3 February 2014 No 2/3 ISSN 1664-7963

Current Concerns PO Box CH-8044 Zurich Current Concerns Switzerland The international journal for independent thought, ethical standards, moral responsibility, Phone: +41 44 350 65 50 Fax: +41 44 350 65 51 and for the promotion and respect of public international law, human rights and humanitarian law

E-Mail: [email protected] Website: www.currentconcerns.ch English Edition of Zeit-Fragen

Syria: From proxy war to peace or chaos? by Prof Dr Eberhard Hamer

The opinion-leading media of the world is about the monopoly (and monopoly 1. The Taliban, revolution fighters and Is- hailed the uprisings in North Africa, prices) for oil and gas. lamic fanatics, infiltrated to Syria by Syria or Ukraine as liberation move- – The participation of Israel in Syria cor- the US (CIA), as well as the enlist- ments. Meanwhile, however, it has been responds to the principle established by ed professional troops of American found that these uprisings did not come the Netanyahu government – as by all war companies (Blackwater and oth- from the countries themselves but were previous ones – to destabilise all neigh- ers), formerly used in the North Afri- brought about, financed and controlled bouring countries in order to protect Is- can countries, can practically not be from outside and that it is all a matter of rael. removed without causing mischief else- foreign economic or financial interests or – The US is the chief financier of the peo- where. Nobody wants them anymore. – as in Syria or Ukraine – strategic power ple’s alleged uprising in Syria, direct- So they have to be deployed in order politics. ed by the CIA which ensures the world- to wear down and destroy Syria. This wide mass propaganda in favour of the calls for another war. What were the interests that brought about “Syrian rebels” and provides them with 2. The Sunni oil dictatorships (Qatar, the Syrian tragedy? modern precision weapons and anti-tank Saudi Arabia) do not just have their – Without the destabilisation of Syria, Is- missiles, heat vision goggles and sniper own oil and gas interests in Syria, but rael and the Anglo-Saxons would not rifles and logistically controls the upris- also Islam and ideological supremacy have dared to venture on Iran respec- ing from the sea, with the help of the interests that they are unlikely to give tively they would not have been able to US Navy. The US and its industry’s pol- up. reach Iran safely with missiles and air- icy against Syria is also directed against 3. Israel does not want peace before desta- planes – even so the US administration Russia (encirclement) and against the bilisation of Syria will be achieved, appears to have currently abandoned influence of Iran’s ally China. also in order to keep clear the way to that plan. In this respect, this pre-war – Russia has both in Syria – a marine and Iran. era was necessary for the fight of the a military base on the Mediterranean. 4. Russia is fighting for its influence in Americans and the Sunni dictatorships As the Russians were out-manoeuvred Syria and therefore supports President (Saudi Arabia and Qatar) against the in Libya, they do not want to be thrown Assad (Western jargon: “the Assad re- Shiite Syria and its ally Iran. For the out again from Syria. gime”) as the allied guarantor of its in- Shiite supremacy Iran, Syria is the link – At the same time the western crusade terests. to its Shiite groups in the Arab world. in Syria has reached the Great Wall 5. China only wants peace in Syria if its Without that link Iran’s influence in the of China. China also aims for the re- influence is backed or enlarged – by Arab world would be weakened. sources of the Middle East. Pakistan Assad. – It is also about gas. So far, an Iranian oil is already under its influence. To the Is peace possible, given all these interests? pipeline passes through Syria. Recently Taliban in Afghanistan the Chinese natural gas deposits have been found in already have long-established rela- Some of the original war goals of the for- the southern Mediterranean – both off tions. Iran is their ally, too. The south eign powers have already been met or shore and on land (Kara) on Syrian ter- of Iraq is de facto already controlled changed: ritory. Qatar has to date exported liq- by Shiite allies from Iran. By means – Israel has achieved its goal of destabi- uefied natural gas by means of a tank- of Syria China is now trying to get an lising Syria and Lebanon in the long er fleet. If the Assad government were influence on the Mediterranean coast, term and is therefore no longer a part- eliminated, Qatar would have the option as well. ner of the peace conference. of transporting the “blue fuel” directly – Just as the US are aiming at encircling – The US already dread their own mer- across Syrian territory to the Mediter- Russia and China and pushing them cenaries. They fear that their victory ranean coast and thus could double its back into their borders (for example by would lead to a new, even more dan- export volume while preventing export means of the US-operated uprising in gerous Islamic system in Syria. They from Iran. Therefore Qatar is funding the Ukraine and the new Pacific offen- are therefore looking for the exit with- the uprising in Syria. sive), both the latter countries want – in out losing face. – For the United States the control of the case of Syria – to stop the US encir- – Turkey has so far stayed in the back- the oil and gas supplies from the Mid- clement for economic, military and ge- ground, but subversively helped the in- dle East means the control of Western opolitical reasons. surgents with weapons, military and lo- Europe at the same time and also the Given these preliminary conditions, the gistical aid. It would like to increase its weakening of Russia. In this respect, in Syrians themselves are only passively in- influence on Syria, but does not want a addition to the geo-strategic motivation volved in the conference on Syria. The radical Islamic state there. for the “corrections by uprisings” in masterminds of the Syrian war would Libya, Tunisia, Egypt and Syria there have to agree, but there are insurmount- are also decisive economic reasons. It able obstacles: continued on page 2 No 2/3 3 February 2014 Current Concerns Page 2 Whose sarin? by Seymour M. Hersh

Barack Obama did not tell the whole story mined that it is in the national security in- formation – in terms of its timing and se- this autumn when he tried to make the terests of the United States to respond to quence – to enable the president and his case that Bashar al-Assad was responsible the Assad regime’s use of chemical weap- advisers to make intelligence retrieved for the chemical weapons attack near Da- ons through a targeted military strike.” days after the attack look as if it had been mascus on 21 August. In some instances, Obama was going to war to back up a picked up and analysed in real time, as the he omitted important intelligence, and in public threat, but he was doing so with- attack was happening. The distortion, he others he presented assumptions as facts. out knowing for sure who did what in the said, reminded him of the 1964 Gulf of Most significant, he failed to acknowledge early morning of 21 August. Tonkin incident, when the Johnson admin- something known to the US intelligence istration reversed the sequence of National community: that the Syrian army is not “Obama administration altered Security Agency intercepts to justify one the only party in the country’s civil war the available information” of the early bombings of North Vietnam. with access to sarin, the nerve agent that He cited a list of what appeared to be The same official said there was immense a UN study concluded – without assessing hard-won evidence of Assad’s culpability: frustration inside the military and intelli- responsibility – had been used in the rock- “In the days leading up to August 21st, we gence bureaucracy: “The guys are throw- et attack. In the months before the attack, know that Assad’s chemical weapons per- ing their hands in the air and saying, ‘How the American intelligence agencies pro- sonnel prepared for an attack near an area can we help this guy’ – Obama – ‘when he duced a series of highly classified reports, where they mix sarin gas. They distrib- and his cronies in the White House make culminating in a formal Operations Order uted gas masks to their troops. Then they up the intelligence as they go along?”’ – a planning document that precedes a fired rockets from a regime-controlled ground invasion – citing evidence that the area into 11 neighbourhoods that the re- “Administration knew al-Nusra Front, a jihadi group affiliated gime has been trying to wipe clear of op- no more than the public” with al-Qaida, had mastered the mechan- position forces.” Obama’s certainty was The complaints focus on what Washington ics of creating sarin and was capable of echoed at the time by Denis McDonough, did not have: any advance warning from manufacturing it in quantity. When the at- his chief of staff, who told the “New York the assumed source of the attack. The mil- tack occurred al-Nusra should have been Times”: “No one with whom I’ve spoken itary intelligence community has for years a suspect, but the administration cher- doubts the intelligence’ directly linking produced a highly classified early morn- ry-picked intelligence to justify a strike Assad and his regime to the sarin attacks.” ing intelligence summary, known as the against Assad. But in recent interviews with intelli- Morning Report, for the secretary of de- In his nationally televised speech about gence and military officers and consult- fence and the chairman of the Joint Chiefs Syria on 10 September, Obama laid the ants past and present, I found intense con- of Staff; a copy also goes to the national blame for the nerve gas attack on the re- cern, and on occasion anger, over what security adviser and the director of nation- bel-held suburb of Eastern Ghouta firm- was repeatedly seen as the deliberate ma- al intelligence. The Morning Report in- ly on Assad’s government, and made it nipulation of intelligence. One high-level cludes no political or economic informa- clear he was prepared to back up his earli- intelligence officer, in an email to a col- tion, but provides a summary of important er public warnings that any use of chemi- league, called the administration’s assur- military events around the world, with all cal weapons would cross a “red line”: “As- ances of Assad’s responsibility a “ruse”. available intelligence about them. A sen- sad’s government gassed to death over a The attack “was not the result of the cur- ior intelligence consultant told me that thousand people,” he said. “We know the rent regime”, he wrote. A former senior in- some time after the attack he reviewed the Assad regime was responsible … And that telligence official told me that the Obama reports for 20 August through 23 August. is why, after careful deliberation, I deter- administration had altered the available in- continued on page 3

”Syria: From the proxy war …” their funders and employers (Mossad, peace with a representation of Syrian continued from page 1 CIA, Qatar, Saudi Arabia). groups. Already by a truce the infiltrated fight- The strategy expected in Geneva for the The following countries are in favour of a ers would be out of work, so it cannot be time being is the following: Yes to peace peaceful solution, at least under continua- in their interest, also given the fact that talks, but not yet to a truce – and over tion of the Assad government: the resistance of the population in the ter- time: Yes to peace, but only amongst Syr- ritories occupied by them would become ians and not with foreign terrorists. – Russia, because it would thereby keep more powerful. In case they were no long- If one asks whether instigating this war its base and allies in Syria, er paid by the US and the Sunni monar- by foreign powers has now paid off for – Iran, because the Shiite axis would re- chies, they would no longer be able to them, actually only the advantage of Is- main and Assad would still be there as counter the pressure by the Syrian mili- rael remains (destabilisation). The Ameri- a bulwark against attacks from Israel, tary, they would have to leave the country cans, the CIA, Qatar and Saudi Arabia will – China, because it would have more im- again and cause trouble elsewhere. probably lose. For them, at any rate, this pact on Iran and the Shiite axis through Even President Assad and the Syrian war has not been worth while. Assad than through Islamic terrorists. military might still be uninterested in a After the Americans have prevented Is- truce, because they are currently winning rael’s attack on Iran with the help of the The Islamic terrorists are against a peace- and more and more freeing the country Russians and successfully ended the nu- ful solution. What other goals they have – from the terrorists. On the other hand, clear talks with Iran, a peaceful recovery apart from the Sunni conquest of power in peace talks with a Syrian citizen group could begin in this region if it was possible the fight against the Shiites – is very dif- would have the advantage that the 30,000 to remove the foreign fighters from Syria ferent depending on the grouping, some- foreign mercenary soldiers would there- and restore peace among the Syrians. • times unclear, partly also depending on by be isolated, so that Assad can risk (Translation Current Concerns) No 2/3 3 February 2014 Current Concerns Page 3

”Whose sarin?” document said that the NSA’s worldwide ington was unable to monitor the events continued from page 2 electronic eavesdropping facilities had in Eastern Ghouta as they unfolded. been “able to monitor unencrypted com- The sensors had worked in the past, as For two days – 20 and 21 August – there munications among senior military offi- the Syrian leadership knew all too well. was no mention of Syria. On 22 August cials at the outset of the civil war there”. Last December the sensor system picked the lead item in the Morning Report dealt But it was “a vulnerability that President up signs of what seemed to be sarin pro- with Egypt; a subsequent item discussed Bashar al-Assad’s forces apparently later duction at a chemical weapons depot. It an internal change in the command struc- recognised”. In other words, the NSA no was not immediately clear whether the ture of one of the rebel groups in Syria. longer had access to the conversations of Syrian army was simulating sarin pro- Nothing was noted about the use of nerve the top military leadership in Syria, which duction as part of an exercise (all militar- gas in Damascus that day. It was not until would have included crucial communi- ies constantly carry out such exercises) or 23 August that the use of sarin became cations from Assad, such as orders for a actually preparing an attack. At the time, a dominant issue, although hundreds of nerve gas attack. (In its public statements Obama publicly warned Syria that using photographs and videos of the massacre since 21 August, the Obama administra- sarin was “totally unacceptable”; a simi- had gone viral within hours on YouTube, tion has never claimed to have specific in- lar message was also passed by diplomatic Facebook and other social media sites. formation connecting Assad himself to the means. The event was later determined to At this point, the administration knew no attack.) be part of a series of exercises, according more than the public. to the former senior intelligence official: Obama left Washington early on 21 Au- “NRO sensors implanted “If what the sensors saw last December gust for a hectic two-day speaking tour in near all known chemical was so important that the president had New York and Pennsylvania; according warfare sites in Syria” to call and say, ‘Knock it off,’ why didn’t to the White House press office, he was The “Post” report also provided the first the president issue the same warning three briefed later that day on the attack, and the indication of a secret sensor system in- days before the gas attack in August?” growing public and media furore. The lack side Syria, designed to provide early of any immediate inside intelligence was warning of any change in status of the Critical reporter was not invited made clear on 22 August, when Jen Psaki, regime’s chemical weapons arsenal. The The NSA would of course monitor As- a spokesperson for the State Department, sensors are monitored by the National sad’s office around the clock if it could, told reporters: “We are unable to con- Reconnaissance Office, the agency that the former official said. Other communi- clusively determine [chemical weapons] controls all US intelligence satellites in cations – from various army units in com- use. But we are focused every minute of orbit. According to the “Post” summa- bat throughout Syria – would be far less every day since these events happened … ry, the NRO is also assigned “to extract important, and not analysed in real time. on doing everything possible within our data from sensors placed on the ground” “There are literally thousands of tacti- power to nail down the facts.” The admin- inside Syria. The former senior intelli- cal radio frequencies used by field units istration’s tone had hardened by 27 Au- gence official, who had direct knowledge in Syria for mundane routine commu- gust, when Jay Carney, Obama’s press of the programme, told me that NRO sen- nications,” he said, “and it would take a secretary, told reporters – without pro- sors have been implanted near all known huge number of NSA cryptological tech- viding any specific information – that any chemical warfare sites in Syria. They are nicians to listen in – and the useful return suggestions that the Syrian government designed to provide constant monitoring would be zilch.” But the “chatter” is rou- was not responsible “are as preposterous of the movement of chemical warheads tinely stored on computers. Once the scale as suggestions that the attack itself didn’t stored by the military. But far more im- of events on 21 August was understood, occur”. portant, in terms of early warning, is the the NSA mounted a comprehensive effort sensors’ ability to alert US and Israeli in- to search for any links to the attack, sort- “No intelligence about telligence when warheads are being load- ing through the full archive of stored com- Syrian intentions in ed with sarin. (As a neighbouring coun- munications. A keyword or two would be the days before the attack” try, Israel has always been on the alert for selected and a filter would be employed The absence of immediate alarm inside changes in the Syrian chemical arsenal, to find relevant conversations. “What hap- the American intelligence community and works closely with American intel- pened here is that the NSA intelligence demonstrates that there was no intelli- ligence on early warnings.) A chemical weenies started with an event – the use gence about Syrian intentions in the days warhead, once loaded with sarin, has a of sarin – and reached to find chatter that before the attack. And there are at least shelf life of a few days or less – the nerve might relate,” the former official said. two ways the US could have known about agent begins eroding the rocket almost “This does not lead to a high confidence it in advance: both were touched on in one immediately: it’s a use-it-or-lose-it mass assessment, unless you start with high of the top secret American intelligence killer. “The Syrian army doesn’t have confidence that Bashar Assad ordered it, documents that have been made public in three days to prepare for a chemical at- and began looking for anything that sup- recent months by Edward Snowden, the tack,” the former senior intelligence offi- ports that belief.” The cherry-picking was former NSA contractor. cial told me. “We created the sensor sys- similar to the process used to justify the On 29 August, the “Washington Post” tem for immediate reaction, like an air Iraq war. published excerpts from the annual budget raid warning or a fire alarm. You can’t The White House needed nine days to for all national intelligence programmes, have a warning over three days because assemble its case against the Syrian gov- agency by agency, provided by Snowden. everyone involved would be dead. It is ernment. On 30 August it invited a select In consultation with the Obama admin- either right now or you’re history. You group of Washington journalists (at least istration, the newspaper chose to publish do not spend three days getting ready to one often critical reporter, Jonathan Lan- only a slim portion of the 178-page doc- fire nerve gas.” The sensors detected no day, the national security correspondent ument, which has a classification high- movement in the months and days before for McClatchy Newspapers, was not invit- er than top secret, but it summarised and 21 August, the former official said. It is of ed), and handed them a document careful- published a section dealing with prob- course possible that sarin had been sup- ly labelled as a “government assessment”, lem areas. One problem area was the gap plied to the Syrian army by other means, rather than as an assessment by the intelli- in coverage targeting Assad’s office. The but the lack of warning meant that Wash- continued on page 4 No 2/3 3 February 2014 Current Concerns Page 4

