The SAGE Encyclopedia of the OF

2

Editors Adam Possamai Western Sydney University

Anthony J. Blasi Tennessee State University (Retired) FOR INFORMATION: Copyright © 2020 by SAGE Publications, Inc.

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Volume 2

List of Entries vii Entries

M 457 T 833 N 521 U 869 O 543 V 881 P 559 W 903 Q 641 Y 921 R 653 Z 929 S 715 Index 935 List of Entries

Abortion Baha’i Acquaviva, Sabino Baptist Church Activism Bastide, Roger Adorcism Bataille, Georges Aesthetics Baudrillard, Jean African Beliefs African Diaspora: Religious Practices Believing Without Belonging. See Beliefs African Bellah, Robert N. Age Berger, Peter Agnosticism Big Data Analysis AI. See Artificial Intelligence (AI) Al-Biruni Body, The Alevism Alternation Bourdieu, Pierre Amish Kumaris Anabaptist Ancestor Anglican Church Bricolage. See Animism Anomie Caillois, Roger Anti- Movement Anti-Semitism Candomblé Apocalyptic Movements Canon Law Artificial Intelligence (AI) Cargo Asceticism Carrier, Hervé Assabiyah. See Ibn-Khaldun Case Study Association for the Catholicism Astrology Celibacy Census Atonement Chaplaincy Attachment Theory and the Charisma Study of Religion Charity Attribution Theory Child Sexual Abuse Aum Shinrikyo Children of Authority Christian Right Axial Age Christian Zionism Azevedo, Thales Christianity

vii viii List of Entries

Church of Almighty God Eastern Orthodoxy Church– Theory Economics and Religion Church–State Relations Economy and Society, by Max Weber Civil Religion Ecospirituality Clarke, Peter Ecstasy and Ecstatic Religion Class Education and Religious Diversity Eisenstadt, Shmuel N. Cognitive Dissonance El Shaddai Movement Collective Effervescence Elderly, The Comparative–Historical Methods Elective Affinity Comte, Auguste The Elementary Forms of Religious Life, by Conflict Perspective Émile Durkheim Eliade, Mircea Conjure Emerging Church Conspiracy Theories Emotion Consumer Culture Engaged Buddhism Contemplation Environment and Religion Content Analysis Episcopal Church. See Anglican Church Conversion Erhard Seminars Training (est) Counterculture Esotericism Creationism and Intelligent Design Ethnicity Critical Theory Ethnography Cultic Milieu Eugenics Cultural, Religious, and Spiritual Capital Euthanasia Cultural Studies Evans-Pritchard, E. E. Culture Exorcism Exoticism, Religious Daesoon Jinrihoe Daoism, or Faith-Based Organizations de Certeau, Michel Family Definition of Religion Fanfani, Amintore Demography of Religion Feminism Denomination Fertility Deprivation Theory Fichter, Joseph . See Popular Religion Desroche, Henri Foucault, Michel Deterritorialization and Reterritorialization Frazer, James G. Detraditionalization and Retraditionalization of Religion Freud, Sigmund Deviance Functionalism. See Durkheim, Émile; Diffused Religion O’Dea, Thomas F.; Parsons, Talcott Digital Activism Digital Religion Discourse Analysis Geertz, Clifford J. Doomsday Cults. See Apocalyptic Movements Gender Douglas, Mary Ghosts and Spirits Du Bois, William E. B. Globalization Dumont, Fernand Gramsci, Antonio Durkheim, Émile Greeley, Andrew List of Entries ix

Gülen Movement Gustafsson, Göran Islamic Finance Islamic Habitus Islamization Hadden, Jeffrey K. Islamophobia Halal Halbwachs, Maurice Hammond, Phillip E. Jama’at at-Tabligh. See Tablighi Jama’at Haram. See Halal James, William Hare Krishna (International Society for Krishna Jehovah’s Witnesses Consciousness) People Hargrove, Barbara Hasidism Heaven’s Gate Hezbollah Higher Education Laïcité Hijab Lambert, Yves Late Modernity and Postmodernity Latter-day Saints Historical Sociology Law and Religion Hizb ut-Tahrir Le Bras, Gabriel Houtart, François Leclercq, Jacques Potential Movement Lévi-Strauss, Claude Human Rights and Religion LGBTQI* People and Religion Humanism Liberation Hybridity. See Syncretism Life Stories Hyper-Real Religion Lived Religion Longitudinal Study Ibn-Khaldun L’Ordre du Temple Solaire. See Order of the Solar Ideal Types Temple Identity Luckmann, Thomas Ideology Illuminati Immigrant Religion Maduro, Otto Implicit Religion Magic Inculturation. See Missionization Mahāyāna Buddhism Indigenous Religions Malinowski, Bronislaw Individualism and Individualization Mana Integrism Marian Apparitional Movements Intelligent Design. See Creationism and Intelligent Marketization and Branding Design Martin, David Intentional Communities Martyrdom Interfaith Dialogue Marx, Karl and Engels, Friedrich International Development and Religion Material Culture International Society for the Sociology of Religion Mauss, Marcel Interrituality McDonaldization Intersectionality Mecca Interviews Media Invisible Religion ISIS Megachurch x List of Entries

