Challenges for Brain Emulation

Review Paper Challenges for Brain Emulation: Why is it so Difficult? 1 2 Rick Cattell and Alice Parker 1 SynapticLink.org 2 University of Southern California, USA *corresponding author: [email protected] non-linear summation, and conductance of synaptic signals. Abstract These models have likewise been enhanced over the years In recent years, half a dozen major research groups have simulated by researchers examining synaptic transmission, integration, or constructed sizeable networks of artificial neurons, with the and plasticity. ultimate goal to emulate the entire human brain. At this point, Over the past 50 years, advances in technology have these projects are a long way from that goal: they typically successively and phenomenally increased our ability to simulate thousands of mammalian neurons, versus tens of billions emulate neural networks with speed and accuracy.1 At the in the human cortex, with less dense connectivity as well as less- same time, and particularly over the past 20 years, our complex neurons. While the outputs of the simulations understanding of neurons in the brain has increased demonstrate some features of biological neural networks, it is not substantially, with imaging and microprobes contributing clear how exact the artificial neurons and networks need to be to invoke system behavior identical to biological networks and it is significantly to our understanding of neural physiology. not even clear how to prove that artificial neural network behavior These advances in both technology and neuroscience is identical in any way to biological behavior. However, enough make possible the projects we discuss in this paper, aimed progress has been made to draw some conclusions and make at modeling large numbers of interconnected neurons. comparisons between the leading projects. Some approaches are Today it is feasible to emulate small but non-trivial portions more scalable, some are more practical with current technologies, of the brain, for example thousands of neurons in the visual and some are more accurate in their emulation of biological cortex. Each approach has advantages and shortcomings neurons. In this paper, we examine the pros and cons of each when meeting the challenges posed by an artificial brain. approach and make some predictions about the future of artificial We will examine the leading approaches and technologies, neural networks and the prospects for whole brain emulation. along with their pros and cons. We will conclude with a Keywords: biomimetic, neuromorphic, electronic, artificial brain, discussion of technological and architectural challenges for neuron, intelligence an artificial brain, and some debate on future research directions. 1. Introduction 1.1. Motivation for Brain Emulation Reverse-engineering the brain is one of the Grand Challenges posed by the United States National Academy Three motivations are frequently cited for brain emulation: of Engineering [1]. In this paper, we assess current status in 1. Researchers hope to gain a better understanding of approaching this difficult goal of brain emulation. We how the brain works (and malfunctions) by creating contrast competing approaches, and examine the major simulations. A model can provide insight at all obstacles. levels, from the biochemistry and neurochemical Artificial neurons and neural networks were proposed as behavior of individual cells to the behavior of far back as 1943, when Warren McColluch and Walter Pitts networks of neurons in the cortex and other parts of [2] proposed a “Threshold Logic Unit” with multiple the brain. weighted binary inputs combined to produce a binary 2. Some researchers feel progress in artificial output based on a threshold value. More sophisticated intelligence over the past 50 years has been neural models were subsequently developed, including insufficient to lead to intelligent behavior. Ideas Rosenblatt’s popular “perceptron” model [3] and others we from simulations of neural networks may yield new examine in this article. In 1952, Hodgkin and Huxley [4] ideas to develop intelligent behavior in computers, published a model of ionic currents that provided the first basis for mathematical modeling and simulation of 1Some authors refer to “simulating” neurons in software and “emulating” biological neurons and their action potentials, with the help neurons in hardware, but for simplicity in this paper we use the term of Wilfred Rall’s [5] theory of spatiotemporal integration, “emulation” to refer to hardware, software, and hybrid implementations. Volume 1, Issue 3, Spring/Summer 2012 17 Natural Intelligence: the INNS Magazine for example through massive parallelism. Neural functioning. Further, some propagation of potentials networks are already being used for applications such and other signaling is in the reverse direction, affecting as computer vision and speech understanding, and first-order neural behavior (for example, see the reset many algorithmic approaches are bio-inspired, but mechanism affecting dendritic spiking plasticity) [9, their biological basis is, for the most part, simplified 10]. The extent of the detailed modeling of dendritic from the more-detailed models used by computations and spiking necessary for brain neuroscientists. Autonomous vehicles and other emulation is an open question. robotic applications are likely targets for such brain- Scale: A massive system is required to emulate the like systems. brain: none of the projects we discuss have come close 3. For the most part, computers still use the same basic to this scale at present. The largest supercomputers architecture envisioned by John von Neumann in and computer clusters today have thousands of 1945. Hardware architectures based on the massive processors, while the human cortex has tens of billions parallelism and adaptability of the brain may yield of neurons and a quadrillion synapses. We are a long new computer architectures and micro-architectures way from cortex scale, even if one computer processor that can be applied to problems currently intractable could emulate thousands of neurons, and, as we will with conventional computing and networking see, it is unclear whether that emulation would be architectures. sufficiently accurate. The projects described in this paper generally cite all Interconnectivity: Emulation of the cortex in hardware three of these reasons for their work. However, there are represents a massive “wiring” problem. Each synapse differences in emphasis. Projects focused on understanding represents a distinct input to a neuron, and each the brain require a more-detailed and more postsynaptic neuron shares synapses with an average of computationally-expensive model of neuron behavior, 10,000 (and as many as 100,000) other presynaptic while projects aimed at the second or third goal may use neurons. Similarly, the axon emerging from each simpler models of neurons and their connections that may neuronal cell body fans out to an average of 10,000 not behave exactly as biological neural networks behave. destinations. Thus each neuron has, on average, An additional advantage of attempts at whole brain 10,000 inputs and 10,000 outputs. If the connections emulation is to further understanding of prosthetic device were mostly local, the wiring would not be so construction. While the research in that general area has complicated; however, recent research by Bassett et al focused on the difficult task of providing connectivity [11] derives a Rent exponent for the biological brain between electronics and biological neurons (e.g. Berger [6]), that could be used to compute the quantity of more complex emulated neural networks might one day connections emerging from a volume of brain tissue. provide prosthetic devices that adapt to an individual's brain, Early indications are that this Rent exponent is providing functions missing due to surgery, accidents or sufficiently large (many distal connections) so as to congenital defects. cause connectivity problems with conventional CMOS electronics. 1.2. Challenges to Brain Emulation Plasticity: It is generally accepted that an emulated brain with static neural connections and neural In spite of the progress in many brain emulation efforts, behavior would not produce intelligence. Synapses there are major challenges that must still be addressed: must be “plastic”: the strength of the excitatory or inhibitory connection must change with learning, and Neural complexity: In cortical neurons, synapses neurons must also be able to create new synapses and themselves vary widely, with ligand-gated and voltage- hence new connections during the learning process. gated channels, receptive to a variety of transmitters [7]. Research on the mechanisms by which neurons learn, Action potentials arriving at the synapses create post- make and break connections, and possess memory is synaptic potentials on the dendritic arbor that combine ongoing, with hypotheses and supporting data in a number of ways. Complex dendritic appearing frequently. These studies have led to a basic computations affect the probability and frequency of understanding of synaptic and structural plasticity. In neural firing. These computations include linear, the last decade, attention has been given to the role of sublinear, and superlinear additions along with glial cells in neural behavior, glial cells being much generation of dendritic spikes, and inhibitory more numerous in the brain than neurons. The role of computations that shunt internal cell voltage to resting astrocytes,

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