”Whose sarin?” not watch, in real time, as this horrible Times” seized on the report, as did Amer- continued from page 3 attack took place. The intelligence com- ican and British officials, and claimed munity was able to gather and analyse that it provided crucial evidence back- gence community. The document laid out information after the fact and determine ing up the administration’s assertions. An what was essentially a political argument that elements of the Assad regime had in annex to the UN report reproduced You- to bolster the administration’s case against fact taken steps to prepare prior to using Tube photographs of some recovered mu- the Assad government. It was, however, chemical weapons.” But since the Ameri- nitions, including a rocket that “indica- more specific than Obama would be later, can press corps had their story, the retrac- tively matches” the specifics of a 330mm in his speech on 10 September: American tion received scant attention. On 31 Au- calibre artillery rocket. The “New York intelligence, it stated, knew that Syria had gust the “Washington Post”, relying on Times” wrote that the existence of the begun “preparing chemical munitions” the government assessment, had vivid- rockets essentially proved that the Syrian three days before the attack. In an aggres- ly reported on its front page that Ameri- government was responsible for the attack sive speech later that day, John Kerry pro- can intelligence was able to record “each “because the weapons in question had not vided more details. He said that Syria’s step” of the Syrian army attack in real been previously documented or reported “chemical weapons personnel were on the time, “from the extensive preparations to to be in possession of the insurgency”. ground, in the area, making preparations” the launching of rockets to the after-action by 18 August. “We know that the Syri- assessments by Syrian officials”. It did not Flight path analyses are “totally nuts” an regime elements were told to prepare publish the AP corrective, and the White Theodore Postol, a professor of technolo- for the attack by putting on gas masks and House maintained control of the narrative. gy and national security at MIT, reviewed taking precautions associated with chemi- the UN photos with a group of his col- cal weapons.” The government assessment Obama had come to a hasty judgement leagues and concluded that the large cal- and Kerry’s comments made it seem as if So when Obama said on 10 September ibre rocket was an improvised munition the administration had been tracking the that his administration knew Assad’s that was very likely manufactured local- sarin attack as it happened. It is this ver- chemical weapons personnel had prepared ly. He told me that it was “something you sion of events, untrue but unchallenged, the attack in advance, he was basing the could produce in a modestly capable ma- that was widely reported at the time. statement not on an intercept caught as chine shop”. The rocket in the photos, he it happened, but on communications an- added, fails to match the specifications The number of deaths varied widely alysed days after 21 August. The former of a similar but smaller rocket known to An unforeseen reaction came in the form senior intelligence official explained that be in the Syrian arsenal. The “New York of complaints from the Free Syrian Ar- the hunt for relevant chatter went back to Times”, again relying on data in the UN my’s leadership and others about the lack the exercise detected the previous Decem- report, also analysed the flight path of two of warning. “It’s unbelievable they did ber [2012], in which, as Obama later said of the spent rockets that were believed to nothing to warn people or try to stop the to the public, the Syrian army mobilised have carried sarin, and concluded that regime before the crime,” Razan Zai- chemical weapons personnel and distrib- the angle of descent “pointed directly” touneh, an opposition member who lived uted gas masks to its troops. The White to their being fired from a Syrian army in one of the towns struck by sarin, told House’s government assessment and Oba- base more than nine kilometres from the Foreign Policy. The “Daily Mail” was ma’s speech were not descriptions of the landing zone. Postol, who has served as more blunt: “Intelligence report says US specific events leading up to the 21 August the scientific adviser to the chief of naval officials knew about nerve-gas attack in attack, but an account of the sequence the operations in the Pentagon, said that the Syria three days before it killed over 1400 Syrian military would have followed for assertions in the “Times” and elsewhere people – including more than 400 chil- any chemical attack. “They put together a “were not based on actual observations”. dren.” (The number of deaths attributable back story,” the former official said, “and He concluded that the flight path analy- to the attack varied widely, from at least there are lots of different pieces and parts. ses in particular were, as he put it in an 1429, as initially claimed by the Obama The template they used was the template email, “totally nuts” because a thorough administration, to many fewer. A Syrian that goes back to December [2012].” It is study demonstrated that the range of the human rights group reported 502 deaths; possible, of course, that Obama was una- improvised rockets was “unlikely” to be Médicins sans Frontières put it at 355; and ware that this account was obtained from more than two kilometres. Postol and a a French report listed 281 known fatali- an analysis of Syrian army protocol for colleague, Richard M. Lloyd, published ties. The strikingly precise US total was conducting a gas attack, rather than from an analysis two weeks after 21 August later reported by the “Wall Street Journal” direct evidence. Either way he had come in which they correctly assessed that the to have been based not on an actual body to a hasty judgment. rockets involved carried a far greater pay- count, but on an extrapolation by CIA an- load of sarin than previously estimat- alysts, who scanned more than a hundred Potential evidence being moved ed. The “Times” reported on that analy- YouTube videos from Eastern Ghouta into and possibly manipulated sis at length, describing Postol and Lloyd a computer system and looked for imag- The press would follow suit. The UN re- as “leading weapons experts”. The pair’s es of the dead. In other words, it was little port on 16 September confirming the use later study about the rockets’ flight paths more than a guess.) of sarin was careful to note that its inves- and range, which contradicted previous tigators’ access to the attack sites, which “Times” reporting, was emailed to the American press corps … came five days after the gassing, had been newspaper last week; it has so far gone retraction received scant attention controlled by rebel forces. “As with other unreported. Five days later, a spokesman for the Office sites,” the report warned, “the locations of the Director of National Intelligence re- have been well travelled by other individ- “White House had no direct sponded to the complaints. A statement to uals prior to the arrival of the mission … evidence of Syrian army the Associated Press said that the intel- During the time spent at these locations, or government involvement” ligence behind the earlier administration individuals arrived carrying other sus- The White House’s misrepresentation of assertions was not known at the time of pected munitions indicating that such po- what it knew about the attack, and when, the attack, but recovered only subsequent- tential evidence is being moved and pos- ly: “Let’s be clear, the United States did sibly manipulated.” Still, the “New York continued on page 5 No 2/3 3 February 2014 Current Concerns Page 5

”Whose sarin?” the reports identified. The White House the potential threat. “The Op Order pro- continued from page 4 statement said that laboratory analysis vides the basis of execution of a military had confirmed the use of sarin, but also mission, if so ordered,” the former senior was matched by its readiness to ignore in- that a positive finding of the nerve agent intelligence official explained. “This in- telligence that could undermine the narra- “does not tell us how or where the indi- cludes the possible need to send American tive. That information concerned al-Nus- viduals were exposed or who was respon- soldiers to a Syrian chemical site to defend ra, the Islamist rebel group designated by sible for the dissemination”. The White it against rebel seizure. If the jihadist re- the US and the UN as a terrorist organi- House further declared: “We have no re- bels were going to overrun the site, the as- sation. Al-Nusra is known to have carried liable corroborated reporting to indicate sumption is that Assad would not fight us out scores of suicide bombings against that the opposition in Syria has acquired because we were protecting the chemical Christians and other non-Sunni Muslim or used chemical weapons.” The statement from the rebels. All Op Orders contain sects inside Syria, and to have attacked its contradicted evidence that at the time was an intelligence threat component. We had nominal ally in the civil war, the secular streaming into US intelligence agencies. technical analysts from the Central Intel- Free Syrian Army (FSA). Its stated goal ligence Agency, the Defense Intelligence is to overthrow the Assad regime and es- Al-Nusra and its work with sarin Agency, weapons people, and I & W [in- tablish sharia law. (On 25 September al- Already by late May, the senior intelli- dications and warnings] people working Nusra joined several other Islamist rebel gence consultant told me, the CIA had on the problem … They concluded that the groups in repudiating the FSA and anoth- briefed the Obama administration on al- rebel forces were capable of attacking an er secular faction, the Syrian National Co- Nusra and its work with sarin, and had American force with sarin because they alition.) sent alarming reports that another Sunni were able to produce the lethal gas. The The flurry of American interest in al- fundamentalist group active in Syria, al- examination relied on signals and human Nusra and sarin stemmed from a series of Qaida in Iraq (AQI), also understood the intelligence, as well as the expressed inten- small-scale chemical weapons attacks in science of producing sarin. At the time, tion and technical capability of the rebels.” March and April; at the time, the Syrian al-Nusra was operating in areas close to There is evidence that during the sum- government and the rebels each insisted Damascus, including Eastern Ghouta. An mer some members of the Joint Chiefs the other was responsible. The UN even- intelligence document issued in mid-sum- of Staff were troubled by the prospect of tually concluded that four chemical at- mer dealt extensively with Ziyaad Tariq a ground invasion of Syria as well as by tacks had been carried out, but did not as- Ahmed, a chemical weapons expert for- Obama’s professed desire to give rebel sign responsibility. A White House official merly of the Iraqi military, who was said factions non-lethal support. In July, Gen- told the press in late April that the intelli- to have moved into Syria and to be operat- eral Martin Dempsey, chairman of the gence community had assessed “with var- ing in Eastern Ghouta. The consultant told Joint Chiefs, provided a gloomy assess- ying degrees of confidence” that the Syr- me that Tariq had been identified “as an ment, telling the Senate Armed Services ian government was responsible for the al-Nusra guy with a track record of mak- Committee in public testimony that “thou- attacks. Assad had crossed Obama’s “red ing mustard gas in Iraq and someone who sands of special operations forces and line”. The April assessment made head- is implicated in making and using sarin”. other ground forces” would be needed to lines, but some significant caveats were He is regarded as a high-profile target by seize Syria’s widely dispersed chemical lost in translation. The unnamed official the American military. warfare arsenal, along with “hundreds of conducting the briefing acknowledged that aircraft, ships, submarines and other ena- intelligence community assessments “are “Al-Nusra had the ability blers”. Pentagon estimates put the number not alone sufficient”. “We want,” he said, to acquire and use sarin” of troops at seventy thousand, in part be- “to investigate above and beyond those in- On 20 June a four-page top secret cable cause US forces would also have to guard telligence assessments to gather facts so summarising what had been learned about the Syrian rocket fleet: accessing large that we can establish a credible and cor- al-Nusra’s nerve gas capabilities was for- volumes of the chemicals that create sarin roborated set of information that can then warded to David R. Shedd, deputy direc- without the means to deliver it would be inform our decision-making.” In other tor of the Defense Intelligence Agency. of little value to a rebel force. In a letter words, the White House had no direct ev- “What Shedd was briefed on was exten- to Senator Carl Levin, Dempsey cautioned idence of Syrian army or government in- sive and comprehensive,” the consultant that a decision to grab the Syrian arsenal volvement, a fact that was only occasion- said. “It was not a bunch of ‘we believe’.” could have unintended consequences: “We ally noted in the press coverage. Obama’s He told me that the cable made no assess- have learned from the past ten years, how- tough talk played well with the public and ment as to whether the rebels or the Syri- ever, that it is not enough to simply alter Congress, who view Assad as a ruthless an army had initiated the attacks in March the balance of military power without murderer. and April, but it did confirm previous re- careful consideration of what is necessary Two months later, a White House state- ports that al-Nusra had the ability to ac- in order to preserve a functioning state … ment announced a change in the assess- quire and use sarin. A sample of the sarin Should the regime’s institutions collapse ment of Syrian culpability and declared that had been used was also recovered – in the absence of a viable opposition, we that the intelligence community now had with the help of an Israeli agent – but, ac- could inadvertently empower extremists “high confidence” that the Assad gov- cording to the consultant, no further re- or unleash the very chemical weapons we ernment was responsible for as many as porting about the sample showed up in seek to control.” 150 deaths from attacks with sarin. More cable traffic. The CIA declined to comment for this headlines were generated and the press article. Spokesmen for the DIA and Office was told that Obama, in response to the “The rebel forces of the Director of National Intelligence new intelligence, had ordered an increase were capable of attacking said they were not aware of the report to in non-lethal aid to the Syrian opposition. an American force with sarin” Shedd and, when provided with specif- But once again there were significant ca- Independently of these assessments, the ic cable markings for the document, said veats. The new intelligence included a re- Joint Chiefs of Staff, assuming that US they were unable to find it. Shawn Turn- port that Syrian officials had planned and troops might be ordered into Syria to seize er, head of public affairs for the ODNI, executed the attacks. No specifics were the government’s stockpile of chemical said that no American intelligence agency, provided, nor were those who provided agents, called for an all-source analysis of continued on page 6 No 2/3 3 February 2014 Current Concerns Page 6

”Whose sarin?” veyed in the various secret briefings that lief to many senior military officers. (One continued from page 5 members of Congress received in the days high-level special operations adviser told after the attack, when Obama was seek- me that the ill-conceived American mis- including the DIA, “assesses that the al- ing support for his planned missile offen- sile attack on Syrian military airfields Nusra Front has succeeded in developing sive against Syrian military installations. and missile emplacements, as initially en- a capacity to manufacture sarin”. One legislator with more than two decades visaged by the White House, would have of experience in military affairs told me been “like providing close air support for “Al-Nusra Front is … most effective that he came away from one such brief- al-Nusra”.) and is gaining in strength” ing persuaded that “only the Assad gov- The administration’s distortion of the The administration’s public affairs offi- ernment had sarin and the rebels did not.” facts surrounding the sarin attack rais- cials are not as concerned about al-Nusra’s Similarly, following the release of the UN es an unavoidable question: do we have military potential as Shedd has been in his report on 16 September confirming that the whole story of Obama’s willingness public statements. In late July, he gave an sarin was used on 21 August, Samantha to walk away from his “red line” threat alarming account of al-Nusra’s strength at Power, the US ambassador to the UN, told to bomb Syria? He had claimed to have the annual Aspen Security Forum in Col- a press conference: “It’s very important to an iron-clad case but suddenly agreed to orado. “I count no less than 1200 dispa- note that only the [Assad] regime possess- take the issue to Congress, and later to ac- rate groups in the opposition,” Shedd said, es sarin, and we have no evidence that the cept Assad’s offer to relinquish his chem- according to a recording of his presenta- opposition possesses sarin.” ical weapons. It appears possible that at tion. “And within the opposition, the al- some point he was directly confronted Nusra Front is … most effective and is “The proposed American with contradictory information: evidence gaining in strength.” This, he said, “is of missile attack on Syria strong enough to persuade him to cancel serious concern to us. If left unchecked, never won public support” his attack plan, and take the criticism sure I am very concerned that the most radi- It is not known whether the highly clas- to come from Republicans. cal elements” – he also cited al-Qaida sified reporting on al-Nusra was made in Iraq – “will take over.” The civil war, available to Power’s office, but her com- “Rebel forces such he went on, “will only grow worse over ment was a reflection of the attitude that as al-Nusra obliged to disarm” time … Unfathomable violence is yet to swept through the administration. “The The UN resolution, which was adopted come.” Shedd made no mention of chemi- immediate assumption was that Assad on 27 September by the Security Coun- cal weapons in his talk, but he was not al- had done it,” the former senior intelli- cil, dealt indirectly with the notion that lowed to: the reports his office received gence official told me. “The new direc- rebel forces such as al-Nusra would also were highly classified. tor of the CIA, [John] Brennan, jumped be obliged to disarm: “no party in Syria A series of secret dispatches from Syria to that conclusion … drives to the White should use, develop, produce, acquire, over the summer reported that members House and says: ‘Look at what I’ve got!’ It stockpile, retain or transfer [chemical] of the FSA were complaining to Ameri- was all verbal; they just waved the bloody weapons.” The resolution also calls for can intelligence operatives about repeat- shirt.1 There was a lot of political pres- the immediate notification of the Secu- ed attacks on their forces by al-Nusra and sure to bring Obama to the table to help rity Council in the event that any “non- al-Qaida fighters. The reports, according the rebels, and there was wishful think- state actors” acquire chemical weapons. to the senior intelligence consultant who ing that this [tying Assad to the sarin at- No group was cited by name. While the read them, provided evidence that the FSA tack] would force Obama’s hand: ‘This is Syrian regime continues the process of is “more worried about the crazies than it the Zimmermann telegram of the Syri- eliminating its chemical arsenal, the irony is about Assad”. The FSA is largely com- an rebellion and now Obama can react.’ is that, after Assad’s stockpile of precur- posed of defectors from the Syrian army. Wishful thinking by the Samantha Power sor agents is destroyed, al-Nusra and its The Obama administration, committed wing within the administration. Unfortu- Islamist allies could end up as the only to the end of the Assad regime and con- nately, some members of the Joint Chiefs faction inside Syria with access to the in- tinued support for the rebels, has sought who were alerted that he was going to at- gredients that can create sarin, a strategic in its public statements since the attack tack weren’t so sure it was a good thing.” weapon that would be unlike any other in to downplay the influence of Salafist and the war zone. There may be more to nego- Wahhabist factions. In early September, “The administration’s distortion of the tiate. • John Kerry dumbfounded a Congressional facts surrounding the sarin attack” hearing with a sudden claim that al-Nusra The proposed American missile attack The article was first published in the “London Re- and other Islamist groups were minority on Syria never won public support and view of Books” Vol. 35 No. 24, 19 December 2013, pages 9–12. players in the Syrian opposition. He later Obama turned quickly to the UN and the www.lrb.co.uk withdrew the claim. Russian proposal for dismantling the Syr- In both its public and private briefings ian chemical warfare complex. Any pos- 1 In the history of the United States, “waving the after 21 August, the administration dis- sibility of military action was definitive- bloody shirt” refers to the practice of politicians regarded the available intelligence about ly averted on 26 September when the making reference to the blood of martyrs or he- roes to criticize opponents. Waving the bloody al-Nusra’s potential access to sarin and administration joined Russia in approv- shirt also has been used to define someone who continued to claim that the Assad gov- ing a draft UN resolution calling on the brings up a past injustice or mistreatment in his- ernment was in sole possession of chem- Assad government to get rid of its chem- tory to justify or cover up an injustice being ical weapons. This was the message con- ical arsenal. Obama’s retreat brought re- committed in the present. [translator’s note] No 2/3 3 February 2014 Current Concerns Page 7 Germany’s role in Ukraine? by Karl Müller