Mennonite. See Anabaptist Phenomenology Millennialism Mindfulness Piety and Pietism Missionization Pilgrimage and Tourism Modernization and Modernity Pillarization Mol, Hans Plausibility Structure Plymouth Brethren Christian Church Politics and Religion Monsters and Horror Popular Religion Mormons. See Latter-day Saints Possession, Spiritual Movies Post-Apocalypse Multiculturalism Postcolonialism Multiple Modernities Post-Islamism Multiple Secularities. See Multiple Modernities Postmodernism Music Postsecular Society Muslim Brotherhood Mysterium Tremendum. See Predestination Prejudice and Racism Naqshbandiya Prison, Religion in Narrative Analysis Privatization of Religion Procession Nationalism Profane. See Sacred Native American New Religions Neal, Marie Augusta Prosperity Gospel Neo-Pentecostalism The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, Neo-Shamanism by Max Weber Neo- Protestant Ethic Thesis Movement New Religious Movements Protestantization of Religion Nuwaubian Nation Psychoanalysis O’Dea, Thomas F. Public Faith Online Ethnography Public Funding of Religion Ontological Security Puritanism Order of the Solar Temple Quakers Qualitative Data Analysis Software Orientalism Qualitative Research Otherworldly and Inner-Worldly Quantitative Data Analysis Software Otto, Rudolf Quantitative Research Quimbanda. See Umbanda , Contemporary Pancasila Race. See Ethnicity Papacy Paranormal Raëlians Parsons, Talcott /Osho Movement Participant Observation Rastafarianism Pentecostalism Rational Choice Theory List of Entries xi

Reasonable Accommodation Simmel, Georg Reenchantment and Disenchantment Social Cohesion Refugees Social Constructivism Religion and Health Social Control Religion and Science Social Darwinism Religion in China Social Fact Religious Accommodation Social Gospel Movement Religious Diversity Social Justice Religious Entrepreneurship Social Memory Religious Experience Social Movements Religious Field. See Cultural, Religious, and Social Psychology Spiritual Capital Social Theory Religious Healing Socialization Society for the Scientific Study of Religion Religious Research Association International Sound Resacralization Spatial Analysis Research Committee 22 for the Sociology of Spencer, Herbert Religion Research Methods in the Sociology of Religion Revivalism Sport Risk Society and Religion Standardization. See Protestantization of Religion State Management of Religion Rohingya People /Official Religion Rosicrucianism Stratification Routinization Structuralism Sturzo, Luigi Sacred Subud Sufism Sai Baba Movement Suicide Saint-Simon, Henri de Salafism Supply-Side Theory Salvation Army Survey Methodology. See Quantitative Research Symbolic Interactionism. See Social Psychology Sangha Symbolic Power and Violence Santa Muerte Syncretism Syriac Christianity Syro-Malabar Churches Systems Theory Secular Spirituality Secularization Tablighi Jama’at Seekership Taboo Séguy, Jean Tattoos Sexuality Taxes Shamanism Televangelism Shari’a Tenrikyō Shariati, Ali Theology Shi’ite Islam Theravāda Buddhism Tibetan Buddhism xii List of Entries

Time Series Analysis Vitalism. See Mana Tocqueville, Alexis de Vocation Tomka, Miklós Voodoo Totemism Tradition Wach, Joachim Transformative Phenomenology Wahhabism. See Salafism Transnationalism Wallis, Roy Troeltsch, Ernst Weber, Max Weixin Shengjiao UFO Cults Welfare Ulama Well-being. See Religion and Health Umbanda Westernization and Easternization of Religion Ummah . See Willems, Emilio Wilson, Bryan R. Witchcraft Vaillancourt, Jean-Guy Values Yezidis Vatican Yinger, J. Milton Vatican II Yoga Vicarious Religion Youth Victory Altar Video and Role-Playing Games Buddhism Violence Zionism Virtuoso Visual Sociology Reader’s Guide

Classic Researchers and Theorists Counterculture Critical Theory Al-Biruni Comte, Auguste Culture Du Bois, William E. B. Deprivation Theory Durkheim, Émile Deterritorialization and Reterritorialization Evans-Pritchard, E. E. Detraditionalization and Retraditionalization Frazer, James G. of Religion Freud, Sigmund Deviance Gramsci, Antonio Elective Affinity Halbwachs, Maurice Feminism Ibn-Khaldun Fertility James, William Functionalism Malinowski, Bronislaw Habitus Marx, Karl and Engels, Friedrich Ideal Types Mauss, Marcel Identity Otto, Rudolf Ideology Saint-Simon, Henri de Individualism and Individualization Simmel, Georg Interrituality Spencer, Herbert Intersectionality Sturzo, Luigi Late Modernity and Postmodernity Tocqueville, Alexis de Material Culture Troeltsch, Ernst McDonaldization Wach, Joachim Modernization and Modernity Weber, Max Multiple Modernities Ontological Security Phenomenology General Sociological Theories and Concepts Plausibility Structure Anomie Postcolonialism Assabiyah Postmodernism Attachment Theory and the Study of Religion Radicalization Attribution Theory Rational Choice Theory Authority Risk Society and Religion Axial Age Routinization Bricolage Social Cohesion Charisma Social Constructivism Class Social Control Cognitive Dissonance Social Darwinism Collective Effervescence Social Fact Conflict Perspective Social Memory

