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INDEX: Pg. CHAPTER 1. LIFE IN LONDON DURING THE FIRST WORLD WAR 4 1.1 Life Before The War 4 1.2 Declaration Of War 4 1.3 Propaganda 5 1.4 Censorship 5 1.5 The Home Front 6 1.6 "When Will This War End?" 6 1.7 Zeppeling Raid 7 1.8 British Air Defence 7 1.9 Law Passed During The War 7 1.10 Transports During The War 8 1.11 Women 8 1.12 Children 9 1.13 Christmas In War Time 9 1.14 Museums In Wartime 9 1.15 After The War 10

CHAPTER 2. THE BRITISH FRONT AND THE ROLE OF MALTA IN WORLD WAR I 11 2.1 Why Did Britain Join World War I? 11 2.2 The Troops: The Most Remarkable Part Of War Experience Was ‘To See The Different Kinds Of Human Races From All Parts Of The World’ 12 2.2.1 Indian Army 12 2.2.2 Gurkhas 13 2.2.3 South African Army 13 2.2.4 Canadian Army 14 2.2.5 Anzacs 14 2.3 The Fronts 15 2.3.1 The Western Front (1914-18) 15 2.3.2 Ypres War 16 2.3.3 Gallipoli Campaign (1915-16) 17 2.3.4 The Somme Campaign (1916) 17 2.3.5 Vimy Ridge (1917) 17

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2.4 The Role Of Malta In World War I 18 2.4.1 Malta As A Naval Base 18 2.4.2 Malta As A Nurse Of The Mediterranean 19 2.4.3 Its Contributions To The Armed Forces Of The Empire 19 2.4.4 The Effects Of The Great World War 19

CHAPTER 3. THE AMERICAN PARTICIPATION 20 3.1 The United States’ Entry Into The War 20 3.1.1 The Submarine War 20 3.2 The American Supplies Given To The Allies 21 3.2.1 Economic Considerations 22 3.2.2 The Increasing Industry Production: Bethlehem Steel 22 3.2.3 Food Procurements 23 3.3 The Situation After The War 25 3.3.1 The Treaty Of Versailles 25 3.3.2 The League Of Nations 26 3.3.3 What Happened After The Ww1 26 3.4 The American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) 28

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CHAPTER 1. LIFE IN LONDON DURING THE FIRST WORLD WAR

1.1 LIFE BEFORE THE WAR

The years before the war were characterized by the ascent to the throne of the new King, George V who decided to make his entrance in the war of the twentieth century in order to show London's power as the capital of the largest empire in history, but this decision brought many changes. During the years of the war the King condescended to nationalist English sentiment issuing a royal proclamation by which he was changing the name of his family from Saxe-Coburg-Gotha to Windsor, because it was known that his grandfather was Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, and as a result that the king and his descendants also bore the titles of Prince and Princess of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, and that the German Kaiser Wilhelm II, who for England symbolized all the horrors of war going on, it was the first cousin of the English King. London's population in this year continued to grow

King George V rapidly in the early decades of the century, and public transportation was largely increased.

During the First World War, London had also the experience of the first air raids made by the Germans with the Zeppelins. They killed about 700 people and aroused great terror among the population.

1.2 DECLARATION OF WAR 3 August 1914 – Britain gave an ultimatum to Germany, demanding that it stopped the invasion of Belgium immediately. That was Britain's protest against the violation of Belgium's neutrality, which had been guaranteed by a treaty time before. The answer received from the German Chancellor was that the treaty was just a scrap of paper. 4 August 1914 – In the morning, German troops crossed the Belgian frontier at Gemmenich. Because of that, the United Kingdom finally decided to declare war on Germany. People's reaction: In London, people's enthusiasm culminated outside Buckingham Palace when it became known that war had been declared. The news was received with tremendous cheering, which grew into a deafening roar when King George, Queen Mary and the Prince of Wales appeared. Westminster, Charing Cross and the main street round Westminster were filled all with excited crowds. Union Jacks were everywhere to be seen, and patriotic songs were played. Trafalgar Square was almost impassable. A hostile crowd assembled outside the German embassy and smashed the windows. In the early stages of the war, many men, for a wide variety of reasons, decided to join up to the armed forces. By 5 September 1914, over 225,000 had signed up to fight for what became known as Kitchener's Army. Over the course of the war, a number of factors contributed to recruitment rates, including patriotism, the work of the Parliamentary Recruiting Committee in producing posters, dwindling alternative employment opportunities, and an eagerness for adventure to

4 escape humdrum routine. Recruitment remained steady through 1914 and early 1915, but fell dramatically during the later years. That's why, in January 1916, there was the introduction of forced conscription for the first time in the Kingdom's history. At the beginning it was only for single men, but then it was extended to all men aged 18 to 41 across England, Wales and Scotland, by way of the Military Service Acts.

1.3 PROPAGANDA

In September 1914 the War Propaganda Bureau was established and by the summer of 1915 it had printed over 2.5 million books, speeches, official documents and pamphlets regarding propaganda. It also commissioned films about the war such as”The Battle of the Somme”, which appeared in August 1916, while the battle was still in progress as a morale-booster. In this period sophisticated new techniques started being used to speak effectively to the whole population to support the war. For example the enemy was associated with the evil and Germany with death, destruction and harm. The public was motivated to respond with purpose and urgency against an ‘evil’ enemy. The war was portrayed as a shared endeavour in which every member of society had a stake. Everyone was urged to look around to see what others were doing and work together towards the common Propaganda's material goal of victory, also well-known figures – including King George V himself - lent their support to the campaign, appealing directly to the public. Spurred on by propaganda, nationalist fervour and the promise of adventure, many more eagerly joined the ranks. Government appeals for volunteers began almost immediately. Some poster campaigns urged or shamed men to enlist while others encouraged women to persuade their men to join. Under the motto 'Wake up, London!', columns of soldiers marched through the capital to attract recruits. In 1917 semi-official National War Aims Committee was set it. The NWAC published propaganda material and, through its branches in the Nation’s parliamentary constituencies (often organised by local political party agents), set up meetings and speeches to promote the Nation’s war aims, genrally held outdoors.

1.4 CENSORSHIP

From the start of the war British government started to control the flow of information from the front line, passing legislation in 1914 which allowed the War Office to censor the press and raising the death penalty for anyone convicted of assisting the enemy. The War Office also employed thousands of bilingual women to work on postal and telegraphic censorship monitoring correspondence with neutral countries all over the world. Assisted by the Post Office, this censorship was the largest of its kind and helped the government to catch spies, control the dissemination of military information and to compile economic data used to better execute the blockade of vital imports into Germany. Newspapers during the war were subject to the Defence of the Realm Act, which eventually had 5 two regulations restricting what they could publish:  Regulation 18,which prohibited the leakage of sensitive military information, troop and shipping movements;  Regulation 27, which made it an offence to "spread false reports", "spread reports that were likely to prejudice recruiting", "undermine public confidence in banks or currency" or cause "disaffection to His Majesty". The newspaper editors and owners operated a ruthless self-censorship,and that's why censorship had less effect on the British press than the reductions in advertising revenues and cost increases. Moreover, news magazines were created inorder to satisfy public's thirst of information and which were dedicated to reporting the war and were filled with photographs and illustrations 1.5 THE HOME FRONT

The huge growth of munitions output had ripple effects across the war economies: not least on agriculture and food supply. In the Central Powers, the blockade exacerbated shortages of fertiliser, tools, and lighting fuel. Allied farmers suffered less in these respects, but they too were deprived of draught animals and especially of labour. In most countries armies recruited disproportionately from the countryside. Many wartime family farms were run by the wives, assisted by their children and sometimes by migrant workers and prisoners of war. But the war led to inflation and many poorer families could not afford the increase in food prices. The impact of the German U-boat campaign also led to food shortages and this hit home when rationing was brought in by the government in February 1918.