Apparently the German mass media are the principle that forbids interference by the best intentions, namely by the conducting a campaign against the Gov- in the internal affairs of another sover- idea of peaceful and equal coexistence ernment of Ukraine at present and via this eign state, codified by the UN Charter? of sovereign states? campaign another one against the govern- 3. Some comments remember – even if The peoples of the Ukraine, Germa- ment of Russia. What is really happening they are aiming at something com- ny and Russia do not want the peo- in Ukraine, is therefore beyond the knowl- pletely different – the fact that a coun- ples of their countries to be forced into edge of all those who rely on obtaining try can as well be forced from the out- bloody conflicts. They live on one conti- their information from the mass media side into a condition resembling civil nent where every country needs cooper- and have to form an opinion on the basis war. So it is said in a commentary of ation with the others. They know what it of that “information”. the “Süddeutsche Zeitung” of 23 Janu- means when mendacious campaigns play Nonetheless, it is possible to ask a few ary: “It is true that there is not a civil with fire within and between their coun- questions even on the basis of the publicly war in Ukraine, yet. It is also true that tries. They know about the myriads of reported “information”, and we do insist every civil war has started in a way victims when the escalation is taken to having them answered: somewhat like this. In Syria, the West- the extreme. This year marks the cente- 1. The German mass media and also the ern diplomacy has resigned at pains to nary of the beginning of the First World German government are clamoring, be capable of doing little. This must not War. Is this not reminder enough for all the Government of Ukraine should re- happen in the case of Ukraine.” From of Europe’s peoples? spect the right to peaceful protest. Does Syria one knows how much the West, And they rightly wonder what pur- the German government rate squatting, including Germany, had played with pose it would serve that one media cam- blockades, barricades, massive damage fire. Can the German government guar- paign follows the other. Why should they to property and the application of brute antee that there are no similarly sinister again and again be kept at bay from solv- force among “peaceful protest”? Why plans for Ukraine? ing the urgent tasks that are actually pen- are these obvious offenses against the 4. Taking into account the present geopo- dant in their countries and in Europe? law, which would be punished under litical and strategic analyzes on the role Does the political class in Germany and criminal law as breaking public and of Ukraine in world politics, there is in the “West” really believe they can di- private peace in Germany, not con- ground for the suspicion that the Ger- vert attention from their own failure with a demned, when it comes to the Ukraine? man government does not care about clamarous media campaign? Would it not 2. The “protests” in the capital of Ukraine human rights in Ukraine, nor about be time to take a break? Why is there no resemble similar processes, in which – democracy in Ukraine, nor about the honest policy, based on fundamental val- while influence from the outside was people’s welfare in Ukraine. Since the ues?3 • exerted – a change of government (re- mid-nineties (Brzezinski, “The Grand gime change) was to be brought about, Chessboard”), it is known that Ukraine not on the basis of constitutional rules, is to be the USA’s and its allies’ west- but by means of a coup-like “pres- ern spearhead in the fight against Rus- sure from the street”, since a change of sia. The attempts to “integrate” the power by military coups is no longer Ukraine into EU and NATO are serv- 1 see Wayne Madsen : NATO’s Eastern Prize, www. 1 en vogue everywhere. Vitali Klitschko ing this goal. Can the German govern- strategic-culture.org/news/2013/12/16/ukraine- is a German product, built up by the ment credibly argue that these analyzes nato-eastern-prize.html from 16.12.2013, CDU-near Konrad Adenauer Founda- are not substantial, and that the Ger- 2 see Current Concerns, No. 39 of 27 December 2 2013 tion. How does the German govern- man government in its policies towards 3 see “Standpoint at the beginning of the year” in: ment justify its massive violation of Ukraine and Russia is determined only Current Concerns, No. 1 of 26 January 2014 No 2/3 3 February 2014 Current Concerns Page 8 Atlantic partnership or subservience? by Prof Dr Eberhard Hamer

Since the revelations of Snowden, we The talks between the German and What has actually to happen so that our know that American intelligence having lasted al- government finally takes up its official • Americans widely and extensively spy ready several months in which it was to duty of defending German interests, our out our economy for technology and be guaranteed that the Americans would personal freedom and inviolability, our patents, causing 50 billion euro of an- no longer spy on any government mem- German personality rights? nual damage according to EU esti- bers, limit their industrial espionage and The NSA espionage affair is the active mates, as well as inform the German intelligence about moral nadir of the United States just as it • widely and extensively all phone calls, their results, are the culmination of the is the passive moral nadir of our govern- emails and other telecommunications German inadequacy. The talks were fu- ment. • are being captured, monitored and tile. The Americans have brusquely re- evaluated by the US intelligence NSA, jected all corrections and strictly reserved (Translation Current Concerns) • on the roof of the American Embas- their right for the total control of German sy in Berlin even a special monitoring policy, German economy, German media system is being operated with which and German society. the ministries, the “Bundestag” and German politics is so submissive that Current Concerns the Federal Chancellery – all of which despite such total control of the German The international journal for independent within a few 100 meters – are especial- economy and society through the US they thought, ethical standards, moral responsibility, ly monitored and pried, do not even refuse to stop the negotiations and for the promotion and respect • around the clock the NSA is tapping of public international law, human rights on an Atlantic Free Trade Area, which are and humanitarian law especially our leaders in business and especially advantageous for the US until politics, including their mobile phones the United States would show some in- Publisher: Zeit-Fragen Cooperative – and the Chancellor – and is therefore sight into the fact of their espionage. Be- Editor: Erika Vögeli better informed on all economic and hind closed doors negotiations go accord- Address: Current Concerns, political decision-making preparations ing to the specifications of the US apace, P.O. Box, CH-8044 Zurich than anyone else in Germany. although now everyone knows that the Ger- Phone: +41 (0)44 350 65 50 After the US administration initially de- man and European negotiators are moni- Fax: +41 (0)44 350 65 51 E-Mail: [email protected] nied the revelations of Snowden, they had tored and pried from the NSA, which leads to admit – because of gapless evidence to the situation, that the Americans are sit- Subscription details: in several cases that they are tapping, in- ting at both sides of the negotiating table. published regularly electronically as PDF file vestigating and completely controling not It is a scandal how our ruling elite has Annual subscription rate of SFr. 40,-, € 30,-, £ 25,-, $ 40,- only foreign, but also “friendly” govern- tried to dismiss the issue as unimportant. If for the following countries: ments and the Commission in Brussels. even a small fraction of such espionage from Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brunei, Canada, Instead of a common outcry that would Asian countries or Russia would have been Cyprus, , Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hongkong, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, go through the world, through Europe or published, the general outcry across the At- Japan, Kuwait, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Nether- Germany about this insidious villainy of lantic would be a loud one, the waves of pro- lands, New Zealand, Norway, Qatar, Singapore, the American authorities and its govern- test would have no end. That, however, our Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Arab ­Emirates, ment, the United States complained about government does not seriously reject spy- United Kingdom, USA “the traitor” Snowden. England and France ing against our economy and our society, Annual subscription rate of SFr. 20,-, € 15,-, £ 12,50, $ 20,- had admitted that they operated like the is a scam of their oath of office. And that for all other countries. US, widespread espionage against Ger- they did not even resist the total espionage Account: Postscheck-Konto: PC 87-644472-4 many due to the same Snowden-evidence. on themselves, shows that our government The editors reserve the right to shorten letters to Except for small complaints (“don’t do it and political elite – as with the “rescue”- the editor. Letters to the editor do not necessarily among friends ...”) German politics prac- debt assumption for the whole of Europe – reflect the views and opinions of Current Concerns. ticed mainly silence. Apparently, the Ger- apparently obey Atlantic commands much © 2011. All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or man politicians do not dare oppose the oc- more than the interests of their citizens, transmission of this publication may be made without written cupation forces. and their own interests. permission. No 2/3 3 February 2014 Current Concerns supplement direct democracy Page 9

The historical roots of Swiss direct democracy Switzerland as a special case and model of democracy by Dr René Roca, Research Institute of Direct Democracy, Oberrohrdorf-Staretschwil, Switzerland I. Introduction Various empirical studies in econom- ic sciences that, in addition to econom- ic sub-areas, also address the research in happiness come to an interesting conclu- sion: The more democratic and federalist a political system is, the happier the peo- ple are. This condition is greatly respon- sible for the economic development of a country, because “the burden of govern- ment debt is the smaller the more direct democracy is. Fewer cases of tax evasion occur, because people have a better rela- tionship with their state.”1 The economists show the relationship between democratic and economic devel- opment and in happiness research they take a closer look at the importance of so- cial-ethical factors. Looking at this rela- tionship from a historical perspective, we can say that in Switzerland the introduc- tion of direct democratic instruments in the 19th century was not an obstacle to the industrialization of the country. On the contrary, the elaborated people’s rights Astrodome at the Federal Palace in Berne. (picture thk) ensured that the population supported the industrialization process more vividly and eral representative constitutional systems 4. In the historical and geographical area could even influence it. This created a po- based on natural law developed very early of Switzerland, it was especially the rural litical culture of tolerance and conciliation in the Swiss cantons in the wake of the population as a genuine people’s movement in Switzerland, of course, not without de- French Revolution and Helvetic Revo- in this process of democratization who con- tours, breaks and setbacks. It was crucial lution in the 19th century. The canton of stituted and sponsored liberal and direct that democracy developed in Switzerland Ticino was the first to introduce a liber- democratic concepts and claims. The rural from the bottom up, thus creating a dem- al constitution. In the course of regenera- people’s movements ultimately implement- ocratic model which became an essential tion ten other cantons followed from 1830 ed direct democracy – also in Baselland. constituent of the political culture, a fea- on, in which liberal representative consti- The decisive factor was the temporary con- ture unknown to any other country.2 tutions were implemented.4 In the context nection and/or the mutual stimulation of In the first half of the 19th century di- of the Swiss confederation, the sovereign- early socialist, progressive approaches and rect-democratic systems developed in ty provided the cantons with space for in- Catholic conservative ideas that both pur- Switzerland at the cantonal level. Brief- ternal reforms which from 1815 on were sued the same goal in different theoretical ly, in the period from 1798 to 1848 Swit- also promoted by the permanent neutral- ways: to create more direct democracy and zerland laid the foundation for the forma- ity recognized by international law. Due thus to realize the political concretization tion and development of direct democracy to the neutral status there were only iso- of popular sovereignty. This was in con- based on three theoretical elements: on the lated foreign attempts to blackmail Swit- trast to liberal concepts, which preferred a co-operative principle, the Christian and zerland or to force it on a restorative way representative democracy. Thus, a longue modern natural law and the idea of the with the help of reprisals. On the contra- durée of political and cooperative culture people’s sovereignty.3 ry, many political refugees found asylum was continued, renewed and strengthened Placing Swiss direct democracy in a in Switzerland, who in turn actively sup- in the 19th century referring back to the late European and international context, we ported the Swiss democratization (for ex- Middle Ages. We must also consider the can draw the following conclusions: ample, the Snell brothers). cooperative democracy of the “Landsge- 1. Although from the 18th century on 3. The cantonal constitutions have been meinde”5 in this context, which met with the processes of change in the political supplemented since the 1830s in contrast great interest particularly among the Swiss system and the political culture of Swit- to England and France (individual states in rural population. The “Volkstage” (canton- zerland have emanated from partially dif- the United States followed not before the al assemblies), carried out in different can- ferent conditions in the Confederate places end of the 19th century), with direct-demo- tons from 1830 on, were explicitly called (cantons), the results were similar in terms cratic instruments, first with the veto; later “Landsgemeinden”. of democratic institutions. In the Europe- they were extended by a mandatory or op- The development of direct democracy an context, there are indeed similar initial tional referendum and as such also trans- in Switzerland can only be explained by conditions, but virtually no comparable ferred on to the national level. This created taking a closer look at the individual can- political processes. – in addition and together with the develop- tons. Emanating from the development at 2. Similar to England (and also the ment of legislative and constitutional initia- the cantonal level it becomes clear why USA) and for some time France, but in tive – a democratic model that is unique in contrast to other European countries, lib- Europe and in the world until today. continued on page 10 No 2/3 3 February 2014 Current Concerns supplement direct democracy Page 10