xiii xiv Readers’s Guide

Social Movements Caillois, Roger Social Theory Carrier, Hervé Socialization Clarke, Peter Stratification de Certeau, Michel Structuralism Desroche, Henri Supply-Side Theory Douglas, Mary Symbolic Power and Violence Dumont, Fernand Syncretism Eisenstadt, Shmuel N. Systems Theory Eliade, Mircea Universalism Fanfani, Amintore Values Fichter, Joseph Foucault, Michel Geertz, Clifford J. Highly Influential Books Greeley, Andrew Economy and Society, by Max Weber Gustafsson, Göran The Elementary Forms of Religious Life, by Hadden, Jeffrey K. Émile Durkheim Hammond, Phillip E. The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, Hargrove, Barbara by Max Weber Houtart, François Lambert, Yves Le Bras, Gabriel International Professional Associations Leclercq, Jacques Lévi-Strauss, Claude Association for the Sociology of Religion Luckmann, Thomas International Society for the Sociology of Religion Maduro, Otto Religious Research Association Martin, David Research Committee 22 for the Sociology Mol, Hans of Religion Neal, Marie Augusta Society for the Scientific Study of Religion O’Dea, Thomas F. Parsons, Talcott Séguy, Jean Non-Religious Groups and Movements Shariati, Ali Agnosticism Tomka, Miklós Atheism Vaillancourt, Jean-Guy Civil Religion Wallis, Roy Humanism Willems, Emilio Mindfulness Wilson, Bryan R. Secular Spirituality Yinger, J. Milton Transformative Phenomenology

Other Disciplines in the Study of Religions Post–World War II Researchers and Theorists Anthropology of Religion Acquaviva, Sabino Cultural Studies Azevedo, Thales Philosophy of Religion Bastide, Roger Psychoanalysis Bataille, Georges Psychology of Religion Baudrillard, Jean Religious Studies Bellah, Robert N. Social Psychology Berger, Peter Theology Bourdieu, Pierre Visual Sociology Reader’s Guide xv

Religious Activities, Beliefs, and Places Paranormal Piety and Pietism Adorcism Pilgrimage and Tourism Alternation Possession, Spiritual Ancestor Worship Prayer Apostasy Predestination Asceticism Procession Astrology Prophecy Atonement Prosperity Gospel Beliefs Religious Entrepreneurship Believing Without Belonging Religious Experience Blasphemy Religious Healing Brainwashing Resacralization Canon Law Revivalism Celibacy Ritual Chaplaincy Sacred Clergy Sacrifice Conjure Sangha Contemplation Shamanism Conversion Shari’a Creationism and Intelligent Design Sound Deprogramming Totemism Ecstasy and Ecstatic Religion Ulama Engaged Buddhism Ummah Exorcism Vatican Fundamentalism Vatican II Ghosts and Spirits Virtuoso Halal Vocation Hijab Yoga Integrism Intentional Communities Interfaith Dialogue Religious Groups and Movements Islamic Finance African Christianity Islamic Jihad African Diaspora: Religious Practices Islamization African Religions Magic Alevism Mana Amish Marian Apparitional Movements Anabaptist Martyrdom Anglican Church Mecca Animism Meditation Anti-Cult Movement Millennialism Apocalyptic Movements Missionization Aum Shinrikyo Monasticism Baha’i Faith Monotheism Baptist Church Monsters and Horror Boko Haram Music Mysticism Branch Davidians Ordination Buddhism Papacy Calvinism xvi Readers’s Guide

Candomblé New Religious Movements Caodaism Nuwaubian Nation Cargo Cults Opus Dei Catholicism Order of the Solar Temple Children of God Paganism, Contemporary Christian Right Pentecostalism Christian Zionism Peoples Temple Christianity Plymouth Brethren Christian Church Church of Almighty God Presbyterianism Confucianism Protestantism Daesoon Jinrihoe Puritanism Daoism, or Taoism Quakers Eastern Orthodoxy Raëlians Ecospirituality Rajneesh/Osho Movement El Shaddai Movement Rastafarianism Erhard Seminars Training (est) Religion in China Esotericism Rohingya People Falun Gong Rosicrucianism Gülen Movement Sai Baba Movement Hare Krishna (International Society for Salafism Krishna Consciousness) Salvation Army Hasidism San La Muerte Heaven’s Gate Santa Muerte Hezbollah Satanism Hindu Nationalism Scientology Hinduism Shi’ite Islam Hizb ut-Tahrir Shinto Human Potential Movement Sikhism Illuminati Social Gospel Movement Indigenous Religions Soka Gakkai International ISIS Spiritualism Islam Spirituality Jainism Subud Jehovah’s Witnesses Sufism Jesus People Sunni Islam Judaism Syriac Christianity Kabbalah Syro-Malabar Churches Latter-day Saints Tablighi Jama’at Liberation Theology Tenrikyō Lutheranism Theosophy Mahāyāna Buddhism Theravāda Buddhism Methodism Tibetan Buddhism Muslim Brotherhood UFO Cults Naqshbandiya Umbanda Nation of Islam Unification Church Native American New Religions Victory Altar Neo-Pentecostalism Voodoo Neo-Shamanism Weixin Shengjiao Neo-Sufism Witchcraft New Age Movement Yezidis Reader’s Guide xvii