1.6 "WHEN WILL THIS WAR END?"

This was a question that was all too often on the minds of soldiers, sailors and civilians during the Great War: when will this war end? Views varied throughout the war on what a realistic answer was.

In January 1915, businessman F.S. Oliver wrote to his brother in Canada about the progress of the war and attitudes to it in London. "…when will it be finished? The man in the street varies between 3 points of view: Kitchener’s original prophecy of three or four years; the general business man’s view, March 1916 [i.e. another 14 months]; the newspaper (derived from the General staff) optimist, 3 or 4 months. Just now it has made up its mind to the first of these."

This testimony tells us something about how war was seen. First of all it tells us that there was some variation in views, so we cannot simply say that people thought one thing or another. The quotation also tells us something of where he felt the views had come from; the 3-year prediction was a well-known statement of Lord Kitchener’s, when he called for a mass army to be formed. The idea that newspapers and generals were promising a short war is something that has become a major part of our mythology of the Great War. Over by Christmas? It began to spread among the people the idea that the Great War would be "over by Christmas". Some may have done, but it was not a widespread belief and is only very rarely expressed in written sources. Soldiers were more likely to say that it would be over so soon, either because they feared not getting to use their training and take part, or because they had taken part and wanted it to be over as soon as possible. Many went from fear of an early end to the war to wishing for it.

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1.7 ZEPPELING RAID For the fist time, civilians themselves were targeted with bombing raids by Zeppelins and coastal raids by the German Navy. The first Zeppelin raid on London was at midnight on May 31st 1915, when Hauptmann Linnarz bombed the capital killing seven people and making £18,000 worth of damage. In the months that followed, fifty further Zeppelin raids took place and a blackout was imposed on the city. By October 1915, these raids effectively ended when pilots from the Royal Naval Air Service flew night patrols to protect the city.

1.8 BRITISH AIR DEFENCE When the first German strategic bombing attacks were initiated against the United Kingdom in 1915, there was no system in place to provide a coordinated air and civil defense. Only in 1918 an effective integrated defense provided London early detection and warnings, fighter interception aircraft and air defense artillery. In 1915, when the Zeppelin campaign started, London was defended by 12 anti-aircraft artillery pieces and 10 small fighter detachments. Reports of enemy airships were forwarded by telephone to the number for Anti-aircraft London from police constables, military installations, railway stations and lightships in the English Channel. In 1916 responsibility for command and control was passed to the War Office (the Royal Army), and a number of new measures were implemented that proved adequate to meet the Zeppelin threat. A searchlight belt was established 25 miles from the coast stretching from Sussex to Northumberland. A sound locator system was deployed to attempt to increase detections of the Zeppelins at night. The third component of detection was the establishment of the Metropolitan Observation Service. Approximately 200 visual observer posts, staffed by police, were activated, located at sufficient distance from target areas to result in sufficient advance warning for effective tactical action. These posts were connected to seven warning controls commanded by anti-aircraft defense commanders, with direct connections into the telephone trunk system.

1.9 LAW PASSED DURING THE WAR

The outbreak of war in 1914 brought many new rules and regulations to Britain.The most important of these was the Defence of the Realm Act (DORA), passed in 1914 ‘for securing public safety’. The Act governed all lives in Britain during World War One and it listed everything that people were not allowed to do in time of war. It regulated virtually every aspect of the British home front and was expanded as the war went on because as World War One evolved, DORA evolved. The first version of the Defence of the Realm Act was introduced on August 8th 1914. This stated that:

 no-one was allowed to talk about naval or military matters in public places  no-one was allowed to spread rumours about military matters  no-one was allowed to buy binoculars  no-one was allowed to trespass on railway lines or bridges  no-one was allowed to melt down gold or silver  no-one was allowed to light bonfires or fireworks  no-one was allowed to give bread to horses, horses or chickens  no-one was allowed to use invisible ink when writing abroad  no-one was allowed to buy brandy or whisky in a railway refreshment room;  no-one was allowed to ring church bells 7

 the government could take over any factory or workshop  the government could try any civilian breaking these laws.

Moreover Londoners was banned to whistle for a cab between 10 pm and 7 am in case it should be mistaken for an air raid warning. A blackout was also introduced in certain towns and cities to protect against air raids. British Summer Time was instituted in May 1916 to maximise working hours in the day, particularly in agriculture. Alcoholic beverages were now to be watered down, and pub closing times were brought forward from 12.30 am to 10 pm.

1.10 TRANSPORTS DURING THE WAR

The volume of traffic on London’s public transport system in the early twentieth century was enormous. Although many vehicles were motorised at the start of the war, creativity was required as fuel became scarce and expensive. As soon as the war began, most London’s buses were deployed with the British Expeditionary Force in 1914 using to transport men and ammunitions. This change must have made a difference to the availability of public transport in the streets during the war years – with the reductions in civilian train services as well, it was harder to get around during the war than in the years that preceded it. Bus manufacturing also virtually stopped – turned, like so much other production, to war purposes for the duration. The numbers of passengers, however, continued to grow. By late 1915 it was quite obvious that women would be needed to keep London’s transport infrastructure working. Transport was one of the major – and most visible – areas of the expansion of female employment. By mid-1918 it was estimated that 90% of conductors on trams and buses were women. Of course, they were not paid the same as men doing the same jobs in transport. The transport companies said that this was because their female employees were less reliable, less able to collect fares during rush hours, required more staff on duty at any one time and more training, and were subject to more complaints by the public. In August 1918, women transport workers across the country went on strike demanding equal pay with men. They didn’t get it but were given a war bonus.

1.11 WOMEN

This was a total war because it involved all sectors of society, including men, women and children. Some of the roles that women played were novel, many were not. Yet even traditional feminine occupations and pursuits could become part of a modern war effort. From the earliest days of the conflict, domestic tasks like sewing and knitting took on a military cast as girls and women created handmade comforts for soldiers. In addition to the sacrifices asked of women who surrendered their loved ones, as the war continued states asked women to ‘sacrifice’ many other things. The Allied blockade of the Central Powers obliged women to accept rationing, and therefore to do without specific foodstuffs. Women sustained their nations in many other ways. Most Women doing a typical men’s job: bus drivers. working-class women already worked outside the home for wages as well as undertaking domestic duties inside the home. Female factory workers continued to labour alongside men; they sustained the production of textiles (including uniforms) but many also shifted into metal working in factories, creating war material such as munitions.