”The historical roots of …” different laws of development: the world For Switzerland, the preconditions of continued from page 9 in which the political system was estab- settlement history were particularly im- lished from above and the other world in portant. In the Swiss Central Plateau, the introduction of direct democratic in- which the structures developed from the where the dwellings were concentrated struments was also successful at the state bottom up, or in other words: the world of and became villages, the common Mark level. domination and the world of cooperative. or Allmend alongside with a house, gar- In the following, the historical roots of Gasser went on to say that we must call den and fields were essential for all villag- direct democracy will first be considered the cooperative principle of order – being ers.11 The cities also had a common Mark in the national Swiss context, then briefly the foundation of the communal structures and enacted a similar legislation. In the in the European and finally in the interna- built from bottom up – “community eth- hilly Alpine foreland the farms united and tional context. ics”.8 Such ethical basis has been tangi- formed so-called Allmend cooperatives. ble in writing for the Old Confederation In many places of the Alps so-called val- II. Cooperatives, natural law since the High Middle Ages, for example ley cooperatives were established – on the and popular sovereignty in so-called “Talbüchern” (books of the basis of the valley communities as rural II.1 The cooperative principle valleys). associations. in Switzerland The historian Wolfgang von Wartburg The cooperatives were of major politi- (1914–1997) also stressed that the early cal significance for the later development The old Confederation was anything but roots of the cooperative movement were of the Confederation. They developed a a unitary republic, but a confederation of crucial to the understanding of the Swiss community-building spirit – a phenom- compound sovereign places. An important political system and direct democra- enon that Gasser described as communi- feature of the Swiss statehood was the so- cy: “These small, natural, self-governing ty ethics – without which a nation estab- called “decentralization through self-gov- communities have been fertile ground and lished by the free will of its people like ernment”.6 The cooperative structure of seminary of Swiss freedom and democra- Switzerland could never have emerged. the communes laid the foundation for the cy and they still are today.”9 Therefore the rural or valley coopera- decentralization of the cantons. Most of the cooperatives emanated tives took over other tasks of the common In Switzerland, rural communal auton- from medieval meadow regulations or, work besides their traditional ones during omy and urban republicanism prevailed as in other words, from the “medieval com- the late Middle Ages and in Early Mod- a basis of the communal and cooperative mon grounds” or marks. There are basical- ern Age. Such were the maintenance of civil society until the Helvetic Republic. ly two theories for the origin of the “free roads and bridges or hydraulic engineer- The communes regulated their common mark cooperatives”. On the one hand, they ing, water supply, the building of church- interests within the framework set by the are supposed to go back to the conquest of es or even the duty to care for the poor. authorities; they were responsible for the the Germanic peoples in the early Middle Thus, the rural and valley cooperatives de- security of the commune both in the inside Ages, on the other hand it is emphasized veloped slowly into rural and valley com- and to the outside, and with the city law or that the mark cooperatives were first cre- munes, the foundation of the future fed- the village statutes they established their ated in the High and Late Middle Ages as eral state.12 own jurisdiction. All these rights were ex- mergers of existing village cooperatives. It ercised in the cooperative association, i.e. is certain that the Frankish kingdom con- II.2 Jean Bodin’s theory of sovereignty by all members in the same way.7 Thus, stitution and the feudal system ousted the The French political theorist and philoso- the Confederation represented a counter- early medieval order of the free mark co- pher Jean Bodin (1529/30–1596) is con- model to the feudal European political operatives in many parts of Europe, except sidered the creator of the concept of state order. Next to the communal autonomy or for some places such as in the pre-alpine sovereignty and as the founder of the mod- communal freedom, the “Landsgemeinde– areas of Switzerland, where they have ern theory of sovereignty. Bodin’s major demokratie” had been characterized by the partly continued to exist up to now in the contribution is the work “Les six livres same cooperative principles since the late so-called commons cooperatives, Alpine Middle Ages; however, it was valid for a and forest cooperatives.10 continued on page 11 larger area (several communes), i.e. for a whole (federal) canton. The “Landsgemeinde” served as a “democratic model” for insurgents and oppositional activists in several conflicts of the Ancien Régime. Although the free- dom of fully entitled rural citizens was not considered a natural right but a privilege, in the sense of modern natural law, and as there was no separation of powers, the co-operative democracy of the “Landsge- meinde” was of enormous democratic value for many contemporaries. The Swiss historian Adolf Gasser (1903–1985) highlighted the importance of the economic co-operative principle in a clear and plausible way. According to his findings, the history of Europe was charac- terized and shaped by the strong contrast of two different ethical principles, namely domination and cooperative. In this mani- festation, Gasser states, two worlds were Ring in Ibach, Schwyz. Annual meeting of the Oberallmeind corporation, one of the facing each other that were subject to very oldest cooperatives in Switzerland. (picture E. Roca) No 2/3 3 February 2014 Current Concerns supplement direct democracy Page 11

”The historical roots of …” continued from page 10 de la République” (The six books on the Republic), published in 1576, which is re- garded as the first scientific theory of a constitution.13 He defined his concept of sovereignty as absolute and perpetual power in a state (“puissance absolue et perpétuelle d‘une République”) whose core was the full legislation, which could repeal the old law and create new laws.� Bodin assigned governance that stood above the laws to a specific “owner” – to a prince, the aristocracy or the people – the general power of legislation being this “owner‘s” most important competence. All other governing rights of the sover- eign were derived from it. For Bodin, the limits of the “sovereign- ty” were the general and interdenomina- tional “Loy de Dieu et de nature” (laws Entlebuch Valley. (picture E. Roca) of God and nature), i.e. the divine law and Christian natural law. According to Bodin, phalia. He noted further that on the one democratic freedom mass than once the these limits represented binding legal bar- hand an “aristocratic” and on the other Greeks or the peoples of Italy did [ ... ].”20 riers to the prevailing sovereignty because hand a “democratic” political system ex- For France, however, which then sank a ruler for life was only a ruler in the con- isted in Switzerland. Bodin labeled all back in the throes of civil war, and other text of the Christian natural law.15 federal cities such as Zurich, Berne, Lu- European countries, Bodin clearly favored Referring to Aristotle, Bodin defined cerne, Schaffhausen, Basel, Fribourg, So- the monarchy as the best form of govern- “democracy” as an antonym of “monar- lothurn and Geneva aristocracies. ment. chy” and “aristocracy”. The decisive ques- Bodin subsumed all places with tion was who held the sovereignty and how “Landsgemeinden”, including the Grisons, II.3 The connectedness of the Christian was it applied in practice. Bodin spoke of in the second category, i.e. the democratic natural law with modern natural law – a democracy, in case the decisions on mat- state: “In the towns of Uri, Schwyz, Unter- the School of Salamanca ters of sovereignty were taken in meetings walden, Zug, Glarus and Appenzell, which Almost at the same time as Bodin, i.e. in by majority vote. The majority of male are all pure democracies and – since their the second half of the 16th century, the community citizens would have to have population consists of mountain dwellers Spanish School of Salamanca laid an im- access to these meetings. If it was a mi- – are particularly concerned about the portant foundation to further develop nat- nority of people who acted as “owner” of self-determination of the people, a public ural law and international law. For Bodin the sovereignty, Bodin spoke of an aristoc- meeting will even be held in addition to Christian natural law was a clear bounda- racy. If one man decided alone, he called the extraordinary cantonal days each year, ry which the representatives of the School this monarchy. The sovereign authority al- on the occasion of which almost the entire of Salamanca were now expanding. They ways decided in the last instance. population aged 14 and over participates. derived their natural law arguments from As the only examples of functioning [ ... ] This is especially true for the Grison a very free and partly new dealing with democracies Bodin mentioned certain communes which according to their con- the theological tradition.21 cantons of the Swiss Confederation. His stitution and administration are as purely Historical background was the discov- first important statement was about the democratic as no other state.”18 ery and conquest of South and Central sovereignty of the Confederation and its In his main work Bodin referred to the America by the Spaniards and Portuguese, individual parts. For Bodin the confedera- example of the “Landsgemeinde” com- the economic processes of change as well cy of the Swiss Confederation and its sov- munes over and over again and considered as humanism and the Reformation. They ereign parts (federal cantons) did basical- the question of how a democratic system put the traditional concepts of the Roman ly no longer belong to the German Reich. was created and what requirements were Catholic Church under increasing pressure They were separate and sovereign repub- necessary. He wondered why it had been at the beginning of the 16th century and lics, even though many cantons would possible at all that the Confederates estab- required something like a colonial ethics even see themselves as members of the lished such democracies: “However, one and a new business ethics.22 Reich.16 “As an example we have the thir- might argue, did the Confederates not es- The Spanish jurist and humanist Fer- teen Swiss cantons, each of which is sov- tablish a magnificent democracy, ruled nando Vázquez de Menchaca (1512–1569) ereign and accepts no princes and mon- themselves for more than 300 years and referred to the tradition of Christian nat- archs of the world as its sovereign.” 17 thereby not only protected themselves ural law, which had been influenced by Hence Switzerland did not make one sin- from a tyranny, but also expelled the ty- Thomas Aquinas. This tradition assumed gle republic, but 13 of them and together rants in their neighboring places?”19 that divine, perpetually valid rules of law with the allied cantons there were even 22 Other reasons that Bodin mentioned were prevailing above the positive right. republics. were the mentality of the Swiss (“le na- At the top was the “lex aeterna” by which Bodin thus confirmed the de facto se- turel du peuple”), the topography of the God was acting, and then came the “lex cession from the German Empire that had country, the expulsion of a large part of divina” in the second place, which God been existing since the Peace of Basel in the nobility and ethical causes such as had directly passed on to the people in his 1499, and which in 1648 also became a equality and moderation: “The Swiss, it de jure secession under the Peace of West- seems, make a more moderate use of their continued on page 12 No 2/3 3 February 2014 Current Concerns supplement direct democracy Page 12

”The historical roots of …” of a uniform international law had a deci- continued from page 11 sive influence on European legal and po- litical philosophy in the 18th and 19th cen- writings. Last was the “lex naturalis” that tury and became one of the pioneers of God had planted into men, so that they the Enlightenment. His emphasis on the were able to recognize the plan of the importance of interpersonal relationships world. Thus the Christian natural law al- and moral categories established a person- ready included the idea of the reasonable al view of man and promoted a discussion nature of man23, according to Vázquez.� of values. The topics of popular sovereign- This idea was the decisive starting point ty and democracy were included in these for the development of secular, modern debates which in the 18th century laid the natural law. foundation for the American and French The reference to Thomas Aquinas made declarations of human rights.27 it possible for Vázquez and other repre- The development of the Confederation sentatives of the School of Salamanca to gathered momentum in the 18th century by take up urgent problems of their time and the influence of the European Enlighten- theoretically connect them with Christian ment, which was extensively debated in natural law. Although Vázquez was firmly Switzerland and complemented with our rooted in the scholastic tradition he made own approaches.28 In political and legal this tradition useful for modern natural Detail from the front facade of the Uni- sciences, enlightened thinkers took up the law, which is based on the concept of orig- versity of Salamanca. (Bild E. Roca) ideas of the School of Salamanca and of inal freedom and equality of all people.24 finition ofsovereignty and the presentation modern natural law according to Pufen- The Jesuit Francisco Suárez (1548– of the cooperative principle – constitue the dorf, which gained particular importance 1617), who mainly taught at the Universi- key elements of democratic theory, which through the Western-Swiss school of nat- ty of Coimbra in Portugal, also influenced was the basis for Enlightenment demands the School of Salamanca and to some ex- such as the constitution and the rule of law, continued on page 13 tent anticipated the idea of “popular sov- popular sovereignty and human rights and ereignty”. In 1612, in his “Treatise on the the separation of powers. laws and God, the legislator” Suárez wrote that God was the source of state power II.4 Samuel Pufendorf and the (sovereignty) and the “entire community”, “Ecole Romande du droit naturel” i.e. the people, were the recipients of nat- The German natural law philosopher ural law and so the source of this power. Samuel Pufendorf (1632–1694) start- Contrary to the teaching of divine right ed from a purely secular idea of justice Suárez explained that God had never cho- and understood natural law as an empir- sen a single person or a particular group ical science. God’s law, Pufendorf said, of people to be the holder of state power. was unknown to man, but the insight into After receiving the state power the peo- natural law was possible with the help of ple could exercise this power themselves “ratio” and human reason was the “sole or voluntarily hand it over to an individu- source of knowledge of natural law”: al or body. Suárez’ derivation of the state “Natural law thus teaches people how from the divine right and from natural law they have to spend this life in a true com- thus regarded the people as the grading munity with other people.”26 Pufendorf and shaping force of the state. In this con- largely freed natural law from theology, text, the people would also be assigned a so it should make sense to all rational peo- right of resistance.25 ple, even non-Christians. The Jesuit Francisco Suarez (1548– The description of the fundaments of Pufendorf with his legal interpretation 1617). Fresco in the Jesuit church of modern natural law – together with the de- of a secular natural law and his advocacy Salamanca. (picture E. Roca)

“Landsgemeinde” in Appenzell Inner-Rhodes at the end of the 18th century. Oil painting by an unknown artist.(picture wikipedia) No 2/3 3 February 2014 Current Concerns supplement direct democracy Page 13

”The historical roots of …” ou principes du the basis for the “old communal freedom”. continued from page 12 droit politique” Rousseau described this process in his So- (1762). The idea cial Contract as follows: “The Sovereign, ural law (“Ecole romande du droit na- of an agreement having no force other than the legislative turel”).�29 and the theory power, acts only by means of the laws; and This school was the actual mediator of sovereignty the laws being solely the authentic acts of between the German and the French En- were developed the general will, the Sovereign cannot act lightenment. The first representative of in the era of Eu- save when the people is assembled. […] the “Ecole Romande” was Jean Barbey- ropean religious There must be fixed periodical assemblies rac (1674–1744). He lectured at the Acad- and civil wars. […].”35 Rousseau impressively praised the emy of Lausanne and came forward with Both conceptu- Jean-Jacques Rousseau special case of the Swiss Confederation – (picture wikipedia) French translations of Pufendorf and Gro- al approaches in the spirit of Gasser’s “community eth- tius. In 1706, Barbeyrac published an showed a way out of the social and polit- ics”. “When, among the happiest people in annotated French translation of Samu- ical disruption. These pillars of the mod- the world, bands of peasants are seen reg- el Pufendorf’s major work, which some ern state theory were taken over by Rous- ulating affairs of State under an oak, and years later became the basis for the Ger- seau; however, he radicalized the concept always acting wisely, can we help scorn- man translation. He strongly influenced of sovereignty into a doctrine of popular ing the ingenious methods of other na- his scholar, Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui sovereignty. He thus provided the decisive tions, which make themselves illustrious (1694–1748) who revolutionary theory on the basis of which and wretched with so much art and mys- worked at the Ge- the instruments of direct democracy were tery?”36 neva Academy.30 developed. At another point Rousseau mentioned As late as in 1747, In his “Contrat Social” Rousseau added the importance of mergers and confed- a year before his remarks on cooperative democracy in the erations, referring, no doubt, to the alli- death, Burlamaqui Confederation and considered Switzerland ance network of the Confederation, which published his first a republican model. He explicitly listed shaped the Swiss Confederation up to the book in Geneva, conditions that in his eyes had to be re- Helvetic Republic. This is an important in- entitled “Princi- alized in order to implement his idea of dication that Rousseau imagined the soci- pes du droit na- a social contract and popular sovereignty: etal structure from bottom to top: Starting turel” (principles Jean-Jacques “First, a very small State, where the peo- with free communes, constituted on the of natural law). The Burlamaqui ple can readily be assembled and where basis of a social contract and linked with “Principes du droit (picture wikipedia) each citizen can with ease know all the each other, this association developed to a politique” (princi- rest; secondly, great simplicity of man- federation and thus characterizes the state- ples of political law) were posthumously ners, to prevent business from multiplying building process. Unfortunately Rousseau published in 1751. Both works were large- and raising thorny problems; next, a large did not go into the federalist thought any ly taken note of in the French and Eng- measure of equality in rank and fortune, deeper (except at points in his essay on lish-speaking area. In the German-speak- without which equality of rights and au- Poland), but implicitly his ideas result ing areas they were virtually ignored. thority cannot long subsist; lastly, little or in a relatively clear concept of the “con- It is interesting for the democracy de- no luxury.”33 struction principle” of autonomous small bate that both Catholic and Reformed This passage clearly shows that Rous- areas and state metropolitan areas. Gasser scholars (Lutherans as well as Calvin- seau’s idea of a democratic polity was commented on this principle, referring to ists) dealt intensively with natural law. limited to “autonomous small areas”, to Rousseau. “Especially the popular sover- An important bridge between the Chris- a political system that is politically man- eignty must be fully and clearly formed in tian denominations was Hugo Grotius ageable. With the above description he the life circles nearest to the people, in the (1583–1645), who knew the writings of probably meant, without explicitly say- communes, if it is to be perceived by the important representatives of the School of ing so and apart from his admired ancient population in the general state as a liv- Salamanca. Grotius himself laid important democracy, the Swiss Confederation, re- ing reality”.37� The State would thus, ac- foundations for the definition of the mod- spectively individual cantons, which were cording to Gasser’s interpretation of Rous- ern natural law and international law in his marked by such conditions in the 18th cen- seau, be a voluntary contractual federation writings. As mentioned above, his writ- tury (see Bodin’s comments). of communes. ings were translated by Barbeyrac, who, Next Rousseau emphasized the impor- Rousseau theoretically took the step among others, laid thus the foundation for tance of the “Ancient Right” and in this from the pre-modern, i.e. the cooperative, the Romande School of natural law. For context the legal tradition in terms of cus- to modern democracy and thus contribut- Switzerland and the development of di- tomary law, as it had been formed during ed fruitfully to the discussion on democ- rect democracy, this process was signifi- the Ancien Régime in Switzerland: “Why racy in Switzerland. His basis was mod- cant, since the Ecole Romande was very then is so much respect paid to old laws? ern natural law with its personal view of important for the discussion of modern For this very reason. We must believe that man. His revolutionary concept of popu- natural law in Switzerland. Thus, Rous- nothing but the excellence of old acts of lar sovereignty, which established a com- seau in his attempt to understand the idea will can have preserved them so long: if pletely new understanding of the state, of popular sovereignty better, referred to the Sovereign had not recognized them was the pivotal point in the first half of the Burlamaqui’s doctrine of natural law.31 as throughout salutary, it would have re- 19th century, based on which cooperative voked them a thousand times.”34 democracy developed in the cantons with II.5 Jean-Jacques Rousseau In many Swiss cantons and communes, “Landsgemeinde”38 and direct democrat- and his idea of popular the “Landsgemeinde” or communal as- ic instruments such as the veto were in- sovereignty based on natural law sembly, and thus the power to independent troduced in some Swiss cantons.39 In the Born in Geneva Jean-Jacques Rousseau local legislation within the understanding second half of the 19th century rural popu- (1712–1778) 32 wrote a groundbreaking of the cooperative principle, was the cru- lar movements – particularly in the wake work on the subject of democracy and sov- cial political event. The right autonomous- ereignty with his book “Du contrat social ly set by a commune in Switzerland was continued on page 14 No 2/3 3 February 2014 Current Concerns supplement direct democracy Page 14