Zen Buddhism Multiple Modernities Zionism Otherworldly and Inner-Worldly Zoroastrianism Pancasila Popular Religion Post-Islamism Research Methods Postsecular Society Big Data Analysis Privatization of Religion Case Study Protestant Ethic Thesis Census Protestantization of Religion Comparative–Historical Methods Public Faith Content Analysis Reenchantment and Disenchantment Demography of Religion Secularization Discourse Analysis Seekership Ethnography State Management of Religion Historical Sociology State Religion/Official Religion Interviews Televangelism Life Stories Vicarious Religion Longitudinal Study Westernization and Easternization of Religion Narrative Analysis Online Ethnography Social Issues and Religion Participant Observation Qualitative Data Analysis Software Abortion Qualitative Research Activism Quantitative Data Analysis Software Aesthetics Quantitative Research Age Research Methods in the Sociology AI of Religion Anti-Semitism Spatial Analysis Artificial Intelligence (AI) Time Series Analysis Body, The Charity Child Sexual Abuse Social Forms of Religion Conspiracy Theories Church–Sect Theory Consumer Culture Church–State Relations Death Cultic Milieu Digital Activism Cultural, Religious, and Spiritual Capital Economics and Religion Cyber Religion Education and Religious Diversity Definition of Religion Elderly, The Denomination Emotion Diffused Religion Environment and Religion Digital Religion Ethnicity Emerging Church Eugenics Faith-Based Organizations Euthanasia Hyper-Real Religion Exoticism, Religious Immigrant Religion Freedom of Religion Implicit Religion Gender Invisible Religion Globalization Laïcité Higher Education Lived Religion Human Rights and Religion Megachurch International Development and Religion xviii Readers’s Guide

Islamophobia Religion and Science Law and Religion Religious Accommodation LGBTQI* People and Religion Religious Diversity Marketization and Branding Religious Literacy Media Schism Movies Sexuality Multiculturalism Social Justice Nationalism Sport Orientalism Suicide Pillarization Taboo Politics and Religion Tattoos Post-Apocalypse Taxes Prejudice and Racism Tradition Prison, Religion in Transnationalism Public Funding of Religion Video and Role-Playing Games Reasonable Accommodation Violence Refugees Welfare Religion and Health Youth About the Editors

Adam Possamai is professor of sociology and Anthony J. Blasi retired as full professor of Deputy Dean at the School of Social Sciences, sociology from Tennessee State University in 2012 Western Sydney University, Australia. Born in and now resides in , Texas. He earned Belgium, he completed his undergraduate studies the BA at St. Edward’s University (1968, Austin, at the Catholic­ University of Leuven and his PhD Texas), the MA and PhD (1974) in sociology at in Melbourne at LaTrobe University. He is the the University of Notre Dame, the MA in biblical (co)author and (co)editor of a dozen academic studies at the University of St. Michael’s College books, 5 novels, and close to 90 refereed articles (1984, Toronto), and the ThD conjointly at Regis and book chapters. He is a past president of the College and the University of Toronto (1986). He International Sociological Association’s Commit- served as book review editor of Sociological tee 22 on the Sociology of Religion and of the Analysis (now named Sociology of Religion), Australian Association for the Study of Religion. president of the Association for the Sociology of He has been a visiting professor at the City Religion, and editor of the Review of Religious ­University of New York and the École des Hautes Research. He collaborated with Anton K. Jacobs Études en Sciences Sociales in . His latest and Mathew Kanjirathinkal on the definitive, books are The I-zation of Society, Religion, and centennial English translation of Georg Simmel’s Neoliberal Post-Secularism­ (2018, Palgrave complete foundational work in sociological theory, ­Macmillan), Sociology of Exorcism in Late Soziologie (Sociology: Inquiries Into the Modernity (with Giuseppe ­Giordan, 2018, Construction of Social Forms, 2 volumes, 2009). ­Palgrave Macmillan), Religions, Nations and Author of many scholarly books and articles, his Transnationalism in Multiple Modernities (edited recent books include Toward a Sociological with Patrick Michel and Bryan Turner, 2017, Pal- Theory of Religion and Health (edited 2011), grave Macmillan), Religion and Non-Religion Introductory Sociology: An Interactive Text, Among Australian Aboriginal Peoples (edited Second Edition (2014, with Anton K. Jacobs), with James Cox, 2016, Routledge), The Sociol- Sociology of Religion in America: A History of a ogy of Shari’a: Case Studies From Around the Secular Fascination With Religion (2014), World (edited with James Richardson and Bryan Sociologies of Religion: National Traditions (2015, S. Turner, 2015, Springer), and the novels La edited with Giuseppe Giordan), Social Science and réflexion de Borgia (2018, Rivière Blanche) and the Christian Scriptures (2017, 3 volumes), and A L’histoire extraordinaire de Baudelaire (2017, Methodological Guide for Social Scientific Inquiry Rivière Blanche). Into Earliest Christianity (2018).