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1.12 CHILDREN

Children were particularly impacted by the war through disruption to home life and to schooling, absent parents, and deaths of family and family friends. While such experiences were common on the Home Front, children often struggled to understand the reasons Children learning how to use a gas mask behind these events, and the impact upon them was sustained in different, and often more emotional, ways. What is also clear from this is how deeply children were influenced by propaganda; the boys of Princeton Street Elementary School in London wrote about heir impressions of airship raids and these essays offer crucial insight into how the UK was not at all prepared for airship attacks. These boys express both excitement and fear during the airship raids, and satisfied their curiosity by going out to inspect the damage once the raids were over. The war was also introduced into school lessons: examples of that might be calculations about the amount of wool needed to knit gift parcels for the troops or calculating the length of row of prisoners beside a railway line. Here the war was used not as a subject for teaching, but as a background example, indicating the pervasiveness of the war to everyday lives.

1.13 CHRISTMAS IN WAR TIME

Although war is almost the antithesis of the festive spirit of goodwill, this feeling did show through during the Great War. Most famously, there was the Christmas Truce of 1914. There was also the continued work of old Saint Nick. Santa Claus was already a fixture of Christmas time well before the First World War – both by that name and as Father Christmas. The traditions of his annual visit to the children of the world was almost a century old in 1914, related in the 1821 poem “A visit from St Nicholas” (better known now as “The Night Before Christmas”). The tradition continued into the Great War; it was thought Santa could be seen in the streets and hospitals visiting poor and unwell children. He also visited sick soldiers an of course he also visited soldiers at the Front.

1.14 MUSEUMS IN WARTIME During wartime, many of people’s favourite pastimes were curtailed. Professional football was suspended, bank holidays were temporarily cancelled, and some of London’s museums shut their doors. The British Museum closed to the public in March 1916 and did not fully reopen for nearly three years. For the first months of the war the British Museum continued as usual, even if many of its staff were off in the armed forces. By March 1916, 110 British Museum staff (and 53 at the Natural History Museum, its branch in South Kensington) were serving in the armed forces, while another 42 were sent to work in other government departments.

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In February 1916, the Government announced that several London museums would be closed for the duration of the war. From March 2nd 1916, a long list of museums were closed:

 The British Museum (except the Reading Room);  The Natural History Museum;  The Science Museum (except to students);  The Geological Museum (now part of the Natural History Museum);  The Bethnal Green Museum (now the V&A museum for childhood);  The Tate Gallery (now Tate Britain);  The Wallace Collection;  The London Museum (now part of the Museum of London) The National Gallery and Victoria & Albert Museum were not closed, while the National Portrait Gallery had already closed.

In early 1916 conscription was introduced, bank holidays disappeared and priceless antiquities disappeared from public view into tunnels under the city (as in the case of the Rosetta Stone) or covered with sandbags in empty galleries to protect How the art works were protected from damages in the museum them from air raids.

Temporary openings seem to have taken place in August 1917 and again in August 1918, but otherwise the museum remained closed apart from its Reading Room. The building gradually reopened over the first winter after the end of the war.

1.15 AFTER THE WAR After the end of the conflict, George V attended the difficult post-war years, which led to a general malaise among the population, lowering the quality of life, but at the same time the population of London began to grow, reaching, in 1921, the remarkable number of 7 million and a half and it was made some positive innovation, such as the granting of universal male suffrage and the partial granting of the vote to women in 1918.

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CHAPTER 2. THE BRITISH FRONT AND THE ROLE OF MALTA IN WORLD WAR I

2.1 WHY DID BRITAIN JOIN WORLD WAR I?

In the second half of the XIX century the political and economic situation in Europe began to be very tense. The causes which led to the outbreak of the First World War were mainly bound with the strong imperialistic contrast for the world economic monopoly through the possession of the colonies between Germany, France and Britain. Because of this cause, the Triple Alliance was founded: it was formed by Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. In the late 1800s, another concern was Russia. For much of the 19th century, Russia wanted to take control of the Dardanelles, the area where the Black Sea opened to the Mediterranean Sea. This would allow Russian warships and treading ships to sail easily around Europe. Russia had other ports in the north, but these tended to freeze over in the winter. The problem was that the Dardanelles were owned by Turkey. Turkey and Russia had long been enemies, and Britain supported Turkey against Russia. This was because Britain did not want Russian ships in the Mediterranean: in fact, the Mediterranean was part of Britain's most important trade route to India. Therefore, until the 1900s, Britain was more concerned about Russia and France than Germany. Even though the relationship between Britain and Germany had been very good, bthis began to change when the new ruler of Germany, Kaiser Wilhelm II, felt that Russia and France, which were allied with Britain in the Triple Entente, Triple Entente and Triple Alliance during the First World War were encircling Germany. So, Wilhelm began to prepare his armed forces. France and Russia feared Germany and did the same: during the 1900s, all the greatest powers in Europe began to build up their armies and navies. For what concerns the British, whose policy in Europe intended that no country should became completely dominant, they believed that if Russia, France, Germany and Austria-Hungary worried about each other, they would have been less dangerous. Now, the greatest potential threat to Britain was surely Germany because of its strong economy, large population and especially because of its powerful army; these features gave Germany the possibility to became dominant over Europe. So, in 1907, Britain decided to join France and Russia in the Triple Entente to face the power of Germany. Despite being part of the Triple Entente, Britain was not committed to going to war in 1914; but Germany, that knew Britain had promised to defend Belgium in the Treaty of London (1839), wanted Britain to ignore the agreement and let German army pass through Belgium. Germany's plot missed the mark because the British government declared war on Germany when 11 they attacked France through Belgium. Within a few more days, Britain, France and Russia (the Allies) were all officially at war with Germany and Austria-Hungary.

2.2 THE TROOPS: THE MOST REMARKABLE PART OF WAR EXPERIENCE WAS ‘TO SEE THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF HUMAN RACES FROM ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD’

The British Army was mainly made up of Auxiliary Forces from the British colonies belonging to the Commonwealth. At the time, the British colonial dominion was extremely vast; it consisted of the whole territory of India, Australia and New Zeland, South Africa, part of Canada and Nepal. Britain made use of these stranger troops mostly to be able to count on a highly larger number of soldiers , which would have been faithful to the Motherland in any condition. Although the colonial forces were extremely important in war, they were overexploited and suffered from many disadvantages. First of all, the military roles assignation wasn’t equitable at all: in fact, the great part of the units were led by officers from the British Army and the foreigners, in particular the non-white colonials, as well as non-whites from Britain, had to fill the lower ranks. Often, only white soldiers fought, and the dirty, dangerous jobs of loading ammunition, laying telephone wires and digging trenches, were assigned to black soldiers; in fact, the non-whites (except for Indians)weren't allowed to fight in Europe. However, there are evidences that non- white soldiers were involved in some battles.