”The historical roots of …” ocratic awareness bottom-up. Recently Asia and Latin America, various coun- continued from page 13 it was Hamburg – of the old states – that tries are trying to test participatory forms drew attention. Several times, Hamburg of politics following from their own histo- of the Democratic Movement of the 1860s citizens succeeded in making their main ry and culture. In western countries, these – enforced direct democracy in virtually political points by means of initiatives. developments are little noticed. Three ex- all Swiss cantons. The introduction of the But several times, the political elites in amples may illustrate this development in Referendum (1874) and the Constitutional Germany were able to prevent the reduc- a nutshell. Initiative (1891) at state level created a po- tion of unnecessarily high obstacles or the In the African country Mali the civil litical system for Switzerland that is abso- introduction of direct democratic rights on society tried to put the country on a new lutely unique worldwide and a model ac- a federal level.41 basis after the colonial period and a peri- cordingly. What is the situation like today Slovenia can be recognized as another od that was characterized by military dic- regarding direct democracy in the rest of example. This country that became inde- tatorships. They wanted to split political Europe and the non-European area? pendent twenty years ago has introduced power not only horizontally but also ver- a wide range of popular rights on the fed- tically. In 2002, the public administration III. Direct democracy eral and the local level. Practicing direct reform was started by considering this in a European Context democracy and developing the political purpose. This meant the promotion of a Since 1830, an important element for the culture connected with it, however, takes decentralized development from bottom democratic development in Switzerland time and patience and is often character- to top with the formation and strength- as well as in Europe has been the devel- ized by severe conflicts. As mentioned ening of cooperatively working commu- opment of a specific culture of assemblies above, this was not different in Switzer- nities. The resulting village citizenship which was taking up older forms of pro- land. Since Slovenia has a competitive began to break the traditional clan-econo- test. In Switzerland these assemblies were and not a concordance system, the current my and partly successfully fought corrup- called “Volkstage” (people’s days). So in opposing party repeatedly misused direct tion. Such a development requires time.45 the years 1830/31 “Volkstage” were held democracy for making a name for them- Unfortunately, the promising begin- in the cantons Thurgau, Aargau, Luzern, selves. This is increasingly polarizing the nings in Mali were again destroyed. In Zurich, St. Gallen, Solothurn and Berne. political system. The population can only March 2012, the military staged a coup, They initiated a phase of “regeneration”. stop this process if they take politics into with a resulting increase of internal Mali Citizens from the cities and the coun- their own hands, enriching the political conflicts. With the military intervention of tryside and from diverse political back- interaction with their own referenda and France in January 2013, Mali sank back to grounds met in a casual manner and dis- initiatives (this is increasingly true also the status of a neo-colonial country, whose cussed current political issues. Within for Switzerland). Another complication democratic development the European the context of these “Landsgemeinden”, in Slovenia is certainly that it became a countries sacrificed in favor of their geo- as they were also called at the time, es- member of the European Union (EU) in political interests. It is hoped that after the pecially catholic conservatives and early 2004 and Brussels’s increasing tendencies presidential elections the country will be socialists demanded more direct partici- towards centralization are not exactly fos- able to follow again its independent dem- pation. Resulting from this culture of as- tering the national and sovereign rights of ocratic way.46 semblies, popular movements were often the citizens.42 In Asia for example, Mongolia aims at formed which developed substantial vigor In the Treaty of Lisbon the European establishing direct democracy following due to their wide political support. The Union has introduced, in its own wording, the Swiss model. The Mongolian Pres- liberals were opposing demands for more the “revolutionary instrument” of a Euro- ident visited Switzerland several times. direct democracy because they were just pean Citizens’ Initiative. With this right, On these occasions he informed himself starting to form a new political elite them- one million citizens from at least one third about Swiss direct democracy and feder- selves. At most they voted for a represent- of the EU member states can initiate legis- alism. The Swiss Agency for Development ative democracy.40 lative action in the Brussels Commission. and Cooperation (SDC) supports such An essentially liberal cause was, how- But the initiative is only a right to apply or concerns and tries to contribute the demo- ever, the freedom of the press which, in to make propositions. The EU Commis- cratic model of Switzerland to the discus- combination with the principle of public sion has the right to decide what is going sion around the world. This is an impor- access to official records, had to be won to happen. There is no guarantee for a vote tant work performed with respect to the in tedious struggle in Switzerland and the in the EU.43 global promotion of democracy, and gen- rest of Europe. In parallel, the establish- Since the successful “Abzocker” (rip- erates the fruitful exchange of ideas and ment of a primary school was an essen- off) initiative the number of voices in the policies between countries.47 tial topic in the European countries. Thus European countries admiring the Swiss Today, the Latin American countries the education issue received attention as a political system has grown again. In the are at the top of direct-democratic devel- postulate of enlightenment. “Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung”, econ- opments. Bolivia can be presented as an However, next to the USA, as far as omists even entitled their article “Mehr example with a new constitution since European countries are concerned, only Schweiz wagen!” (Dare More Switzer- 2009. The Constitution was drafted by a England, and temporarily, France, devel- land!) and came to the conclusion that di- directly elected constitutional assembly oped a liberal-representative constitution- rect democracy in Swiss style would be and subsequently adopted by the popu- al system. In the other European countries beneficial also for the EU. The more cit- lation with a constitutional referendum. the democratic development was arduous izens were able to decide on politics di- Never before had such a Constitution and frequently brutally oppressed. Thus, rectly and also control it, the state would been anchored in the population, as citi- except for a short period after World War become leaner and the public debt would zens were directly involved in drafting it. I, the democratic principle asserted itself decrease.44 Important paragraphs for instance relate to only after the fall of the Berlin Wall after the nationalization of mineral resources, 1989. Positive examples are the new states IV. Direct democracy the introduction of co-operative business in former East Germany which introduced in an international context models and the granting of rights to the in- more direct democracy in their state con- In the international context direct democ- stitutions, trying to strengthen the dem- racy is one of the top issues. In Africa, continued on page 16 No 2/3 3 February 2014 Current Concerns supplement direct democracy Page 15

People’s assembly at Uster 1830. (picture wikipedia)

Curriculum Vitae cc. Dr phil erale Katholizismus der Sonder- racy“ and in this context, he organ- René Roca was bundszeit. Religion und Politik in ized numerous workshops. In this born in Zu- Luzern (1830-1848)“ (“Bernhard context, he also organized the sci- rich in 1961 Meyer and the liberal Catholicism entific conference “Ways to Direct and lives in of the time of the “Sonderbund”. Democracy in the Swiss Cantons” in Oberrohrdorf- Religion and politics in Lucerne”) cooperation with the “Center for St a r e t s c h w il with Prof Dr Carlo Moos in 2001. Democracy Studies” (ZDA) 2010 in (ct AG) today, From 2000–2005 together with Aarau. He published a conference where he has Erika Vögeli, he took over the chief volume with the same title together acted as com- editorial of the then monthly news- with Prof Dr Andreas Auer in 2011. Dr René Roca munal council- paper Zeit-Fragen in honorary of- In 2012, he published his habili- (picture ma) lor since 2003 fice, which later appeared weekly. tation treatise entitled “Wenn die (independent). Until today, he writes numerous ar- Volkssouveränität wirklich eine From 1985 to 1991 he studied ticles for our newspaper and contin- Wahrheit werden soll … Die sch- General history, German literature ues to support the cooperative Zeit- weizerische direkte Demokratie in and philosophy at the University of Fragen. He continuously publishes Theorie und Praxis – Das Beispiel des Zurich. In addition he attended class- for other newspapers and maga- Kantons Luzern.“ (“If the sovereign- es at the Psychological Teaching and zines and furthermore he is a free- ty of the people is really to become Counseling Center Friedrich Liebling lancer in the Historical Dictionary true ... The Swiss direct democracy because he was very interested in of Switzerland (HLS), a fundamen- in theory and practice – The case of the psychological and political issues tal work of Swiss history. the Canton of Lucerne”). being discussed there. He was also Thanks to a grant from the “Foun- In March 2013 the “Forum for one of the founding members of the dation Psychological Teaching and the Study of Direct Democracy” has Association for the Advancement of Counseling Center” he was able to been further developed by him to Psychological Knowledge of Human realize his habilitation project on the the “Research Institute of Direct De- Nature (VPM), which was founded topic “Emergence and development mocracy“, which has the purpose to in 1986 and dissolved in 2002. of Swiss direct democracy“ and thus initiate further research in the field Since 1992, he has taught as a laid the foundation for his further of direct democracy and allied top- secondary school teacher in Lu- research activity in the field of the ics, such as the cooperative move- cerne, Zurich and since 2003 in history of democracy. ment, and to conduct presentations Basel. He concluded his disserta- In 2006, he founded the “Forum and academic conferences on the tion, “Bernhard Meyer und der lib- for the Research of Direct Democ- topic. (see www.fidd.ch ) No 2/3 3 February 2014 Current Concerns supplement direct democracy Page 16