xix Contributors

Tahir Abbas Stef Aupers Matteo Bortolini London School of Economics Katholieke Universiteit Leuven University of Padova Kiyoshi Abe Christopher David Bader Gary Bouma Kwansei Gakuin University Chapman University Monash University Ibrahim Abraham Jon Baldwin Alessandro Boussalem Australian National University London Metropolitan University Newcastle University Myron Achimastos Gabriel Banaggia Christopher S. Bradley University of Crete Pontifical Catholic University of Troy University Christopher Adair-Toteff Rio de Janeiro Pierre Bréchon University of South Florida Jack Barbalet Sciences Po, Grenoble Frane Adam Australian Catholic University Linda Briskman Institute for Developmental and Mariano Barbato Western Sydney University Strategic Analyses University of Passau/University David G. Bromley Afe Adogame of Münster Virginia Commonwealth Princeton Theological Seminary Eileen Barker University Khalil al-Anani London School of Economics Marian Burchardt Independent Scholar Rebecca Barrett-Fox Leipzig University Véronique Altglas Arkansas State University Jordan Burke Queen’s University Belfast Lori G. Beaman University of New Hampshire Nancy T. Ammerman University of Ottawa Annalisa Butticci Boston University Irene Becci Utrecht University Jonathan G. Andelson University of Lausanne Nicholas Campion Grinnell College Benjamin Beit-Hallahmi University of Wales Trinity Cory Anderson University of Haifa Saint David Independent Scholar Albert James Bergesen Sarah Carol Jeffrey E. Anderson University of Arizona University of Cologne University of Louisiana Monroe Anthony J. Blasi Laura Cerasi Mahsheed Ansari Tennessee State University Ca’ Foscari University Charles Sturt University (Retired) of Venice Victoria Arakelova Donald J. L. Boisvert Na Chen Russian-Armenian University Concordia University Fudan University Egil Asprem Irena Borowik Daniel Chernilo Stockholm University Independent Scholar Adolfo Ibáñez University

xx Contributors xxi

Mihwa Choi Michele Dillon Farida Fozdar Chapman University University of New Hampshire University of Western Australia Kevin J. Christiano Adam Dinham Alejandro Frigerio University of Notre Dame Goldsmiths, University of Catholic University of London Argentina Roberto Cipriani Roma Tre University Luca Diotallevi Liselotte Frisk Roma Tre University Dalarna University Mihai Coman University of Bucharest Jualynne E. Dodson Todd Nicholas Fuist Michigan State University Illinois Wesleyan University Jayeel Cornelio Mindanao State University Bernard Doherty Inger Furseth Charles Sturt University University of Oslo John Corrigan Florida State University Scott Draper Eugene V. Gallagher College of Idaho Connecticut College Andrea Cossu University of Trento Kevin M. Dunn Ester Gallo Western Sydney University University of Trento Christopher R. Cotter University of Heather Eaton Quan Gao Saint Paul University University of Newcastle Victor Counted Upon Tyne Western Sydney University Arvin Dineros Eballo University of Santo Tomas François Gauthier James Leland Cox University of Fribourg University of Edinburgh Christopher G. Ellison University of Texas at San Martin Geoffroy Ryan T. Cragun Antonio CEFIR, Cégep Édouard- University of Tampa Douglas Ezzy Montpetit Christine L. Cusack University of Tasmania Ali Ghanbarpour-Dizboni University of Ottawa Simonetta Falasca-Zamponi Royal Military College of Curt Dahlgren University of California, Santa Canada Lund University Barbara Cheryl Townsend Gilkes Pink Dandelion Jay R. Feierman Independent Scholar University of Birmingham Independent Scholar Giuseppe Giordan Grace Davie Yannick Fer University of Padova University of Exeter Centre Maurice Halbwachs Vincenzo M. B. Giorgino Douglas J. Davies Raúl Fernández-Calienes University of Torino Durham University St. Thomas University Hossein Godazgar Abby Day Michael C. Fisher Al-Maktoum College of Higher Goldsmiths, University of Millennium School of San Education London Francisco Marion Goldman Kees de Groot Ruth Fitzpatrick University of Oregon Tilburg University Deakin University Warren S. Goldstein Lars de Wildt Chris Fleming Center for Critical Research Katholieke Universiteit Leuven University of Western Sydney on Religion Matthew Dillon Holly Folk Andrew Gow DePauw University Western Washington University University of Alberta xxii Contributors