2.2.1 INDIAN ARMY

Among the various colonies of the British empire, India contributed the largest number of men, with approximately 1.5 million recruited. In August 1914, soon after the outbreak of war when the British expeditionary force had been almost wiped out, Britain called on the Indian Army to fill Indian soldiers during the war vital gap left in its defences. The first 28,500 Indian Army troops arrived on the Western Front on 26 September and they played a crucial role in holding the line: they arrived at Marseilles and were immediately sent to the trenches. The Indian Corps in the Western Front had been the subject of an intense debate, in fact they were considered unsuitable for the long European winters, without adequate training or winter clothing. However, Indian soldiers were deployed widely because of their military valour and fought in the battles of Ypres, Neuve Chapelle, the Somme, Passchendaele and in even greater number in Mesopotamia. Indian soldiers did not fight as a separate army, but alongside British units, which led to a certain amount of social interaction. These contacts were fostered by the common experience of the horrors of trenches. The Indian army also supplied the first and the second cavalry divisions, which saw action on the Western front. Cavalry divisions played a crucial role at the outbreak of the first world war, and the 12

British army saw cavalry charges and mounted infantry as tactically crucial throughout the war. They stayed in France until the end of the war, fighting in the battles of the Somme and Passchendaele. Most of the soldiers were recruited from the peasant-warrior classes of North and North-Western India, they were a multi-ethnic, multi-lingual and multi-religious force. Many of these men were semi- or non-literate, nevertheless they dictated letters, and often they used codes o to hoodwink the British censors. During the war, despite the collaboration with Great Britain, most of the imperial structures and racist hierarchies remained intact, for example the hospital grounds were surrounded by barbed wire so the Indian soldiers couldn't venture into town, and the most senior Indian officer remained inferior in rank to the junior-most English officer.

2.2.2 GURKHAS

A truly important role was played by the Gurkhas, a Nepalese army renowned for its sense of loyalty to Britain and a dauntless bravery. The origins of Gurkha service with the British crown go back to the Anglo Nepal War of 1914-16, where Gurkhas fought against British East India Company the battle ended up with Britain’s victory and, with the Treaty Sugauli, the Kingdom of Gurkhas lose a third of its territory in aid of Britain, but maintained its indipendence. That war took them to the alliance and Gurkhas were soon enlisted for the service in the East India Company's Army. Their first conflict where the Nepalese showed their valour was the Pindaree War in 1817, where their prestige begun to grow. Their main war's act happened during the Indian Mutiny: their merit was, when they remained

Gurkhas: Nepalese warriors in World War One faithful to the Motherlad even when the Indian Regiments rise up against Britain. For this reason they were awarded the Queen's Truncheon by Queen Victoria and were restyled as a Rifle Regiment, as a mark of respect by the distinctive dark green uniform that they still wear. In the First World War they fought in France, Flanders, Mesopotamia, Persia, Egypt, Gallipoli, Palestine and Salonika.

2.2.3 SOUTH AFRICAN ARMY When the world war broke out in 1914, the South African government chose to join the war on the side of the Triple Entente, though the Afrikaner opposition to fighting beside Britain so soon after the Second Boer War (1899-1902), which was ended in victory for Britain and the annexation of both republics.

A rebellion rise up, too, but it was soon put down South African units that served Britain during the war and an expedition force was immediately sent to

13 invade the German territory in Africa (now Namibia). Over 146,000 men served in South African units during the war, fighting on three principal front, and they also took part in many well-known battles, such as Somme, Arras, Vimy, Ypres and Flanders' battles. Most of the recruits already had military training or experience, but they were in general middle class, well educated and well bred men.

2.2.4 CANADIAN ARMY

When Britain was at war, Canada was also at war automatically. By war’s end, some 619,000 Canadians had enlisted in the Canadian Expeditionary Force for service overseas. This was an enormous contribution from a population of just under 8 million in 1914. Approximately 7% of the total population of Canada was in uniform at some point of the war, and hundreds of thousands of additional Canadians worker on the home front in support of the war. Officers of the Canadian Army Medical Corps Unlike the other colonial forces, Canadian soldiers did not spend all of their time fighting in the trenches or preparing for battle: they were in a better condition. There was leisure time, too, especially when soldiers rotated to the rear areas. Also the Canadian Army Medical Corps, “CAMC”, played an essential role in keeping soldiers alive. Founded in 1904 the Corps had the massive expansion from 1914 to 1918. Casualties among Canadian troops in France and Belgium were so heavy that more than half of all Canadian physicians served overseas to treat them.

2.2.5 ANZACS

Australia’s involvement in the First World War began when Britain and Germany went to war on 4 August 1914. The outbreak of war was greeted in Australia with great public enthusiasm. In response to the overwhelming number of volunteers, the authorities set exacting physical standards for recruits. Yet, most of the men accepted into the army in August 1914 were sent first to Egypt, not Europe, to meet the threat with a new belligerent, the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), posed to British interests in the Middle East and the Suez Canal. After four and a half months of training near Cairo, the Australians departed by ships for the ANZACs in the front line trenches during WW1 Gallipoli peninsula with troops from New Zealand, Britain and France. 14

Unlike their counterparts in France and Belgium, the Australians in the Middle East fought a mobile war against the Ottoman Empire in conditions completely different from the mud and stagnation of the Western Front. The light horsemen and their mounts had to survive extreme heat, harsh territories and water shortages. Nevertheless, casualties were comparatively light, with 1394 Australians killed or wounded in three years of war. Australians also served at sea and in the newly formed flying corps. The Royal Australian Navy (RAN), under the command of the Royal Navy, made a significant contribution in the First World War. Also Australian women made their part during the Great War: they volunteered for service in auxiliary roles, as cooks, nurses, drivers, interpreters, munitions workers and skilled farm workers. When Australia took part in war, New Zealand joined Britain, too. Australia and New Zealand’s armies united formed the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) ANZAC was an army corps formed in Egypt in 1915 and operated in World War I during the Gallipoli Campaign, an attempt to capture the Dardanelles from Turkey. The corps was finally disbanded in 1916 following the evacuation of the Allies from the Gallipoli peninsula. In 1916 Australian and New Zealand infantry divisions were sent to France. They took part in some of the bloodiest actions of the war and established reputations as elite shock troops, at the price of heavy casualties.

2.3 THE FRONTS

2.3.1 THE WESTERN FRONT (1914-18)

During The First World War of 1914-1918 the Allied Forces of Belgium, France, Great Britain, the Dominion Forces of the British Empire (Australia, Canada, India, New Zealand, and South Africa), Portugal and the United States (from April 1918) made a stand against the Imperial German Army's advance and occupation of Belgium from 4th August 1914 and north-eastern France from 6th August 1914. The Western Front was the name applied to the fighting zone in France and Flanders, where the British, French, Belgian and (towards the end of the war) the American armies faced that of Germany. There was an Eastern Front too, in Poland, Galicia and Western Front down to Serbia, where Russian armies faced those of Germany and Austria-Hungary. The Western Front was not the only theatre that saw the British army in action during the Great War but it was by far the most important. After the battles of 1914 both sides held an entrenched line that stretched from 15

Nieuport on the Belgian coast, through the flat lands of industrial Artois, continuing through the wide expanses of the Somme and Champagne, into the high Vosges and on to the Swiss border. The British held a small portion of this 400-mile long line, varying from some 20 miles in 1914 to over 120 early in 1918. From the moment the German army moved quietly into Luxemburg on 2 August 1914 to the Armistice on 11 November 1918, the fighting on the Western Front in France and Flanders never stopped. There were quiet periods, just as there were the most intense, savage, huge-scale battles. Until mid-1917 when the French Army was seriously affected by mutiny, the British Expeditionary Force was the junior partner. From that time until the ultimate victory, the British army played the central role. Weakened by casualties and government action that made the army a low priority for the national manpower, with an ever-lengthening line to hold, the BEF fought a magnificent defence in spring 1918. Breakthrough came August 1918 and in the last 100 days of the war the BEF spearheaded the defeat of the main body of the main enemy. The war on the Western Front can be thought of as being in three phases: first, a war of movement as Germany attacked France and the Allies sought to halt it; second, the lengthy and terribly costly siege warfare as the entrenched lines proved impossible to crack (late 1914 to mid 1918); and finally a return to mobile warfare as the Allies applied lessons and technologies forged in the previous years.