2 23 ”The historical roots of …” Roca, René. “Wenn die Volkssouveränität wirklich Glockengiesser, Iris. Mensch – Staat – Völkerge- eine Wahrheit werden soll … Die schweizer- meinschaft. Eine rechtsphilosophische Untersu- continued from page 14 ische direkte Demokratie in Theorie und Praxis chung zur Schule von Salamanca, Berne 2011, – Das Beispiel des Kantons Luzern, Schriften zur pp. 11–13. Demokratieforschung”, Volume 6, Zurich-Basel- 24 Seelmann 2000, pp. 218–224. digenous population. Furthermore, the in- Geneva 2012. 25 Brieskorn, Norbert. “Francisco Suárez – Leben und 3 Roca, René. “Souveränität und Demokratie – Der Werk”, in: Suárez, Francisco, Abhandlung über troduction of popular rights was codified. Weg zur naturrechtlich begründeten Volkssou- die Gesetze und Gott, den Gesetzgeber (1612), According to the constitutional assembly, veränität und zur direkten Demokratie (16. bis 19. translated, edited and an annex added by Norbert popular rights should lead to more partici- Jh.)”, in: Roca 2012, pp. 7–94. Brieskorn, Freiburg i/B. 2002, pp. 653–656. 4 These were the cantons Aargau, Berne, Fribourg, 26 Pufendorf, Samuel von. Über die Pflicht des Men- pation in the shaping of the political com- Lucerne, Schaffhausen, Solothurn, St. Gallen, schen und des Bürgers nach dem Gesetz der Natur, munity. The promotion of direct democ- Thurgau, Vaud, Zurich, cf. Schaffner, Martin: “Di- edited and translated by Klaus Luig, Frankfurt a/M racy is, however, hindered or restricted in rekte Demokratie. Alles für das Volk – alles durch 1994, p. 15. practice by the powerful position of the das Volk”, in: Eine kleine Geschichte der Schweiz. 27 Dufour, Alfred. Naturrecht, in: Historisches Der Bundesstaat und seine Traditionen, Frankfurt Lexikon der Schweiz (HLS), Vol. 9, Basel 2010, p. executive, consisting of the President and a/M 1998, pp. 189–226. 102; Gagnebin, Bernard. Burlamaqui et le droit na- other institutions. Bolivia’s path is cer- 5 The “Landsgemeinde” or “cantonal assembly” is turel, Genf 1941. tainly still a long one to further reduce the one of the oldest forms of direct democracy.[…] 28 Lütteken, Anett; Mahlmann-Bauer, Barbara (Ed.). Eligible citizens of the canton meet on a certain Johann Jakob Bodmer und Johann Jakob Breiting- distance between society and state and to day in the open air to decide on laws and expendi- er im Netzwerk der europäischen Aufklärung, Göt- increase the citizens’ control of political tures by the council. Everyone can debate a ques- tingen 2009. leaders’ actions. But in Bolivia and other tion. (Wikipedia) 29 Kölz, Alfred. Neuere schweizerische Verfassungs- 6 Giacometti, Zaccaria. “Die rechtliche Stellung der geschichte. Ihre Grundlinien vom Ende der Alten Latin American countries much has been Gemeinden in der Schweiz”, in: Bridel, Marcel Eidgenossenschaft bis 1848, Berne 1992, pp. 41. 48 achieved. (Ed.). Die direkte Gemeindedemokratie in der 30 Riklin, Alois. Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui und die Overall, with these and numerous Schweiz, Zurich 1952, pp. 12–14. Genfer Aristodemokratie (Beiträge und Berichte other examples one can quite confident- 7 Weinmann, Barbara. Eine andere Bürgergesells- des Instituts für Politikwissenschaft der Hochs- chaft. Klassischer Republikanismus und Kommu- chule St. Gallen, Band 130), St. Gallen 1989, p. 3. ly speak of a global development of di- nalismus im Kanton Zürich im späten 18. und 19. 31 Roca 2012, p. 51–53. rect democracy. In Western countries we Jahrhundert, Göttingen 2002, p. 17. 32 Jacob, François, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, in: His- should pay more attention to this devel- 8 Gasser, Adolf. Gemeindefreiheit als Rettung Eu- torisches Lexikon der Schweiz (HLS), Vol. 10, ropas. Grundlinien einer ethischen Geschichtsauf- Basel 2011. pp. 499–501. opment. fassung, second, strongly enlarged edition, Basel 33 http://www.kingsacademy.com/mhodges/08_Clas- 1947, p. 13. sics-Library/enlightenment/rousseau/social-con- V. Conclusion 9 Von Wartburg, Wolfgang. Geschichte der Schweiz, tract/social-contract-03.htm Munich 1951, p. 17. 34 Ibid. The historical experiences of Switzer- 10 Stadler, Hans. “Genossenschaft”, in: Historisches 35 Ibid. land show that the introduction of direct Lexikon der Schweiz (HLS), Vol. 5, Basel 2006, pp. 36 http://www.archive.org/stream/therepublicofpla- democratic instruments requires a lot of 280. 00rousuoft/therepublicofpla00rousuoft_djvu.txt time, persistence and perseverance. Mean- 11 Bader, Karl Siegfried. Studien zur Rechtsge- 37 Gasser, Adolf. Bürgermitverantwortung als Grund- schichte des mittelalterlichen Dorfes, 3 parts, Wei- lage echter Demokratie, in: Gasser, Adolf, Staatli- while, direct democracy has become an mar and Vienna/Cologne/Graz 1957–1973. cher Grossraum und autonome Kleinräume, Basel integral part of Switzerland’s political cul- 12 Roca, René. “Genossenschaften als Kulturgut”, in: 1976, p. 42. ture. But each generation must appreciate “Neue Zürcher Zeitung”, No 210, 10 September 38 Adler, Benjamin. Die Entstehung der direkten 2012, p. 15. Demokratie. Das Beispiel der Landsgemeinde anew the value of this institution and re- 13 Mayer-Tasch, Peter Cornelius. “Einführung in Jean Schwyz 1789–1866, Zurich 2006. alize that you have to defend it as well. Bodins Leben und Werk”, in: Bodin, Jean. Sechs 39 Wickli, Bruno. Politische Kultur und die “reine This is the only way to preserve and fur- Bücher über den Staat, Buch I-III, translated and Demokratie”. Verfassungskämpfe und ländliche commented by Bernd Wimmer, with an introduc- Volksbewegungen im Kanton St. Gallen 1814/15 ther develop direct democracy. It is not tion and edited by P.C. Mayer-Tasch, Munich 1981, und 1830/31, St. Gallen 2006; Roca 2012, p. 61f. simply a political instrument that can be p. 56. 40 Roca 2012, pp. 73-94 used somehow but it requires the neces- 14 Bodin, Jean, “Sechs Bücher über den Staat, Buch I, 41 Hamburg ist Spitzenreiter bei direkter Demokratie, sary sense of proportion and proper re- 8. Kapitel”, Munich 1981, p. 205 in: Hamburger Morgenpost, October 1, 2013 15 Quaritsch, Helmut. “Souveränität”, in: Historisches 42 Papst, Volker. Ungeliebte Direktdemokratie in spect, certain virtues which must be ac- Wörterbuch der Philosophie (Band 9), Basel 1995, Slowenien, in: Neue Zürcher Zeitung, July 19, 2011 quired in one’s upbringing and education. pp. 1104; Dennert, Jürgen. “Bemerkungen zum 43 Ammann, Bean. Ein neues politisches Initiativre- Switzerland can be proud of its democrat- politischen Denken Jean Bodins”, in: Denzer, Horst cht in der EU, in: Neue Zürcher Zeitung, March 31, (Ed.). Jean Bodin. Verhandlungen der interna- 2012 ic system and should represent the model tionalen Bodin-Tagung in München, Munich 1973, 44 Feld, Lars; Wohlgemut, Michael. Mehr Schweiz of direct democracy on a global scale even p. 230. wagen!, in: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, April in a more offensive approach as well as 16 Maissen, Thomas. Die Geburt der Republic. 22, 2013 Staatsverständnis und Repräsentation in der früh- 45 Schneeberger, Jane-Lise. Eine Beziehung, die Au- further encourage such sharing between neuzeitlichen Eidgenossenschaft, 2. Altered edi- tonomie fördert, in: Eine Welt, no 3, September the countries. • tion, Göttingen 2008, p. 58. 2006, p. 14f 17 Bodin 1981, p. 279. 46 Rist, Manfred. Frankreich führt und exponiert sich First published: brochure, editor: “Aktion für eine 18 Bodin 1981, p. 395.. in Afrika, in: Neue Zürcher Zeitung, 15. Januar unabhängige und neutrale Schweiz” (Campaign for 19 Bodin 1981, p. 402. 2013. an Independent and Neutral Switzerland, AUNS), 20 Bodin 1981, p. 627; Roca 2012, pp. 25–32. 47 Fischer, Peter A. Eine lebendige asiatische 2013. 21 Roca 2012, pp. 32–34. Demokratie im Stresstest, in: Neue Zürcher Zei- 22 Seelmann, Kurt. Theologische Wurzeln des säku- tung, 11. Juni 2010. laren Naturrechts. “Das Beispiel Salamanca”, in: 48 Schilling-Vacaflor, Almut; Barrera, Anna. Latein- 1 Frey, Bruno S.. “Je demokratischer, desto glück- Willoweit, Dietmar (Hg.). Die Begründung des amerikas neue Verfassungen: Triebfedern für direk- licher”, in: Credit Suisse Bulletin, No 6, 1999, Rechts als historisches Problem, Munich 2000, te Demokratie und soziale Rechte? In: GIGA Focus, p. 11. pp. 215–226. Institut für Lateinamerika-Studien, no 2, 2011, p. 1. No 2/3 3 February 2014 Current Concerns Page 17 And that’s final: Small communes come off best in every respect Three Glarus communes are in the red instead in the rose future promised by Dr iur Marianne Wüthrich Certainly you remember 7 May 2006: In the “Landsgemeinde” (cantonal assem- Small–scale approach and direct democracy bly) of Glarus a narrow majority decid- provide the best conditions regarding location ed to merge the 25 political communes of mw. The Swiss Confederation consists always settled not just in the cities, but the canton into three major communes. of 26 equal cantons and semi-cantons across the entire country. School communes, political communes on a par with each other, comprising Each Swiss commune has developed and “Tagwen” (boroughs) were packed about 2,600 communes today. Deplor- throughout the centuries following the in three large packages without voters in ing the smallness of a canton and its cooperative principle and thereby quite the concerned communes having the op- communities as a locational disadvan- naturally cooperated with the neighbor- ing communes for the tasks which were portunity to voice their opinion. tage is disgraceful and is certainly not home-made. In Switzerland there are all beyond their strengths. In associations How could it happen that many citi- sizes of cantons: from the tiny Canton of of local authorities for the joint manage- zens in the Canton of Glarus were willing Appenzell-Innerrhoden up to the Can- ment of a particular service two com- to dissolve their communes which they felt ton of Zurich with a population of one munes established the fire brigade; four closely connected to? And what remains million, and every canton has its raison villages run a common high school. For of the promises, by which some politicians d’être. Precisely because of the small- very large projects, such as a waste dis- tried to make a name for themselves three scale structure and tight direct demo- posal facility or a hospital, smaller com- years after the establishment of the new cratic control in the cantons and com- munes often join an institution of the large formations? munes, Switzerland has become one nearest town and bear their share. All One shouldn’t underestimate the im- of the world’s wealthiest countries. In this works very well in the whole coun- Switzerland business and industry have try. portance of precisely those smaller com- munities as habitats with their people’s Good financial situation of the Glarus close relationships and beneficial person- structures, strong communes, healthy fi- communes prior to the merger – al and social effects in today’s world with nances” were going to fix it according to disillusionment after the merger its great economic and human problems. the Memorial. (p. 131) Let’s not thoughtlessly give up this basic It is precisely the mood of the rural and The fact is: the financial situation of the cornerstone of federalist, direct-demo- mountain population that is captured here communes of Glarus was far better prior cratic and economically powerful Swit- effectively, since we Swiss are accustomed to the merger than after. In the Memori- zerland. to keep our fiscal balance in order in the al to “Landsgemeinde” of Glarus 2009 communes just as in the families. One gets we read that the financial situation of the Since 1 January 2011, there are only three into debt only in an extreme emergency, communes left in the Canton of Glarus. and then one settles one’s debts as quickly Entitled “GL 2011: 3 strong communes as possible. In direct democracy citizens There is no doubt about it: – a competitive canton” there is an arti- keep an eye on the communal authorities Large communes run into greater cle on the cantonal website, reading: “The not to kick over the traces. Today instead debts than a small one Canton of Glarus has radically simplified of staying with this proven and highly effi- its communal structures and thus has pre- cient system, some cantonal governments mw. If it were true that big communes can control their budget better than pared itself for the challenges of the fu- are deceived by foreign ideas that go to- small ones thanks to greater “synergy ture.” gether like chalk and cheese with the fed- potential”: Even after years of propaganda by ad- eralist structures of Switzerland. With fi- – Why do cities such as Zurich, Basel, vocates of merged regional units, metro- nancial enticements the try to lure the Geneva and Berne have immense politan areas, nature parks and similar ar- citizens to dissolve their communes and debts then? tificial structures it remains in the dark the latter agree with a heavy heart and in – Why has the federal debt tripled in how a canton with a few large communes the misguided hope of an alleged better recent decades; why have the debts should be more competitive than one hav- “efficiency” of greater communes. of the cantons doubled while the ing 25 communes. But despite such strik- Experience has shown that small com- debts of the Swiss communes have ing claims couldn’t be reasoned in any munes come off quite well in every re- increased only by 30 percent in the same period? way, they are still busily repeated accord- spect – humane, social and financial. For ing to the motto “Constant dripping wears a small commune to work well a good away the stone”. mayor is required as well as many citi- zens who voluntarily take on any duty in 25 communes significantly improved be- May 2006: Population is led astray the commune, in a commission or a cultur- tween 2003 and 2007, that they were even In the Spring of 2006, some busy politi- al or social institution working as member in a position to bear the necessary invest- cians kept on at the people from Glarus of a militia. ment by their own funds. (cf. Memorial to dissolve their communes. So one could Who ever wants to replace the militia to the “Landsgemeinde” of Glarus 2009, read in the then memorial: “A lot of com- system with a bureaucratic administra- p. 65) How many cities and states in the munal finances are in a precarious situa- tive apparatus and claims that this would world could claim that? tion. In 2000 communal assets amount- be cheaper, is lying. By the way – a cen- And what about the situation at the end ed still to about 24 million Swiss francs, tralized state would have the very simplest of 2013? “Two and a half years after the but a debt of over 6 million francs resulted organizational structure. Let’s watch out, merger of the 25 Glarus communes into in 2003.” (Memorial for the Assembly of that we do not end up there faster as we the Canton of Glarus 2006, p. 130) “Lean would like to! continued on page 18 No 2/3 3 February 2014 Current Concerns Page 18

”And that’s final: small communities …” The cantonal authorities’ continued from page 17 “Milchbüechlirechnung” A good word for (milkman’s account) the Financial Compensation three large communes it is evident: no sav- As a matter of fact, at the time when the mw. Why should smaller and larg- ings, but red figures.” (“Tages-Anzeiger” “Landsgemeinde” of 2006 took place the er, financially weaker and financial- of 3.9.2013) canton’s finances were in far less good ly stronger communes, cities and rural “The Glarus population is increasingly condition than those of the communes. areas not be able to coexist as it has losing confidence in politics. Many peo- (Memorial in 2009, p. 65). In this situa- been practice for centuries in the suc- cessful model Switzerland? ple are confused and concerned. […] The tion the merger ideas of the government The financial compensation, i.e. the new communal structures do not bring of Glarus and the head of the “Landrat” support of one commune or of one (yet) the hoped-for financial benefits, (cantonal parliament) – instilled by fed- canton by the other is an expression of which have been promised to the people eral Berne, fed by foreign countries and the federalist approach and the coop- long ago. The reorganization takes enor- worked out by armies of consulting com- erative principle in our country. mous efforts, time and money. (“Fridolin” panies which earn a golden thumb with It corresponds with the people’s com- of 17.10.2013) this “Fusionitis” – came in just timely. mon sense to help their neighbors in What did the member of the Canton- The “Milchbüechlirechnung” looked need, and also to help the neighboring al Government and President of the Com- as follows: To begin with, some great- commune which is less well-off. The desire to provide help, even far beyond mission Martin Landolt say at the 2006 er communes (seven? ten? three? or even the country’s borders – as is expressed assembly? “The reform of the community only one?) should fix the finances of the in the ICRC – emanates from the same structure paves the way for a future with canton: Thanks to more “efficiency” and approach. This is the foundation, on simpler structures, efficient processes and “synergies” the communes would be so which Switzerland, its cantons and its financial savings. […] The calculations of well off that they could raise the expect- communes have come to flourish. the energy-saving potential are reasona- ed increase of the educational and health ble, whereas doubt about them are merely costs through their own power and there- alleged.” (Protocol of the “Landsgemein- by relieve cantonal taxation: “The local inter-cantonal tax competition! (Memori- de” of Glarus, 7 May 2006, p. 18) structure reform might once more clearly al, p. 66/67) Well-to-do private individuals Is this really so? Of course, each citi- improve the financial situation from 2011 and enterprises would pitch their tents in zen from Glarus, each Valaisan and each on. […] In addition there may be efficien- the Canton of Glarus and fill the cantonal citizen from Schaffhausen knows that the cy gains which will arise with logical use and communal tax cashes again … simplest structures, the most efficient pro- of the savings potential by the structur- The “Landsgemeinde” in 2009 agreed cesses and the lowest costs are realized in al reform.” (Memorial in 2009, p. 66) As to the cantonal tax reduction; was it clear the small communes. A communal mayor a result of this pleasant future vision the to every citizen who lifted his hand that who exercises his mandate as militia com- canton spent money for the time being: the great communes to come would have pensated by a few thousand francs a year, Between 16 and 18 million Swiss francs to raise their local rates in return? “Ac- in addition to his 80% job in the private from the cantonal tax department plus the cording to the new financial adjustment sector or in addition to managing his own takeover of the communes’ debts. (Memo- planned by 2011 the communes will de- small business or a tax administrator, who rial in 2009, p. 66) Of course, the canton fine their taxes which they need for the ful- has her/his office in her/his private house wants to take this money in again during filment of their tasks on their own. This and who charges the commune only the the years after the merger. strengthens their autonomy and allows the rental cost of the room (original quote: “I And what does the Canton of Glarus do canton to lower its taxes, while the com- need a computer anyway”) – I’d like to see in 2009 – just in that year after the eco- munes must raise theirs to the same ex- a “professional” to do better! nomic worst case scenario with big broth- tent.” (Memorial in 2009, p. 67; emphasis And as the common sense has foreseen er on the other side of the Atlantic and the by the author) it, so it happened in the Glarus region: not less severe aftershocks thereby caused In plain English: The so-called today there is nothing visible of the “po- in most European countries? They lower “strengthening of the local autonomy” of tential savings” in the big merger, rather the taxes so that the Canton of Glarus sup- the new great communes consists in the the opposite is the case. posedly should be able to keep up in the fact that they get new duties imposed on them by the canton which will of course The people disturbs cost some bucks. The taxes which the in- mw. “A project for the communal merg- so that it then votes “correctly” in the habitants save by the canton’s tax reduc- er without information procurement, end. Because: The referendum only takes tion they have to fork over in their com- strategy development and implemen- place “at the end of the decision-mak- munes. Respectively, a great deal more, tation, as well as without controlling is ing” [namely the management planners because the asserted savings potential of hard to imagine nowadays.” (“Strategis- and authorities, the author] “and thus ac- the local mergers is nothing but smoke and ches Management und direkte Democra- tually too late”(!!). “Even if this situation mirrors. tie” by Urs Bieri, Member of the Execu- is absolutely legitimate from the direct- tive Board of the Research Institute gfs democratic point of view, it appears un- The bottom line after three years Bern, in: Schweizer Gemeinde 12/2010). satisfactory from the perspective of effi- of large communes: And gfs-representative Bieri continues cient strategic management.” This is the Red figures instead of pink visions regretfully: “However, there are limits to revealing attitude of Mr Bieri, the repre- the strategic management in communal sentative of the gfs Research Institute, And so it happened: In December 2013, reforms. Because in contrast to the clear which produces so-called voting polls on the government of the Canton of Glarus hierarchy of decisions on company level the run meter with our tax money and had to realise: The tax reduction of 2009 there is an important intervening varia- SRF compulsory license fees and thus in- yielded 10 million Swiss francs less tax ble in the political decision-making pro- fluences the voters’ opinions. Howev- money to the communes in 2012. Be- cess: the voters as final decision makers.” er, the vote result is often “unsatisfacto- sides, due to new cantonal laws they had Therefore, you must work on this “inter- ry”, namely not in accordance with the to take over additional costs for education vening variable”, namely the electorate, prophecy of gfs ... continued on page 19 No 2/3 3 February 2014 Current Concerns Page 19

Nothing can replace the “militia” system mw. The militia principle is part of our lic bodies: for the school board, the Financially, the borough X is doing living together and one of the reasons local council, the social security office, well, especially because the Swiss Spon- why people are rooted in their com- also the guardianship authority, even sorship Organization for Mountain munity. Here all active citizens know though this is a very difficult task and Communities has supported us repeat- that they are needed, that their per- it was therefore not easy to find some- edly in our major investments. We have sonal contributions to the communi- one. Incidentally, the population of X been able to experience great solidarity ty are important. Why not motivate has increased by over 40% in the last to a large extent, although this is unfor- people for valuable militia activities, 20 years, from about 330 to about 500 tunately crumbling today. The solidari- instead of denying the small commu- inhabitants, thanks to active residence ty of the sponsorship has always given nities their right to live? marketing undertaken by the local au- me the strength to pursue my office. It Therefore, the two main arguments thorities. If a home has stayed vacant would be the duty of the Canton to sup- of the advocates of communal mergers over a longer period of time in our vil- port the assistance given to the commu- – namely that the smaller communes lage, we talk to the owners and advise nities’ self-help by the sponsorship.” are said to be overwhelmed financial- them to sell the house. The commune Does anyone seriously believe that ly and personally – fall far short of re- itself has repeatedly acquired houses the “professional” management of ality. Quote a former mayor from the and sold them to newcomers. In a large a large community would make as Canton of Glarus: ”In X all offices are commune, this would not be possible good a fist of their work as the citi- occupied at the moment, we have al- because the necessary local knowledge zens do in close teamwork with their ways found a volunteer for all pub- would be missing. local council?

