture–word using avisual experiment an conducting iscurrently For laboratory example, our performance. to critical are less deficits cognitive, conditions under where their assessed sensory, be perceptual can and for multiple appropriate older age are groups, that adults’ abilities sures language lenging (see, e.g., Vousden &Maylor, novel By 2006). creating mea- and methods chal- methodologically be can atopic production, that language and about aging knowledgeour in those somethose gaps, of specifically istofill research of our The focus gaps many filled. left to be ofbilities older healthy are there adults, capa- knowledge growing processing Despite our language about areas. the other or evenimprovedwith spared functions, in onlyfor abilities declines specific by results in but pervasive abilities, instead ofpanied language deterioration isnot accom- adulthood cognitive late other functions, Unlike processes. guage complexity lan- the and relationship of aging between the highlights chapter This CONCLUSIONS acknowledging that declines may be due to the very oldest members presents an oldest very presentsan may duetothe be members acknowledging declines that without about aging generalizations Making years. those throughout to occur cognitive the thereby neglecting orfour changes decades, likely three spans that “older an from adult group” data reports still ofresearch aging proportion large 1998), (e.g., even and vocabulary Lindenberger &Baltes, 1997). Unfortunately, a 2002), (e.g., production 1999; &Abrams, spelling White MacKay &Abrams, language tasks, such as TOT resolution sensitive. tobe various in needs oldest declines toexhibit The seem adults greater (e.g., Abrams et al., 2007b; processing language and onaging research older adult group, towhich future Heine et al., A second focus of our research is the differences that are emerging emerging are that differences isthe focusA second research of our within the the 63 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:34 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780203848005, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203848005.ch3 and most importantly, the older most the themselves. importantly, adults and parent, aging an with who interact members older with working family adults, them: fromclinicians most benefit who people can tothe disseminated tobe need torecoverolder isstruggling aspecific adultword. speaker of research Findings ways better situations identify where for in torespond an and listeners settings process) may improve way the older view adults themselves communicative in the aging of part in old agea are normal word theyfailures that finding (and (e.g., causesof increased the Kemper&Kemtes, 2000). Similarly, understanding components beneficial the to highlight speech their accommodating are speakers older with isno communication evidence adults, there facilitate that can speak oldertion with adults. For example, despite of knowledge elder- some aspects that viewed should be normal. that as language changes in of the understanding well as agreater as for impairments methods combating development toemerge tothe lead may begin also declines which language of age at the it torepresent. More population of intends precisely the specifying may illustrative not be that processing about language overly picture pessimistic 64 Abrams, L.(2008). Tip-of-the-tongue statesyieldlanguageinsights. REFERENCES Abrams, L.,&Stanley, J.H.(2004). The detectionandretrieval ofspellinginolderadults. Abrams, L.,&Rodriguez,E.L.(2005).Syntacticclassinfluencesphonologicalprimingof Arbuckle, T. Y., &Pushkar Gold,D.P. (1993). Aging, inhibitionandverbosity. Arbuckle, T. 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