Mathew Guest Peter Hopkins Takeshi Kimura Durham University Newcastle University University of Tsukuba Marco Guglielmi Dick Houtman Catarina Kinnvall University of Padova University of Leuven Lund University Conrad Hackett Chao Huang Jerome Koch Pew Research Center Wuhan University Texas Tech University Malcolm Haddon Yueh-po Huang Jens Köhrsen Western Sydney University Academia Sinica Center for Religion, Economy Anna Halafoff Daniel Hummel and Politics (ZRWP) Deakin University University of Wisconsin— Denisa Kovacs Agnieszka Halemba Madison Independent Scholar University of Warsaw Boaz Huss Jens Kreinath Rosemary Hancock University of the Negev Wichita State University University of Notre Dame Jean-François Husson Lene Kühle Australia Université Catholique de Christopher Hartney Louvain Jack Laughlin University of Sydney Tessa Huttenlocher University of Sudbury Riaz Hassan University of Pennsylvania Frédéric Laugrand Flinders University Hakimul Ikhwan Université Catholique de Trevan D. Hatch Gadjah Mada University Louvain Brigham Young University Joseph Laycock Dzavid Haveric CESNUR (Center for Studies on Texas State University Charles Sturt University New Religions) Lois Lee Mary Hawkins Anton K. Jacobs University of Kent Western Sydney University Independent Scholar Samuel Lee Pierre Hegy Knut A. Jacobsen Asbury Theological Seminary Adelphi University University of Bergen Romulo Lelis Samuel Heilman Andrew Jakubowicz University of São Paulo City University of University of Technology Sydney Nissim Leon New York Mark A. C. Jennings Bar-Ilan University Aaron Herold Murdoch University James R. Lewis State University of New York Peter Jones UiT-Arctic University at Geneseo University of Newcastle of Norway Titus Hjelm Upon Tyne Raphael Liogier University College London Isabelle Jonveaux Sciences Po Aix John P. Hoffmann University of Graz Héctor E. López-Sierra Brigham Young University Danny L. Jorgensen Universidad Internacional Gerhard Hoffstaedter University of Southern Florida Iberoamericana University of Queensland Stephen Kalberg Mia Lövheim Ralph W. Hood Jr. Boston University Uppsala University University of Tennessee at Hilal Khashan Dorothea Lüddeckens Chattanooga American University of Beirut University of Zurich Contributors xxiii

Gordon Lynch Milad Milani Susan Jean Palmer University of Kent Western Sydney University Concordia University Marion Maddox Nadja Milewski Cristian Parker Macquarie University University of Rostock Universidad de Santiago de Chile Al Makin Marcus Moberg Sana Patel Sunan Kalijaga Islamic University of Turku University of Ottawa State University Kamaludeen Mohamed Nasir Fernanda Arêas Peixoto Ted Malcolmson Nanyang Technological Universidade de São Paulo Independent Scholar University Singapore Theresa L. Petray Valerie Malhotra Bentz Leon Moosavi James Cook University Fielding Graduate University University of Liverpool Richard Pitt Gwendoline Malogne-Fer Géraldine Mossière Vanderbilt University Centre Maurice Halbwachs Université de Montréal Anthony J. Pogorelc Jasbeer Musthafa Mamalipurath Mary Jo Neitz St. Mary’s University, Western Sydney University University of Missouri San Antonio James Marlatt Mira Niculescu Adam Possamai Independent Scholar Centre d’études en sciences Western Sydney University Eloísa Martín sociales et religieux (EHESS Alphia Possamai-Inesedy University of Brasilia CeSor) Western Sydney University Jacinthe Mazzocchetti Alan Nixon Adam J. Powell Université Catholique Western Sydney University Durham University de Louvain Alex Norman John Powers Donald A. McCown Western Sydney University Deakin University West Chester University of Glen O’Brien Geir Henning Presterudstuen Pennsylvania University of Divinity Western Sydney University Kevin McElmurry Lionel Obadia Martin Radermacher Indiana University Northwest Université Lyon 2 Ruhr-University Bochum Emily McKendry-Smith Stephen Offutt Halim Rane University of West Georgia Asbury Theological Seminary Griffith University Andrew M. McKinnon Helena Onnudottir David Rehorick University of Aberdeen Western Sydney University Fielding Graduate University Levi McLaughlin Kathleen Openshaw Pål Repstad North Carolina State University Western Sydney University University of Agder Kathleen McPhillips Abdelkerim Ousman James T. Richardson University of Newcastle Royal Military College of University of Nevada–Reno Canada Kevin McQuillan Roberta Ricucci University of Calgary Lluis Oviedo University of Torino Antonianum University Semra Mese Ole Preben Riis Independent Scholar Enzo Pace Aalberg and Agder Patrick Michel University of Padova Universities (Emeritus) École normale supérieure Sarah-Jane Page David G. Robertson Paris-Saclay Aston University The Open University Transnationalism 863