2.3.2 YPRES WAR (1914)

Ypres war took place in Ypres, in western Belgium during October and November 1914, between Germany, France, Belgium and Britain, which armies fought from Arras (France) to Nieuport (on the Belgium coast). It was a part of the First Battle of Flanders. It began at the end of the Race to the Sea, which involved attempts by the German and Franco-British armies to advance past the northern flank of their opponents. The fighting has been divided into four battles: an encounter battle from 19 to 21 October, the battle of Langemarck from 21 to 24 October, the battles at La Bassée

Ypres at close of war and Armentières to 2 November and the battle of Gheluvelt from 29 to 31 October, a fourth stage with the last big German offensive. The last battle culminated at the battle of Nonne Bosschen on 11 November and then local operations faded out in late November. The German captain tried a limited offensive to capture Ypres and Mount Kemmel, while Belgians and a new French Eighth Army in Belgium made little progresses. But neither side had moved forces fast enough to obtain a decisive victory and by November both were exhausted and short of ammunition. French, Britain and Belgian troops, in improvised field defences, repulsed German attacks for four weeks, while another German front made mass attacks at Langemarck. The German captain decided to reconsider his strategy over the winter, because he intended to detach Russia or France (which stipulated a dictated of peace) from the Allied coalition, by diplomatic or military actions. 16

A strategy of attrition would make the cost of the war, until one enemy negotiated an end to the war. The remaining belligerents would have to negotiate or face the German army, concentrated on the remaining fronts, which would be sufficient to obtain a decisive victory.

2.3.3 GALLIPOLI CAMPAIGN (1915-16)

The Gallipoli Campaign of 1915-16, also known as the Battle of Gallipoli or the Dardanelles Campaign, was an unsuccessful attempt by the Allied Powers to control the sea route from Europe to Russia during World War I. The objective was to capture Constantinople (now Istanbul in Turkey), the capital of the Ottoman Empire, and an ally of Germany. The campaign began with a failed naval attack by British and French ships on the Dardanelles Straits in February-March 1915 and continued with a major land invasion of the Gallipoli Peninsula on April 25, involving British and French troops as well as divisions of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC). Lack of sufficient intelligence and knowledge of the terrain, along with a fierce Turkish resistance, hampered the success of the invasion. By mid- October, Allied forces had suffered heavy Allied preparations for a landing casualties and had made little headway from their initial landing sites. Evacuation, defined as the most successful operation in Gallipoli, began in December 1915, and was completed early the following January. In all, some 480,000 Allied forces took part in the Gallipoli Campaign, at a cost of more than 250,000 casualties, including some 46,000 dead. On the Turkish side, the campaign also cost an estimated 250,000 casualties, with 65,000 killed.

2.3.4 THE SOMME CAMPAIGN (1916)

The Somme Campaign in 1916 (July-November) was the first great offensive of World War I for the British, and it produced a more critical British attitude toward the world. During and after the Somme, the British Army started a real improvement in tactics. Also, the French attached at the Somme and achieved greater advances on July 1 than the British did, with far fewer casualties. But it is the losses that are most remembered. The first day of the Somme offensive, 1 July 1916, resulted in 57,470 British casualties, greater than the total combined British casualties in the Crimean, Boer and Korean wars.

2.3.5 VIMY RIDGE (1917)

The Battle of Vimy Ridge (Vimy is situated northern France, Vimy Ridge was part of the larger British and French offensive, which failed) is Canada's most celebrated military victory. The four divisions of the Canadian Corps attacked the ridge from 9-12 April, 1917 and succeeded in capturing it from the German army, nonetheless more than 10,500 Canadians were killed and wounded in the assault.

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The Canadians would carefully plan and rehearse their attack. The infantry had specialist roles as machine-gunners, rifle-men and grenade-throwers. Soldiers trained for weeks, using models to represent the battlefield and new maps crafted from aerial photographs. Engineers dug deep tunnels to bring men forward safely for the assault and the employment of the

Machine gun crew at Vimy Ridge shells that explode on contact, as opposed to burying themselves in ground, facilitated the destruction of hardened defences and barbed wire. The Canadian divisions stormed the ridge, against Germans, at 5:30am on 9 April 1917 and the battle lasted three days. The Canadian operation was an important success but it was victory at a heavy cost: 3,600 Canadians were killed and another 7,000 wounded. Vimy became a symbol for the sacrifice of the young Dominion. In 1922, the French government ceded to Canada Vimy and the land surrounding it, which became the symbol for the sacrifice and the birth of Canadian nation. Canadians built the Vimy Memorial to remind the 11,300 Canadian soldiers killed in France who have no known graves.

2.4 THE ROLE OF MALTA IN THE GREAT WORLD WAR

At the end of summer in 1914 Malta, as a British colony, enter the war, too. The island didn't participate actively to the Great World War, but it served as a hospital for wounded soldiers, a dockyard for the British navy, a prison for prisoners of war, a home for refugees from Egypt and other Middle Eastern countries. European armies didn't go and fight on the island, it was only the trustee of Britain and it only sent soldiers to the other Campaigns, such as Salonika and Gallipoli. Malta wasn't constantly controlled and considered by the motherland; the government of the colony suffered the pressure of London only when it revolted or when the administration failed to be self-sufficient. Wounded soldiers taken to an hospital ship 2.4.1 MALTA AS A NAVAL BASE Malta became a centre for the transport of troops and supplies. A lot of dockyards were created, which worked around clock, rapid repairs to torpedoed of mined naval and merchant ships. The island were used also as a port for English and French navies.

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2.4.2 MALTA AS A NURSE OF THE MEDITERRANEAN

At the beginning of the war, an early enquiry of hospital accommodations were done and in February 1915 more hospitals were sprang up in barracks and schools and equipped over 25000. A month later convoys of wounded started arriving and the population gave its contribution in caring. In 1916, in the island first malaria cases arrived, sent from Salonika Campaign.

2.4.3 ITS CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE ARMED FORCES OF THE EMPIRE

Malta was used also as a base for training personnel, in fact an enlistment of mass was done in Royal Air Force and Royal Naval Reserve. There were also a lot of battalions and each of them was sent to Campaigns: Maltese Labour Battalion was sent to the Dardanelles; two Malta Labour Corps, Royal Malta Artillery and Maltese Militia officers were sent to Salonika. Over 31000 men and women of Malta were engaged on war- work. The island also had two prisons: Salvatore Fort and Verdala Barracks, where prisoners of war were kept.