”And that’s final: small communities …” continued from page 18 to offer to the overindebted great com- penses.” (“Gemeindefinanzrating 2012”, munes? “In the years to come the com- p. 5; emphasis by the author) munes of Glarus demanding finance-po- Now we know at least how the local au- and health care services of about 8.5 mil- litical challenges. It is a matter of doing tonomy is “strengthened” by mergers: On lion which led to a big deficit of the three the splits, i.e. of achieving a well-balanced the one hand the disintegrated communes communes: “The shortfall in tax receipts household in the medium term to stop the lose their autonomy, by stopping to exist. and the new extra costs are higher than reduction of assets and at the same time of On the other hand the merged great com- the savings by the local structure reform.” protecting the scope of action for future- munes must “do the splits” between op- (“Gemeindefinanzrating 2012”, accompa- directed investments without essential- posing goals and enjoy the wonderful nying letter of governor Marianne Dürst ly raising the taxes, reducing public ser- freedom to decide on how much they want Benedetti to the Governing Council from vice or neglecting the maintenance of the to raise their local tax rates and go down 11 December 2013, p. 5) infrastructure. It lies in the responsibility with their public service. And what has the Department of Eco- of every single commune whether it wants To that end, they would not have need- nomic Affairs of the Canton of Glarus to adapt the income (taxes) or/and the ex- ed to merge! •

Teach the children about the older generation Thank you for the excellent and insight- person, to observe precautionary meas- The most beautiful thing was that on ful article in your newspaper. With great ures in order not to jeopardize the grand- their visits our children were glad to ex- interest I always read the contributions to parents or other residents, and much more. perience that they could step back with pedagogical issues. Given the general flur- This way, each of our children had to find a respect to their own momentary needs ry of activity around “school”, you help more grown-up access to their grandmother in favour of a much bigger happiness by me extraordinarily to concentrate on the and grandfather, because it was not as it had helping grandma and grandpa and making essentials of my work as a teacher. In par- been before, when the grandparents had still them happy. The intensive time they spent ticular, the article “Strengthening the ties completely attuned to their grandchildren. with their grand parents became a gift for between the generations” by Dr Eliane All three developed an own way of joy- the entire family. We had to find our inner Gautschi in the 27 December edition has ful togetherness which best suited their peace during our encounter with them in touched me deeply. personal preferences. The youngest for in- order to be able to fully concentrate on In the past year, severe illness was the stance made use of the leisure facilities for them. This way, all everyday demands re- reason to have to let my parents be taken all residents of the nursing home togeth- mained outside these beautiful moments care of in a nursing home. Despite the er with Grandpa. Punctually, he picked up of togetherness. It is this what remains. friendly and competent nursing staff, the the grandfather in his wheelchair and took More often I think about how I can lack of attention for many residents was him to the basement for Bowling. There, bring the older generation emotionally perceptible. How did they rejoice over a he carried out the important task of bring- closer to my children in primary school. little interest in their lives and a few kind ing back the balls to the people who were In this, Dr Gautschi’s contribution lent a words. How big was especially the joy in of limited physical ability, most of them. valuable support to me. the children. We often took our three chil- Then he would set up the cones again and dren to the nursing home; or they went on so on. The seniors were delighted with the Sigrid Schiller, Rellingen their own. On these occasions, they learned freshness and spontaneity which he as a to care for the needs and pace of an older child displayed. (Translation Current Concerns) No 2/3 3 February 2014 Current Concerns Page 20

Cooperation based on “Gemeinschaftsgefühl” (social interest) instead of greed for profit Dear editors of Current Concerns, This way the Hackenberg-farm exem- It is outrageous that this precious work We want to express our thanks for plifies a forward-looking, decentralized was destructively undermined and at- the definition of the “Standpoint at the and producer-determined non-industri- tacked by a person [name is known to the beginning of the year”, which again al food supply the success of which is editorial staff] through abuse of trust, lack clarified the basic conditions of our based on teamwork, engagement and of open-mindedness, manipulation and communal life in all facets, and we proficiency of many highly dedicated the orientation towards the principle of would like to formulate some of our people. Everybody participating in this purely economistic thinking. Since trust own thoughts. work experiences its meaning at all lev- is the basis for peace between mankind One example for the realisation of the els of constructive human collaboration such proceedings target the lifeblood of values in the sense of the “Standpoint” is and living together. human co-existence and collaboration and the smallholder farming enterprise Hack- Ever more people are getting aware are poison for a sustainable and construc- enberg in the Canton of Thurgau. that the exploitation of nature and the tive co-operation to the benefit of all. It is a model of food sovereignty. It worldwide acquisition and marketing We are glad that we succeeded in is about preservation and cultivation of of foodstuffs by global monopolists like fending off this attack and continuing plant variety and animal species that Monsanto, accomplishes nothing but this pioneering model. have proved themselves in specific re- devastating small enterprises, creating We are particularly grateful to Dr gional and climatic circumstances. dependences and does neither decrease Buchholz-Kaiser for the everlasting How important and highly appreciat- poverty nor does it ensure the nutrition confrontation with our “Menschenbild” ed this serious research and the achieve- of the following generations or the sur- thus aiming at a realisation of the fun- ment and development of this farm’s vival on this globe. damentals of human co-existence laid objectives are is evident in numer- The survival of mankind will not down in the definition of the standpoint. ous awards for the cultivation resp. the be secured by greed for profit but by We are looking forward to proceeding breeding of plants and animals for ex- the ability to cooperate on the basis of on this path together with her. ample. Even visitors from other coun- “Gemeinschaftsgefühl” [what Alfred tries and continents use the opportunity Adler called social interest, the trans- Members of the “Genossenschaft to learn from this example. lator]. Zeit-Fragen”, Berlin

“Treating children as if they were ill, only makes them sick” I would like to thank your editorial to nosis’ ADHD etc. replaced all previous As a child and adolescent psychothera- have published the enlightening report on diagnoses. It was based on an increas- pist, I would like to add that such a right- the rise of learning difficulties and psy- ing number of ‘symptoms’ almost all of ly criticized harmful artificializing of our chological conspicuities by the pediatri- which are to be considered as a normal children can only be countered by a natu- cian Dr med Andreas Bau. The increase behavior of children. [...] A solution of ral closeness between the mother and the of uncontrollable restlessness in children childhood problems in the area where infant during the first years of life and thus in civilized countries has led to a beset- they have arisen, namely in the field of by the support of the normal family. With ting diagnosis, ADHD (Attention Deficit education, has been abandoned.” his professionally competent paper Dr Hyperactivity Disorder) in recent years. In this way, Dr Bau also points out to- Bau has prepared the way to take a health- In high percentages such children are wards other diagnoses also made much ier path. Treating the children as if they drugged with Ritalin. too early, such as autism and Asberger were sick, is just what makes them sick; As a practicing pediatrician in Ham- syndrome that damaged those children by this is what this wise pediatrician is point- burg for many years, Dr Bau followed the psychiatrization of their conspicuous ing out and he pleads in favor of taking ac- the development of this widespread drug behaviour. count of the children’s creative potential. for 20 years. He writes: “Ritalin has been Such a voice is urgently needed. The presented as a major advance, as a kind pediatrician rightly denounces that in Christa Meves, Uelzen of silver bullet. [...] A psychiatric diag- many individual cases a person is cut off nosis of this kind means a lifelong heavy from a healthy mental development and an burden for many children. The ‘diag- unburdened growing-up. (Translation Current Concerns) No 2/3 3 February 2014 Current Concerns Page 21 What children need at school by Dr phil Alfred Burger, Headmaster

Recently it happens that more and more pean tradition and resorts to treating the children are enrolled at our school who, child with medication in order to make it Individual Psychology despite their good intelligence, have a function. This has serious consequences ab. Founded by Alfred Adler, Individu- relatively large deficit in their educa- for the lifelong paths of our children and al Psychology conceives of the human tion. The basic abilities: reading, writ- their work at school. In Current Concerns being as an indivisible personality. ing and arithmetic are missing. They are No. 31/32 from 31.10.2013 I portrayed the Adler considered the human psyche also lacking self-confidence in learning example of Alexander and how we work as an organ that in the meaning of and they often avoid doing the assigned in consideration with the background of a an instrument for survival evolves al- exercises. Some of them have already re- personalist view of the human being: the ready in the first years of life in a com- ceived various therapies and support such child is looked upon as a whole person in plex process of exchange between the child and attachment figures and as speech therapy, psycho-motoric educa- its environment and its disturbances are which as a character is an answer to tion, ergo therapy without having made seen as part of its personal development. the life situation of the respective noticeable progress. Today it is common Drawn from this picture are the points on human being. The person retains his that such children, after having received which effective pedagogy works.2 I would character as target-orientated entity an extensive evaluation, are labelled with like to pick up on this line of thoughts in more or less for his whole life. Alfred diagnoses. On the one hand, such diagno- the following article. Adler considers the development of ses are made due to the extra money the “Gemeinschaftsgefühl” (social inter- schools receive for these ‘labelled’ chil- European pedagogy has a long tradition est) as a priority assignment for cop- dren. On the other hand, they are made and is anchored in a personalist concept ing with the tasks of love, community and work. He and his students looked due to the fact that psychology and peda- of the human being. Fundamental impuls- at school as the appropriate place to gogy base themselves on a new American es were given by the physician and psy- train social interest among children. evaluation system.1 Children whose ways chologist, Alfred Adler of Vienna, who of behaviour fall outside the prescribed founded Individual Psychology (see box). norm, receive a name and number and In comparison to other depth psychology are treated with medication for organic schools, Alfred Adler connected psychol- “child-raising” brings parents and teach- brain disorders which have a deep effect ogy to pedagogy.3 According to Adler, the ers under the suspicion of being “author- on the developing brain. Up to the 80s of school needs to continue the work of the itarian”. The consequences are visible: the last century, it was only in exception- parents. There, it should compensate for children are, in their psychological and al cases that children received psychiat- mistakes, that the parents made, due to social development, not sufficiently pre- ric medication. The European tradition the complexity of the task of child rais- pared for life’s challenges, are only par- of psychology and pedagogy, rooted in a ing. At his time, the children often suf- tially attaining the necessary endurance personal view on human beings, believes fered from a too strict or a too negligent towards learning and can hardly deal that causes of children’s developmental education and were afraid and mistrust- with failure. The strong increase of chil- disorders lie in the problems of person- ful. At present, this occurs only rarely. dren with difficulties has basically to do al relationships whose emotional process- Today’s mistakes, however, made by the with the fact that we the adults want to do es can be improved with pedagogical and parents are not less serious. Due to false everything for them and make things eas- psychological means and can be sustain- theories, many children suffer the con- ier for them. Whoever is always remov- ably corrected. Entirely in opposition to sequences of a more or less pronounced ing all obstacles for the children, doesn’t that is the utilitarian, economic view of laissez-faire child-raising, being spoiled prepare them for the disappointments and the human being, which have come over and lacking consequences. Many parents failures which all people have to experi- from the Anglo-American sphere since are insecure and don’t have the courage to the 1980s and have overtaken the Euro- raise (their children); the mere expression continued on page 22

“Ami go home” – Europe doesn’t need false theories from the US

It was with great interest that I read the ar- like Bertelsmann (or similar clubs in other to prevent my liveliness. But, I am very ticle by Dr Andreas Bau in Current Con- countries), the idea of homo oeconomicus, happy that at that time the USA did not cerns No 1, published on 14 January 2014. the Swiss teaching Curriculum 21, and the have the influence in Yugoslavia as they Although I am not a medical doctor, “community school” in Baden-Wuerttem- have today in Europe. Today, the politi- what was expressed herein by Dr Andreas berg, there is still a very long way to the cians in Europe simply do not have the Bau has always been my utmost feeling, welfare of our children. Furthermore, as courage to oppose against it. There is still concerning the “psychiatrizion” of child long as there are doctors like Dr Gritz, somebody missing who dares to say – like behavior. However, as I read in the article, who are influenced by the pharmaceutical Charles de Gaulle did, as he said in those unfortunately there are still many pediatri- industry, the change for the better will ad- days to the Nato “Ami go home”. cians, who want to “cure” children from vance only sluggishly. But it will – and ADHS by the application of Ritalin. that is good. Dušan Radakovic, Munich As long as our politicians support the So, if I were a schoolchild, I am sure, I (politics) of the USA, private foundations would have got Ritalin prescribed in order (Translation Current Concerns) No 2/3 3 February 2014 Current Concerns Page 22 The curriculum of convictions by Heike Schmoll

The draft for the new Baden-Wuerttem- Only for grades five and six a total of Education Planning Commission to re- berg curriculum for the fifth and sixth 202 attitudes across all subjects are for- move “attitudes and opinions” out of the classes has created quite a stir, because it mulated, which is fairly absurd. For the protestant curriculum. Perhaps, the re- addresses different sexual lifestyles. In fu- subject German alone thirty attitudes are ligion teachers have indeed a particular- ture, not only homosexuality but also bi- listed, the first twenty of them concerning ly keen sense of such spiritual attacks, sexuality, trans-sexuality and inter-sexual- almost entirely communication skills or which cause an intuitive rejection among ity are to play a role in school. It was clear, writing, only then followed by developing their pupils, anyway. With their objection that especially in Wuerttemberg certain interest and joy in reading. In mathemat- they have achieved something. Because groups with an evangelical background ics, students are to “perceive” the gather- religious education would otherwise have would protest against it. A respective pe- ing of evidence as a meaningful and re- been under suspicion of ideology even tition was followed by a counter-petition, warding intellectual challenge. In music more than it already is now. and the Internet provides the platform lessons, students shall develop “sensitivity In addition, in the Advisory Board of to leave some polemical expressions of to music-relevant copyright and personal the Curriculum Commission there have anger. However, tolerance of all kinds of rights”. What is this? In mathematics les- been extremely controversial debates on sexual lifestyles was already laid down in sons, how should a feeling be generated five guiding principles. Vocational ori- the 2004 education plan of Baden-Wuert- that is commonly shared? entation, education for sustainable de- temberg, since, after all, the foreword had Sensations, until today, have been velopment, media education, prevention come from Hartmut von Hentig. Even at withdrawn from pedagogical access, and and consumer education are mentioned that time this was not revolutionary, be- should remain so. Or do we want to clan- here. On the one hand, they are to be an- cause in the curricula of other federal destinely replace education by conforma- chored in the plans for the school subjects countries you already find similarly word- tion? The entire draft for the education on the other hand,, they are to be posi- ed learning goals. However, having taken plan breathes the spirit of an affirmative tioned above the learning goals at all lev- over almost literally the objectives of rel- concept of education, which, fortunately, els as overriding topics. In the fifth and evant stakeholders in the new draft for the has been considered as long-surpassed. It sixth classes, media education plays a role education plan, does not show much wis- creates the image of a new human being for the teaching of German, the “sustaina- dom in Stuttgart. matching the view of the red-green state ble development” for the geography class. Unfortunately because of that, the government in Stuttgart and their State Reading that one can hardly evade the im- draft’s drawbacks that are at least equal- Institute for Educational Development. pression that we are dealing with a party ly serious might be overlooked. Curricu- This is dangerous, because this way ed- program converted into the curriculum la matching the different types of school, ucational processes may become genu- rather than with educational objectives. will no longer exist in Baden-Wuerttem- ine indoctrination, that is the description However, the head of the Ministry of Ed- berg, only three levels will be distin- of attitudes and opinions may degenerate ucation and Cultural Affairs does no long- guished (elementary, middle, advanced), into school examinations of attitudes and er want to alter anything about the guiding whereby the educational standards set by convictions if it comes to the worst, some- principles. If at least they were no long- the Standing Conference of the Ministers thing that we already experienced during er laid down as attitudes and opinions in of Education for the different school-leav- two German dictatorships. the final version of the curriculum, much ing qualifications are directive. Just like in The Protestant religion teachers, quite would be gained. Because, in Baden- all other recent curricula “competencies” rightly, have protested against the fact, Wuerttemberg as well, students’ attitudes are described as teaching and learning ob- that religious attitudes in any form are to must remain unavailable. • jectives. This is already something that be made examinable in religious instruc- Source: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, must be debated, but all the more so the tion of all things, a subject that definitely 24.01.2014 © All rights reserved Frankfurter definition of “attitudes”. How, actually, Allgemeine Zeitung GmbH, Frankfurt. Provided does not want to see itself as a mission- by Frankfurter Allgemeine Archiv. should attitudes and opinions of students ary event. The Superior Church Council be measurable in examinations? in Stuttgart has therefore instructed the (Translation Current Concerns)