Bentz, V., Rehorick, D., Marlatt, J., Nishii, A., & Estrada, transnationalism refers to religious communities C. (2018). Transformative phenomenology as an that have a strong network between nation-states antidote to technological death worlds. Schutzian and which expand their services globally. This Research, 10, 189–220. entry first discusses the definition of transnation- Bentz, V., & Shapiro, J. (1998). Mindful inquiry in social alism in general and explores the foci of transna- research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. tionalism. It then explains transnational religious Husserl, E. (1970). The crisis of the European sciences movements (TRMs) as one example of a rapidly and transcendental phenomenology. Evanston, IL: growing subject in the field of sociology of reli- Northwestern University Press. (Original work gion. Finally, the entry gives examples of religious published 1954) movements across the globe, which continue Marlatt, J., Nishii, A., Estrada, C., Buchner, B., Bentz, & expanding their development and services with V. Rehorick, D. (2019). The silver age of the benefit of transnationalism. phenomenology at Fielding Graduate University. In K. S. Rogers & M. L. Snowden (Eds.), The fielding scholar practitioner: Voices from 45 years of fielding History and Definition graduate university (pp. 179–204). Santa Barbara, CA: Fielding University Press. The term transnationalism began to emerge in the Porpora, D. (2016). Critical reason and spirituality. In 1990s, and at that time, it was mainly used to V. M. Bentz & V. M. B. Giorgino (Eds.), explain the situation of the immigrant phenomena Contemplative social research: Caring for self, being, that were just beginning to spread in North and lifeworld (pp. 80–98). Santa Barbara, CA: ­America and Western Europe. According to Mark Fielding University Press. Juergensmeyer, transnationalism can be identified Rehorick, D. A., & Bentz, V. M. (Eds.). (2008). as a community that shares common worldviews, Transformative phenomenology: Changing ourselves, purposes, interests, and practices, and which gets lifeworlds, and professional practice. Lanham, MD: together in the arena, or places, across nations. Lexington Books. Transnationalism can also be understood as Rehorick, D., & Bentz, V. M. (Eds.). (2017). Expressions attachments and interactions that link communi- of phenomenological research: Consciousness and ties across national borders. lifeworld studies. Santa Barbara, CA: Fielding Globalization has played a pivotal role on the University Press. emergence of transnationalism. As the world is Schutz, A. (1967). The phenomenology of the social increasingly connected and global with ease of world (G. Walsh & F. Lehnert, Trans.). Evanston, IL. communication and transportation, today, immi- Northwestern University Press. (Original work grants, or anyone traveling, can live in a distant published 1932) place and still be able to quickly connect with Vivekananda, S. (no date). Jnana Yoga. Loschberg, family and significant others in their home Germany: Jazzybee Verlag Jürgen Beck. country. The concept of transnationalism helps us to understand that immigrants have a very strong relationship with their place of origin and carry Transnationalism not only themselves into the destination country but also their identity, understandings, political The term transnationalism is frequently used to views, religion, and beliefs. So, as much as they refer to a company that operates, and has net- want to settle in the new country, their connection works, in more than one country, but it mainly to their home country remains strong. This is par- indicates the movement of people or communities ticularly true for the first generation of immi- between nations. It is also often used to describe grants. The concept of transnationalism also helps the relationships between the immigrants who us to understand that a community and movement live in a new country and the people from their develop significantly when utilizing transnational home country with whom they maintain close networks, especially religious communities that contact this for various economic, political, are thus able to extend their gamut of service, as or familial reasons. With regard to religion, discussed later in this entry. 864 Transnationalism