2.4.4 THE EFFECTS OF THE GREAT WORLD WAR

During the war a black market economy reigned supreme; the cost of living soared to unprecedented heights, prices of the most of principal foods were those mostly affected. The economy began to improve. Malta was used increasingly by the French navy. The dockyard was working at full capacity repairing damage and refitting vessels. Malta became a hospitalisation centre for casualties from the Salonika and Dardanelles Campaign. The cost of living was rising rapidly and the price of several basic commodities became inflated, because of the disruption of trade reduced government revenue. But the incomes of all sections of the community didn't increase proportionally, in fact in 1916 “the Imperial General Workers Union” was founded by the dockyard workers. The inflation of prices, and a general unemployment, especially of demobilised soldiers, culminated in revolts of the population, suppressed by British armies. The most notable repression was the one of 7 June, known as the “Bloody 7 June Riots”, when motherland soldiers shot to the unarmed crowed picketing (demonstrating). The war had psychological impact on soldiers, that presented mental insanity. Because of economic and social problems the population start to demanding a constitution reform, that was approved after repression of 7 June 1921. It provided for two governments: an imperial government, as represented by the governor, and a Maltese government, which had a chief minister and a cabinet who were elected by a bicameral parliament. Both the governments attempted to encourage the output in sectors which were not dependent on British military expenditure while maintaining the balanced budgets requested by London. The Maltese self-government created technical government departments for agriculture, migration and tourism. The need to maintain budget balance also led to the Maltese self-government attempts to promote manufacturing without government expenditure by the introduction of production monopolies. The attempts to encourage economic diversity were checked by the decisions of the British military, which tended to take the definition of Malta as a “fortress”, that literally meant a key viewpoint given to Malta by the small territory and the high density of population. 19

CHAPTER 3. THE AMERICAN PARTICIPATION

3.1 THE UNITED STATES’ ENTRY INTO THE WAR

The United States’ entry into World War I came in April 1917, after two and a half years of efforts by President Woodrow Wilson to keep the United States neutral during World War I. Americans had no idea that war was imminent in Europe in the summer of 1914, and tens of thousands of tourists were caught by surprise. American public opinion went along with neutrality at first. The sentiment for neutrality was strong among Irish Americans, German Americans and Swedish Americans, as well as among church leaders and women. However, the citizenry increasingly came to see the German Empire as the villain after news of atrocities in Belgium in 1914, and the sinking of the passenger liner RMS Lusitania in 1915 in defiance of international law. Wilson made all the key decisions and kept the economy on a peacetime basis, while allowing large-scale loans to Britain and France. To preclude making any military threat Wilson made only minimal preparations for war and kept the army on its small peacetime basis. However, he did enlarge the US Navy. At the beginning of 1917 Germany decided to begin a submarine warfare on every commercial ship headed toward Britain, realizing that this decision would almost certainly mean war with the United States. Germany also offered a military alliance to Mexico in the Zimmermann Telegram. Publication of that offer outraged Americans just as German U-boats (submarines) started sinking American ships in the North Atlantic. Wilson asked Congress for “a war to end all wars" that would “make the world safe for democracy”, and Congress voted to declare war on Germany on April 6, 1917. On December 7, 1917, the US declared war on the

President Wilson asking the Congress to enter the war. Austro-Hungarian Empire.

3.1.1 THE SUBMARINE WAR A critical indirect strategy used by both sides was the blockade. The British Royal Navy successfully stopped the shipment of most war supplies and food to Germany. By 1918, the German front-line soldiers were on short rations and were running out of essential supplies. Unable to challenge the more powerful Royal Navy on the surface, Germany wanted to scare off merchant and passenger ships on the route to Britain. They reasoned that since the island of Britain depended on imports of food, raw materials, and manufactured goods, scaring off a substantial number of the ships would effectively undercut its long-term ability to maintain an army on the Western Front. While Germany had only nine long-range U-boats at the start of the war. However, the United States demanded that Germany respect the international agreements upon "freedom of the seas", which protected neutral American ships on the high seas from seizure or sinking by either belligerent. Furthermore, Americans insisted that the drowning of innocent 20 civilians was barbaric and grounds for a declaration of war. German submarines, however, torpedoed ships without warning, and some sailors and passengers drowned. Britain armed most of its merchant ships with medium calibre guns that could sink a submarine, making above-water attacks too risky. In February 1915, the United States warned Germany about misuse of submarines. On April 22, the German Imperial Embassy warned US-Citizens from boarding vessels to Great Britain which would have to face German attack. On May 7, Germany torpedoed the British passenger liner RMS Lusitania, sinking her. This act of aggression caused the loss of 1,198 civilian lives, including 128 Americans. The sinking of a large, unarmed passenger ship, combined with the previous atrocity stories from Belgium, shocked Americans and turned public opinion hostile to Germany, although not yet to the point of war. Wilson issued a warning to Germany that it would face “strict accountability” if it sank more neutral U.S. passenger ships. Berlin acquiesced, ordering its submarines to avoid passenger ships. By January 1917, however, German army demanded the unrestricted submarine warfare to be resumed. Germany knew this decision meant war with the United States, but they gambled that they could win before America’s potential strength could be mobilized. However, they overestimated how many ships they could sink and thus the extent Britain would be weakened. They believed that the United States was so weak militarily that it could not be a factor on the Western Front for more than a year – a mistake that would ultimately prove to be fatal to their war.

3.2 THE AMERICAN SUPPLIES GIVEN TO THE ALLIES

At the beginning of the World War I America declared itself neutral, because it was not directly threatened by any of the belligerents country and also because it had little interest in European power politics. The United States were, however, the largest producer of industrial and agricultural products in the world so it played an important role even as a neutral country. In 1915 Allies contracted for weapons, food and clothing. Because of great quantities of food and clothing needed, the meat packers and the manufacturers of textiles, shoes, and other articles turned their plants to the production of supplies for the army. Then, as the Allies hard currency reserves ran out, huge loans were floated to finance their American propaganda to invite people joing the industries to purchases. produce supplies for the war. In fact between 1917 and 1918 Britain borrowed $4 billion from the USA Treasury. Much of this money was spent paying the United States industries to manufacture weapons and food an other loans were never paid back.

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3.2.1 ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS

The beginning of war in Europe coincided with the end of the Recession of 1913–1914 in America. Exports to belligerent nations rose rapidly over the first four years of the War from $824.8 million in 1913 to $2.25 billion in 1917. Loans from American financial institutions to the Allied nations in Europe also increased dramatically over the same period. Economic activity towards the end of this period boomed as government resources aided the production of the private sector. The improvements to industrial production in the United States outlasted the war. The capital build-up that had allowed American companies to supply belligerents and the American army resulted in a greater long-run rate of production even after the war had ended in 1918. In 1913, J. P. Morgan, Jr. took over the House of Morgan, an American-based investment bank consisting of separate banking operations in New York, London, and Paris. The House of Morgan offered assistance in the wartime financing of Britain and France from the earliest stages of the war in 1914 through America’s entrance in 1917. J.P. Morgan & Co., the House of Morgan’s bank in New York, was designated as the primary financial agent to the British government in 1914. The same bank would later take a similar role in France and would offer extensive financial assistance to both warring nations. J.P. Morgan &Co. became the primary issuer of loans to the French government by raising money from American investors. Relations between the House of Morgan and the French government became tense as the war raged on with no end in sight. After the war, in 1918, J.P. Morgan & Co. continued to aid the French government financially through monetary stabilization and debt relief. J.P. Morgan issued loans to France including one in March 1915 and another in October 1915, the latter amounting to US$500,000,000. Although the stance of the U.S. government was that ending such aid could hasten the end of the war and save millions of lives, little was done to insure adherence to the ban on loans.