”What children need at school” are labelled self-organised learning (see widely used methods encompass the util- continued from page 21 box p.8). Today’s children must try to itarist human view, in which the individ- find their learning path on their own in ual child is not assisted into an all-round these lessons. While a few of those well- education rather, it (the child) is somehow ence at some time in their lives. Generally, brought up children find their own way, made to function but only in a particular it is often first noticed at school if a child many others resign, work below the level way. This crassly contradicts our person- is prepared enough for life. Here it must of their capabilities and lose themselves in al idea of a human being, which is embed- learn to fulfil the demands of the teach- unproductive activism, refuse or give up ded in the European educational tradition. er which a child normally does with natu- in lack of courage. Here, the mechanism ral curiosity and thirst for knowledge. In of “Abklärung” (evaluation) is often put Professional support order to achieve this the teacher has to be into place. Instead of pedagogical means instead of pedagogy’s capitulation in an affectionate contact with the chil- to compensate for the deficits, diagnoses Alfred Adler and with him a whole row dren and carefully lead them along. How- are made and an expensive helping appa- of European educators have recognised ever, there is a noticeable change in the ratus is constructed which causes children the extremely important role of the teach- paradigm from the lessons in which the to be failures in school or bring them into teacher is instructing to the lessons which special education (programs). Today these continued on page 23 No 2/3 3 February 2014 Current Concerns Page 23

”What children need at school” a wrong path would have been taken and ter out and evaluate children with their continued from page 22 that would have meant downgrading the psychiatric manuals like ICD and DSM. child considerably. Thereby they conclude that all the irreg- er as child raiser and educator. This is as ularities of a child are caused by organ- well in opposition to the Anglo-American Diagnoses ic brain disorders. As Felix Hasler shows concept of the teacher as the one who ac- whose consequences offend the child in his book ‘Neuromythology’, these are companies the child or is the coach which “Abklärung” means at the very least, tak- unproven speculations by means of which gives the children assignments that they ing a detour in the child’s school career the pharmaceutical industry and the en- must achieve on their own in individual- which is, from that point on, determined tire school’s support system operate. And ising lessons. The education at the Uni- by the remedial teacher, excused from this is damaging to many children. Behind versity is constructed in this manner and achieving learning goals, special lessons that there is a very simple idea of a human young students are no longer trained to in- for children with Dyslexia or Dyscalculia as being a sort of machine consisting of struct the children. According to the pop- etc.. Diagnoses out of these evaluations a system of feedback control loops. The ular theory, each child should find its way are found under such titles as: Attention soul of man and the processes of the psy- on his or her own. Whoever does not fulfil Deficit Syndrome, fine motor distur- che are in reality very complex. In order the assignment, is freed from the learning bances, concentration disorders, percep- to understand them, very much knowledge goal. This is the downfall of Pedagogy! tion disorders, memory retention disor- as well as learned compassion, are nec- Especially today the children need teach- ders, autistic disturbances, etc.. Multiple essary. In this area, the approved person- ers who instruct, encourage, challenge choice teacher and parent surveys are a al pedagogical and psychological tradi- them and structure the material. basis for diagnoses, for example symp- tion shows great success. They are totally I recall a girl whose parents brought her toms of disorders such as ADHD. After pushed to the side and forgotten about. It to us already during her second year. After working through the survey, it is apparent would be important to recall and to draw the teachers had not said anything over a that these criteria include behaviour which on them. long period with regard to the situation of appear in many children and which could the daughter, they invited the parents and accompany them over a shorter or long- This must not happen: confronted them with the fact that their er period. Deriving a psychiatric disorder children growing lonely while daughter needed an evaluation and that the from these findings may be of serious con- learning in a self-organized manner school’s remedial teacher needed to be in- sequences for the child. Instead, the teach- This was also demonstrated in our work formed (of the situation). Maja could not er‘s responsibility is to help the child with with Pedro, another boy who had come to read any ‘snake’ sentences (words which pedagogical means and to assist it to reach us in the course of the second class. He are connected without spacing), she could the level of the class. had not found his way at school, had less not concentrate enough and she was not and less enjoyed attending and had be- good in German. She wrote too little, es- The importance of careful observation come increasingly depressed, as the par- pecially when she was not requested to do It is easy to imagine that a teacher, having ents described. A careful analysis of his so. The parents were very surprised, since such a questionnaire in the back of his/her life story and his family environment en- they knew their daughter to be very artic- mind, could quickly draw a conclusion and lightened his previous learning biography ulate and attentive. Although she went to regards all further observation as evidence and provided us with the key to working school gladly, Maja had hardly told an- for the disturbance. One cannot blame an- with him. Pedro had come under strong ything about school at home. Relatives yone who is educated this way, but this is pressure from the very beginning in the found that she was increasingly apathet- clearly a case of professional blindness. first class. At home he had a younger sister ic. Therefore they took their daughter out Therefore no one realised that Maja’s dis- who had already overtaken him and even of the school and brought her to us. It was turbances were due to a subjective view- at school he experienced children every- quickly realised that she felt lost at school, point. While they were very noticeable dur- where who – in his opinion – did every- in those individualised, self-directed les- ing the lesson, one didn’t notice them when thing in a better way. He quickly gave up sons without the direct instruction of the she played with legos. This is then termed and lost his enthusiasm for school. When teacher. She had often dreamed and had Specific Developmental Disorders of scho- he was sitting alone in front of his week- not worked on anything unless the teach- lastic skills. In reality, such disturbanc- ly schedule tasks, he felt lost without con- er had addressed her, she said. It was also es circumscribe current symptoms in spe- nection to the teacher and the classmates clear that the teacher didn’t correct much cial situations and are not inherited deficits. and did not accomplish anything. In addi- of the work and allowed false answers. The person is an entire being and it’s brain’s tion there was the completely unsystemat- When the parents spoke to the daughter activities are not any different when play- ic structure of the learning material – as about this, she said the teacher corrected ing with legos as when doing maths. Neu- now required by the reformers and already it as correct and maintained this position. rological research pretends to be able to implemented in many new textbooks. In contrast, we instructed her (Maja) ex- prove such differences. However, all of this Tasks are given in full awareness of the actly in what she needed to do and told her is speculation and not proven fact which is fact that many children can not solve them that she must work harder if she wanted to being contradicted by new experiments in (one wants to find out how they deal with make up for the missing knowledge. Then brain research.4 How absurd these specula- experience), several letters of the alphabet she began to try harder and soon worked tions are, is shown in the increase of these are introduced at a time, the decadic tran- more carefully. Once again, she began to occurrences as if, the genetic make-up of sition is no longer explained. For compu- tell about everything that she learned in the children would have lately changed. It tations with more than ten, children have school. Her parents didn’t recognise their is interesting that in some European coun- to make bundles of five and of one and child any more, everything had changed. tries, such diagnoses are hardly made while then count them up or develop their own This girl had been missing the direct atten- in other countries, such as Switzerland, they ways in order to come to a result. In just tion and the encouragement of the teach- are spreading like an epidemic. the same manner they learn to write, eve- er. She had begun to settle at a level where ryone should find his or her own way to her intellectual capabilities were not chal- Brain mythology instead of Pedagogy? write letters, and writing in squares or on lenged. However, with the evaluation and pToday a multiplicity of “specialists” are the involvement of the remedial teacher, buzzing around who are trained to fil- continued on page 24 No 2/3 3 February 2014 Current Concerns Page 24

”What children need at school” comes increasingly independent and more by means of his own thinking. When he continued from page 23 self-confident. The parents noticed a sig- had to make lots of paperrolls during a les- nificant improvement in the mood of their son and wrap them with a rubber band, the lines is a compulsion per se, which is why son. Now he loves to get up and looks for- teacher proposed him to wrap the rubber they let the children write as they please. ward to going to school every day. He bands around the wrist to save time and One can imagine how this will end. A few shows his parents what he has completed slough off when needed. As soon as he will survive more or less unscathed, many at school and is proud of his good perfor- had formed the first one, he straightly ran will fall by the wayside – as Pedro did. mance. The teacher and the classmates re- and asked for the rubber bands. The teach- joice with him at his progress. er only replied that he knew the solution Identifying the underlying problems Compared with that, how bloodless himself, meaning that he should switch on In working with Pedro it turned out that he does a teacher appear as a “learning fa- his brain and remembered the ligaments was very intelligent, but put himself under cilitator” who is primarily busy with his around his wrist. Such small experienc- great pressure in order not to make any weekly schedules and the ticking off of es are important for obtaining confidence mistakes and to get everything done as any accomplished or non-complished in developing his own thinking skills. The quickly as possible. His writing was illeg- “competencies”! That has little to do with parents also could be convinced to trust ible, the letters were not practiced prop- the beautiful teaching profession. Unfor- and demand more of him. So he became erly, the lines had no meaning for him. tunately, the students are no longer taught more courageous and self-confident dur- After the teacher had shown him what the simplest pedagogical and didactic con- ing the course of a year. When he com- purpose the lines actually have, he soon tents at the teacher training colleges today. pares himself with others today, he doesn’t began to produce a more legible and nice The “academization” of the teaching pro- immediately get the idea that he is less handwriting and did everything to make it fession progresses inexorably, which will able. He takes on the competition and tries look as beautiful as possible. He could not bring us a generation of teachers that is to keep up with the others. read correctly, first, since he had not been not prepared to deal with the actual situa- taught the correct vocalisation, and, sec- tion with the children at school. continued on page 25 ond, because he could not allow himself enough time to read the letters one by one Recognizing and and then to connect them to each other. averting discouragement Self-directed education – No sooner had he started with the first, his Samuel, who had already been accom- individualized learning eyes already wandered to the last letter of panied by a health care educator for two ab. Behind this theory there is the the word, and he tried to guess the inter- hours a week from the first class onwards, theory of constructivism, which is mediate part. did not make any progress in learning. based on the assumption, that each Such an attitude always to be fast, He was a very cheerful boy who enjoyed human being constructs its reality which has arisen from the relational in- going to school and had a lot of contact on its own. This is the reason why teraction with parents and siblings can with his classmates. His life story pro- every human should acquire his easily be corrected by a pedagogically vided some interesting information about knowledge in his own individual trained teacher. We showed Pedro how to his difficulties at school. His older broth- way. One emanation of this theory learn step by step, that you do not have to er wanted to go to grammar school, both is individualized teaching in which solve a worksheet at once, but do one task parents were academics, and Samuel was each child decides what, when, after the other etc.. We encouraged and considered a complete failure, who had if and how it learns something. instructed him and convinced him that he got stuck at the beginning of the second Therein the teacher is nothing else was up to the task. Carefully guided by class in numeracy and language after three than a learning guide who provides the teacher. Pedro soon began to give up years of schooling. The parents were con- materials. In such a self-directed ed- his despondency and false posture when vinced, and even more so after the investi- ucation the child decides on its own learning. The teacher as a model plays an gations by various psychologists, to have a how it organizes its learning from important role in this process. The child son with a genetic defect. That had the ef- the very beginning. It is self-evident draws himself up with his help and be- fect that they had even less confidence in that most children in such a “teach- him. Every day his mother accompanied ing” mode get singularized, isolat- him, a fourth grader, to school, taking his ed, discouraged and are not able to ICD, ICF-CY, DSM hand, and picked him up as well – though develop self-confidence. This way ab. These are classification systems he lived only half a kilometer away from they are prepared to function as for psychiatric disorders. ICD and the school building. At home he received a “spoke in the wheel” of the eco- ICF-CY were published by WHO; praise for the smallest achievement. After nomic system. Certainly this is not DSM is American. The introduc- Samuel had been integrated in a small about individuality rather about tion of ICD10 constituted a para- class at our school, his performance im- conforming. Actually the theory of digm shift – away from a personal- proved continuously. We recognized his constructivism also is the basis for ist view of the human being which intelligence, that did not show before, be- Milton Friedman’s theory of glo- looks at disorders as related to dys- cause hardly anyone had ever demanded balisation. In his system the state functions in interpersonal relation- anything of him. He dared too little and is not to control economy, the free ships on to a mechanistic American always wanted his teachers to assure him market is self-regulated and only a approach that looks at all disorders whether a result was right. few basic needs of the people are as related to brain function deficits. Every child has its positive sides, a guaranteed by the state. Otherwise With the ICF-CY now, a manual for skillful teacher recognizes them and helps it is up to everyone to do with his disorders in children and adoles- the child to experience success. Gradually life as ever he or she likes. Equally, cents has been created. These man- the child dares address topics, it has never also at school every student can de- uals include a number of symptoms, trusted to do before. After we had helped cide what he wants to achieve from which result in a diagnosis when Samuel to have some experience of suc- the first grade on. School only pro- they emerge at a certain incidence. cess, we began to work on special situa- vides the materials. tions with him, to enable him to succeed No 2/3 3 February 2014 Current Concerns Page 25

”What children need at school” achieve some success. What is there more rect democracy and the maintainance of continued from page 24 satisfying than getting to understand the our highly-achieving economy. Just re- different personalities of the individual member: 20 years ago a British education There are other children who, driven by children and creating a sustainable rela- minister had to realize that a considera- such sentiments of discouragement, might tionship between teacher and student and ble part of the English youth were “unem- start to reject any attempt to get them co- thus lead them to success. That is why the ployable” after they had left school. Today operating and might therefore be almost teaching profession – as I understand it – we are on the brink of taking over exact- unable to be won over for learning. They belongs to the most beautiful professions ly those contents of the anglo-saxon sys- are avoiding any task wherever possible at all. Let us take care that this profession tem of instruction with the Curriculum 21. and confront teachers with very difficult will not be reduced to an administrative Should not the parents begin to fight back, situations. Such behaviour does indeed re- job, where pre-scribed competences are as long as there is time to do so? • quire quite a different approach. given as an input into a system of rules and then the teacher examines and ticks 1 Taking care to ensure the output on pre-stamped questionaires. cf. Current Concerns No 35/36 of 8.12.2013 the teaching profession To accomplish that a robot or computer 2 cf. Current Concerns No 31/32 of 31.10.2013 Thus a teacher faces a variety of chil- would do as well. 3 Adler and his students developed experimen- dren, who for quite different reasons are tal schools and a net of educational counselling It is high time to resist centers. cf. Handelbauer. Die Entstehungs- bad, but sometimes even very good learn- geschichte der Individualpsychologie Alfred ers. The most awarding about the teach- Such a development in our schools would Adlers.Vienna/Salzburg 1984, pp. 167–192 ing profession is the opportunity to help mean a fatal development for the future 4 cf. Hasler, F. Neuromythologie, Bielefeld 2013, the highest possible number of children to generation, for the preservation of our di- pp. 81–176

Current Concerns The international journal for independent thought, ethical standards, moral responsibility, and for the promotion and respect of public international law, human rights and humanitarian law Subscribe to Current Concerns – The journal of an independent cooperative The cooperative Zeit-Fragen is a politically and financially independent organisation. All of its mem­bers work on a voluntary and honorary basis. The journal does not accept commercial advertisements of any kind and receives no financial support from business organisations. The journal Current Concerns is financed exclusively by its subscribers. We warmly recommend our model of free and independent press coverage to other journals. Annual subscription rate of CHF 40,-; Euro 30,-; USD 40,-; GBP 25,- for the following countries: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brunei, Canada, Cyprus, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hongkong, Iceland, Ireland, Is- rael, Italy, Japan, Kuwait, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Qatar, Singapore, Spain, Sweden, Swit- zerland, United Arab ­Emirates, United Kingdom, USA Annual subscription rate of CHF 20,-; Euro 15,-; USD 20,-; GBP 12,50 for all other countries. Please choose one of the following ways of payment: - send a cheque to Current Concerns, P. O. Box, CH-8044 Zurich, or - send us your credit card details (only Visa), or - pay into one of the following accounts: CH: Postscheck-Konto (CHF): 87-644472-4 IBAN CH91 0900 0000 8764 4472 4 BIC POFICHBEXXX CH: Postscheck-Konto (Euro): 91-738798-6 IBAN CH83 0900 0000 9173 8798 6 BIC POFICHBEXXX D: Volksbank Tübingen, Kto. 67 517 005, BLZ 64190110 IBAN DE12 6419 0110 0067 5170 05 BIC GENODES1TUE A: Raiffeisen Landesbank, Kto. 1-05.713.599, BLZ 37000 IBAN AT55 3700 0001 0571 3599 BIC RVVGAT2B