Foci of Transnationalism The first significant focus on global religion was stimulated by Karl Jaspers’s work on the The study of transnationalism has attracted Axial Age. The Axial Age is thought to have scholars from a wide range of disciplines, includ- occurred between 800 and 200 BCE, during a ing sociology, anthropology, geography, political period of intellectual development in human his- science, law, economics, and history, as well as tory. Regions composed of large multiethnic interdisciplinary fields such as international rela- empires, whose peoples traded with other com- tions, development studies, business studies, eth- munities, saw the development of universalist nic and racial studies, gender studies, religious religions or , which addressed studies, and media and cultural studies. Taking questions of humanity and contained ­sophisticated this fact into account, the study of transnational- . Hinduism in India (South Asia), Con- ism has grown rapidly and is likely to continue fucianism and Buddhism in China (East Asia), and to expand as the world is becoming less and less the Judeo-Christian-Islamic tradition in the local. ­Mediterranean (West Eurasia) have all contrib- According to Steven Vertovec, transnationalism uted significantly to the history of human beings, has four main foci. The first focus is migration, from the Axial Age to the present day. which covers the study area of diasporas, Certain religions deal only with the concerns of ­transnational migration, refugees, and asylum a particular family and tribal community (for seekers. The second focus is economic which deals ­parallelism). Robert­ N. Bellah refers to these reli- with such topics as global economic networks, gions as primitive religions. They are “not for transnational corporations, and transnational export” and so have remained largely confined to household strategies. The third topic is politics, one small geographic area. Others, which Max which includes global political networks, policies, Weber called universalistic religions and compara- gender, communities, and power. The last focus is tive religion textbooks commonly call world reli- society and culture, which includes social forms gions, have spread from their communities of and institutions, cultural reproduction, and con- origin to many other parts of the world, introduc- sumption, and, as addressed in this entry, transna- ing new practices, values, and worldviews. tional religious communities. Transnational religious activities therefore have a long history, going back well before the forma- tion of nation-states, which date only from the Transnationalism and late 18th century. It is now common for scholars Religious Communities and other commentators to refer to premodern, In the study of transnationalism, TRM studies can pre-nation-state, supralocal religions as transna- be one of the most developed and important tional. Thus, Susanne Hoeber Rudolph observes themes today. This is because people increasingly that religious communities are among the very see that religions play a significant role in society first examples of transnationals. Among them, the and many religious movements are transnational. Sufi orders, Catholic , and Buddhist Religious communities have become global as monks carried their and teachings they engage in religious teachings across borders across to other lands at a time when the concept and nations. According to James A. Beckford, of nation-states had not yet developed. Such reli- ­religious movements are mobilizations of people, gious travelers were versions of civil society play- material resources, and ideas as well as ing their roles across borders to carry their beliefs ­feelings, whether formally or informally, to achieve and continue to serve the communities they ultimate religious goals. Religious movements visited. could also be defined as constellations of beliefs, There are at least three reasons, aside from practices, and ideas which are organized their universalistic framing, why world religions by ­religious institutions to promote worship and continue to be so active across the community and ­religious activities. TRMs have attracted many national boundaries. First, they have a tendency religious adherents. More than 6.8 billion people toward expansion and intensive pene- are affiliated at some level with TRMs. tration of social life. Second, world religions Transnationalism 865 always contain some competitive impulse. Thus, Aga Khan Foundation, which is linked to the Shii according to Juergensmeyer, transnational reli- Ismaili tradition of Islam with some connections gions are “religions of expansion” despite their with both and India; the Gülen Movement, a geographical and cultural roots being in one local- well-known transnational movement that origi- ity. In addition, all world religions have traditions nated in and is one of the representatives of pilgrimage to the sites of their historical origins of Sunni Islam; the Swaminarayan, a Hindu trans- or to places associated with figures and events of national social service community in , significance to their believers, such as Shalosh India; Baha’i, which began in Persia; Gawad Regalim for , and the hajj for Muslims. Kalinga, a Catholic movement from the The second major impetus to the study of ­Philippines; and The Redeemed Church of God, transnational religion was post–World War II an indigenous African Pentecostal church that migration to North America and Western Europe; emerged in Lagos, Nigeria. especially after the mid-1980s when religious activities became more obvious among the dias- Conclusion pora communities. In addition, around that time scholars began to research the new academic topic Transnationalism is a useful term to understand of “Islam in the West.” Immigrants’ religious affili- the movement, linkage, and interaction of people ations came to be seen as a significant feature of across borders. It started with the phenomenon of their social adaptation, and they were no longer migration and then expanded into a wider subject expected to become secular in a Western setting. of study with diverse related foci. One such focus The third advance in the study of transnation- is religion. Studies show that religious movements alism was in the 1990s, when the technical facili- have been transnational for a very long time. tators of globalization, such as electronic However, in the modern era of globalization, with communication technology and rapid transporta- sophisticated communications, transport, and tion, enabled diasporic communities to be more bureaucratic structures, religions are manifesting intensely involved with their countries of origin this feature in new ways. and to develop ever more effective transnational Firdaus Wajdi networks supporting their religious groups. This development helps to explain the contrast scholars See also Axial Age; Globalization; Gülen Movement; have observed between the older and the more Social Movements; Soka Gakkai International recent immigrants. Studies of older generations of immigrants in Further Readings Western countries showed that they quickly and successfully became integrated into their host Beckford, J. A. (2000). Religious movements and communities. They merged in such a way that they globalization. In R. Cohen & S. M. Rai (Eds.), Global social movements. London, UK: The Athlone Press. became part of the new society and did not overly Jackson, P., Crang, P., & Dwyer, C. (2004). Transnational concern themselves with their place of origin. spaces. New York, NY: Routledge. However, there have been significant changes in Juergensmeyer, M. (2005). Religion in global civil recent decades, particularly in terms of connected- society. New York, NY: . ness to the homeland and the involvement of Mandaville, P. G. (2001). Transnational Muslim politics: migrants in the local issues of their home coun- Reimagining the Umma. New York, NY: Routledge. tries, including religious activities. Nowadays, Roudometof, V. (2005). Transnationalism, recent immigrants tend to remain connected to cosmopolitanism and glocalization. Current Sociology, their former homeland and even play a significant 53, 113–135. role in developments there. Schiller, N. G., Basch, L., & Blanc-Szanton, C. (1992). There are numerous religious transnational Transnationalism: A new analytic framework for movements ranging from different religions work- understanding migration. Annals of the New York ing to extend their services across nations. These Academy of Sciences, 645(1), 1–24. are, for example, the Soka Gakkai, a transnational Vertovec, S. (2009). Transnationalism. Abingdon, UK: Buddhist movement that originated in Japan; the Routledge.