3.2.2 THE INCREASING INDUSTRY PRODUCTION: BETHLEHEM STEEL

The American steel industry had faced difficulties and declining profits during the Recession of 1913–1914. However, as the war began in Europe, the increased demand for tools of war began a period of productivity that alleviated many U.S. industrial companies from the low-growth environment of the recession. Bethlehem Steel, America's second-largest steel producer and largest shipbuilder, took particular advantage of the increased demand for armaments abroad. Prior to American entrance into the War, these companies benefitted from unrestricted commerce with sovereign customers abroad. After President Wilson issued his declaration of war, the companies were subjected to price controls created by the U.S. Trade Commission in order to insure that the U.S. military would have access to the necessary armaments.

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By the end of the war in 1918, Bethlehem Steel had produced 65,000 pounds of forged military products and 70 million pounds of armor plate, 1.1 billion pounds of steel for shells, and 20.1 million rounds of artillery ammunition for Britain and France. Bethlehem Steel took advantage of the domestic armaments market and produced 60% of the American weaponry and 40%

The Bethlehem Steel’s factory during the first world war. of the artillery shells used in the War. Even with price controls and a lower profit margin on manufactured goods, the profits resulting from wartime sales expanded the company into the third largest manufacturing company in the country. Bethlehem Steel became the primary arms supplier for the United States and other allied powers again in 1939.

3.2.3 FOOD PROCUREMENTS

Agriculture and food distribution were issues that every belligerant country had to face with. America had a vast agricultural sector and, unlike the Europeans, it could be expanded to meet the needs of not only its own people and army, but also the people and armies of its allies so the USA mobilized for war to procure supplies for the Allies. Several new Federal agencies were created to manage a war-time economy as the Food Administration that was placed under Herbert Hoover. It provided food assistance for Allies and it also oversaw domestic markets. For example Hoover launched a campaign to teach Americans to economize on their food budgets and grow victory gardens in their backyards. Moreover various promotions were devised, such as the ''meatless Mondays'' and the ''wheatless American propaganda to invite people in helping the Allies. Wednesdays''. Hoover was convinced that Americans would cooperate to support the soldiers overseas. In fact the idea was that Americans

23 would have modify their eating (also conservating food and eliminating waste) so that more food was available for shipments overseas. In 1917 Germany announced an underwater war using the U-Boote to block the transit of the American procurements across the Atlantic Ocean. Since the beginning of World War I in 1914, the United States, under President Woodrow Wilson, had maintained strict neutrality, other than providing material assistance to the Allies. Even in May 1915, when a German submarine sank the British ocean liner Lusitania, killing 128 U.S. citizens out of a total 1,200 dead, the United States, though in uproar, remained neutral. In January 1917, Germany announced that it would lift all restrictions on submarine warfare starting on February 1. This declaration meant that German U-boat commanders were suddenly authorized to sink all ships that they believed to be providing aid of any sort to the Allies. Because the primary goal was to starve Britain into surrendering, the German effort would focus largely on ships crossing the Atlantic from the United States and Canada. The first victim of this new policy was the American cargo ship Housatonic, which a

American propaganda presenting the dramatic situation in France. German U-boat sank on February 3, 1917. Although Wilson tried hard to keep the United States neutral, by the spring of 1917, the situation had changed significantly, and neutrality no longer seemed feasible. Germany’s unrestricted submarine warfare was taking its toll, as American ships, both cargo and passenger, were sunk one after another. Finally, on April 2, Wilson appeared before Congress and requested a declaration of war. Congress responded within days, officially declaring war on Germany on April 6, 1917.

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3.3 THE SITUATION AFTER THE WAR 3.3.1 THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES On January 8, 1919, the president Wilson numbered the 14 points that would represent his inspiration in his action in the next peace conference:  Democracy would be guaranteed;  There would be absolutely liberty of navigation;  All the economic barriers would be abolished and there would be equality of economic services;  Weapons would been reduced and used only to the inner security;  Borderlines would been re-established;  An League of Nations would been created. World War I officially ended with the signing of the

Treaty of Versailles on June 28. The Treaty, An article from a news paper about the 14 points of Wilson. negotiated among the Allied powers with little participation by Germany, was signed at the vast Versailles Palace between Germany and the Allies and the three most important politicians that were David Lloyd George, Georges Clemenceau and Woodrow Wilson. On 11 November 1918 Allies signed peace with some treaties: with the Treaty of Versailles Germany gave up Alsace, Lorraine and colonies; the Treaty of Saint Germain imposed the break up of Austro-Hungarian Empire in new states and terrirories: Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Trentino South-Tyrol, Venezia Giulia and Histria. Therefore the winning states, in order to obtain from their victory more possible The sign of the Treaty of Versailles in the Palace of Versailles, Paris. advantages in economic and territory terms, imposed heavy conditions to the losers and in particular to Germany: the creation of Polen took away the major part of the german territory, the assignment of some districts rich of coal to Belgium, Denmark and Czechoslovakia caused the loss of vital industrial territory and difficulties to Germany to rebuild her economy. Germany’s army was reduced to 100,000 men; in the army was not allowed tanks, an airforce; she was allowed only 6 capital naval ships and no submarines. The Allies were to keep an army of occupation on the west bank of the Rhine for 15 years.

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There are three vital clauses in the Treaty of Versailles: 1. Germany had to admit full responsibility for starting the war. 2. Germany was therefore responsible for all the war damage caused by the First World War. Therefore, she had to pay reparations, the bulk of which would go to France and Belgium to pay for the damage done to the infrastructure of both countries by the war. 3. A League of Nations was set up to keep world peace. The German government signed the treaty under protest. Right-wing German parties attacked it as a betrayal, and terrorists assassinated several politicians whom they considered responsible. The U.S. Senate refused to ratify the treaty, and the U.S. government took no responsibility for most of its provisions.

3.3.2 THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS On April 1919 appeared the League of Nations, wanted by Wilson, that was an international organization, headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, created after the First World War to provide a forum for resolving international disputes with the aims to stop wars, encourage disarmament, make the world a better place by improving people's working conditions, and by tackling disease. In front of the U.S. Congress on January 8, 1918, President Woodrow Wilson enumerated the last of his Fourteen Points, calling for a “general association of nations…formed on the basis of covenants designed to create mutual guarantees of The president of USA, Thomas Woodrow the political independence and territorial integrity of States, Wilson (1856-1924). large and small equally.” Many of Wilson’s points would require regulation or enforcement, and thus he distilled the wartime thinking of many diplomats and intellectuals, on both sides of the Atlantic, into a call for a new type of standing international organization dedicated to encouraging international cooperation, providing security for its members, and ensuring a lasting peace. With Europe’s population exhausted by four years of total war, and with many in the United States supportive of the idea that a new organization would be able to solve the international disputes that had led to war in 1914, Wilson’s articulation of a League of Nations was wildly popular. However, it proved exceptionally difficult to create, and Wilson left office never having convinced the United States to be a member of it. Its main weaknesses were the fact that it was set up by the Treaty of Versailles (which every nation hated) and Germany, Russia and the USA were not members; that it had no army and its organization was cumbersome; and that its aims were too ambitious and decisions had to be unanimous. 3.3.3 WHAT HAPPENED AFTER THE WW1

World war one had devastating effects on Europe that were also felt across the Atlantic Ocean in America. Due to the war industry in the USA grew, the women’s movement progressed, and the 26 government adopted new diplomatic policies. The Great War affected all areas of life in America, and continued to have its effect for many years to come. As a result of the USA joining the war in 1916, industry production in America boomed. Manufacturers had to keep production up to the velocity needed to support the war: so new technologies were developed to help manufacturers meet the needs of the government and people and also more employment opportunities opened for women and African-Americans because the absence of most of the able-bodied men in American. During this time as industry boomed, so did the economy. However, as the war ended, and soldiers started to return home, the industry production began to slow, and there was less need for workers in factories. Many women stopped working, but even so there were not enough jobs for the men returning home from Europe. This rising unemployment after a time of industry and economic prosperity, planted the seeds of the coming Great Depression. World War I became a display of new technologies and warfare. The battle fighting of the nineteenth century was obsolete in the war, instead trench fighting with heavy gunfire and biological weapons were the warfare of the First World War. Even though the weapons expanded humankind's potential for killing they were also helpful because people felt more protected. They also helped United States avoid another war because other countries were afraid of the new technology that might be used against them. After the war, Americans felt that they had been too hasty in joining a war in Europe. This sentiment caused a new era of diplomacy that include not becoming involved with European conflicts. The diplomacy of America became that unless attacked by a belligerent nation, America would not enter a war any time soon. So the United States became a political and military power. Americans began to let its own artists and citizens to shape its future because they no longer desired Europe to shape its culture. The United States started to become viewed as a leader to the world. American lifestyle became a model of wellness and progress and influenced also the european society that adopted many styles and habits: charleston dance, jazz music and whisky became for young european people symbols of modernitiy. Another positive effect of World War I were the different kinds of transportations that were invented. The Americans needed airplanes to fight in the Great War but later on the airplane was established as a peacemaker means of transportation. People were now starting to take trips by airplanes. World War one had huge effects on America including highly productive industry that preceded the Great Depression, jobs given to woman, which helped pass the nineteenth amendment, and a new kind of diplomacy and antiwar sentiment that affected America’s entrance into World War II. Not only did the American public feel these effects, but also the loss of so many men in the war affected all of America and the all of the world. Although, America suffered some bad effects of the war, certainly it was nothing compared to Europe, where nations were divided and reformed, and entire countries scourged by warfare. Certainly, World War I was devastating to America as well as the entire world.

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3.4 THE AMERICAN EXPEDITIONARY FORCES (AEF) Once war was declared, General John Joseph "Black Jack" Pershing was designated the supreme commander of the American army and the American Expeditionary Forces were created. AEF consisted of the United States Armed Forces sent to Europe to fight alongside French and British allied. In 1917 the United States Army counted 200.000 members, 80.000 of whom served in National Guard units. Even though the National Defense Act of 1916 provided for the gradual expansion of the regular army and reserves, the USA was forced to build and army based on volunteer enlistments and the draft. More than 24 million men registered for the draft, and almost 2.7 million men were furnished to the U.S. Army by conscription. J. M. Flagg's 1917 poster used to recruit soldiers. Since the transport ships needed to bring American troops to Europe were scarce, the army pressed into service cruise ships and borrowed Allied ships to transport American soldiers. Although the first American troops arrived in Europe in June 1917, the AEF did not fully participate until October, when the first division (one of the best-trained divisions) entered the trenches at Nancy, in France. Between 1917 and 1918 American divisions were employed to augment and help French and British units defending their lines and in staging attacks on German positions. When the war ended more than four million "Doughboys" (informal term for a member of the United States Army) had served in the American Expeditionary Forces. In less than two years the United States had established new motorized and combat forces, equipped them with all types of ordinance including machine guns and tanks, and created an entirely new support organization capable of moving supplies thousands of miles in a timely manner.

General John Joseph "Black Jack" Pershing. 28

WORKS CITED: CHAPTER 1. LIFE IN LONDON DURING THE FIRST WORLD WAR

• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_London_%281900%E2%80%9339%29 • https://greatwarlondon.wordpress.com/2015/01/04/when-will-this-war-end/ • https://greatwarlondon.wordpress.com/2014/12/30/london-buses-at-war-1914-1918/ • https://greatwarlondon.wordpress.com/2013/01/14/a-year-of-great-war-london/ • https://greatwarlondon.wordpress.com/2012/12/24/the-christmas-truce/ • https://greatwarlondon.wordpress.com/2013/03/02/will-you-march-too/ • https://greatwarlondon.wordpress.com/2012/10/20/thomas-harper-propaganda-speaker/ • https://greatwarlondon.wordpress.com/2012/10/04/the-british-museum-in-wartime/ • https://greatwarlondon.wordpress.com/2012/09/21/housing-the-war-workers/ • https://greatwarlondon.wordpress.com/2012/07/10/londons-air-defences/ • https://greatwarlondon.wordpress.com/2014/12/24/santa-in-wartime/ • https://greatwarlondon.wordpress.com/2013/09/07/the-1914-recruiting-boom/ • http://www.iwm.org.uk/history/10-surprising-laws-passed-during-the-first-world-war • http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/home_front_1914_to_1918.htm • http://www.20thcenturylondon.org.uk/first-world-war • http://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/nov/08/first-world-war-outbreak • http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_I#Social _change • http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/aug/05/england-declares-war-germany-1914 • http://mentalfloss.com/article/58200/wwi-centennial-britain-declares-war-germany • http://www.iwm.org.uk/history/the-air-raids-that-shook-britain-in-the-first-world-war • http://www.bl.uk/world-war-one/articles/childrens-experiences-of-world-war-one • http://www.iwm.org.uk/history/10-surprising-laws-passed-during-the-first-world-war • http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/home_front_1914_to_1918.htm • http://www.history.com/news/londons-world-war-i-zeppelin-terror

CHAPTER 2. THE BRITISH FRONT AND THE ROLE OF MALTA IN WORLD WAR I

 www.nationalaechives.gov.uk  www.telegraph.co.uk  http://www.1914-1918.net  http://firstworldwar.com/  http://www.bl.uk/  http://www.avalanchepress.com  http://www.warmuseum.ca/  http://it.wikipedia.org/  http://www.awm.gov.au/  http://www.history.com/

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CHAPTER 3. THE AMERICAN PARTICIPATION

 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_entry_into_World_War_I  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I  http://www.worldwar1.com/tgws/rel001.htm  http://jimmythejock.hubpages.com/hub/World_War_1_America_Declares_War_on_Germa ny  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethlehem_Steel  http://www.worldwar1.com/sfnum.htm  http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/treaty_of_versailles.htm  http://www.history.com/topics/world-war-i/treaty-of-versailles  https://history.state.gov/milestones/1914-1920/league  http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/history/mwh/ir1/aimsrev3.shtml  http://jarredjoly0.tripod.com/id3.html  http://www.123helpme.com/life-in-usa-after-wwi-view.asp?id=157265  http://www.ww1accordingtobob.com/shCh13.php  http://www.thenagain.info/WebChron/World/USWWI.html  http://www.history.army.mil/html/museums/uniforms/survey_uwa.pdf  http://www.socialstudieshelp.com/lesson_72_notes.htm  http://roadstothegreatwar-ww1.blogspot.it/2015/01/the-american-army-and-first-world- war.html

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