The Arctic Council

Northern Public Affairs

Volume 2, Issue 1 September 2013

ᓈᓚᑲᐃᓐᓇᖁᔨᔾᔪᑎ ᐅᓕᒪᐅᑎᒥᒃ ᑐᓂᓯᓯᒪᓕᕐᓂᖅ Sweden hands over the gavel TEPPO TAURIAINEN

Saami expectations for Canada’s Chairmanship GUNN-BRITT RETTER

Compromise at Kiruna TERRY FENGE The Arctic The challenge of Indigenous participation JIM GAMBLE Council Yukon & the Arctic Council CURRIE DIXON Canada takes the lead Securing the Arctic? As the Council’s influence grows, we ask what Canada’s Chairmanship Wilfrid Greaves means for Northerners, Indigenous peoples, & the environment.

Sustainable development in Norway’s High North EDWARD ALLEN reflects on Calder’s 40th anniversary MONA ELISABETH BRøTHER An interview with JOHN ENGLISH about his new book Ice and Water: Politics, Peoples, and the Arctic Council Giant Mine: Reviewing the review board THOMAS ANGUTI JOHNSTON on hearing Inuit youth: KEVIN O’REILLY Uqausiqsaqarama. Ippigijavut makkuktuujutigut puiguqtauqungitavut. Canada $9.99 northernpublicaffairs.ca “I strongly feel, however, that it is time to make sure that science is directly relevant and is for the benefit of Northerners. We must make sure that we apply the findings of that research in concrete, practical ways, that will help the well-being and prosperity of the people living in the Arctic.”

— The Hon. Leona Aglukkaq speaking at the Arctic Council Ministerial Meeting in Kiruna, Sweden, May 15, 2013. Northern Public Affairs September 2013 FEATURES

LETTER FROM THE EDITORS Arctic Council rising 4

OVERHEARD Kiruna Declaration 6

FOLIO: KIRUNA 2013 10

LETTER FROM BRITISH COLUMBIA Reflections on the 40th Anniversary 14 of the Calder decision Edward Allen

IN CONVERSATION Professor John English 22

ARTICLES ARCTIC COUNCIL ARCTIC COUNCIL Handing over the gavel: 30 Norway and the Arctic: The importance of 52 Reflections on Sweden’s Chairmanship knowledge for sustainable development of the Arctic Council Mona Elisabeth Brøther Teppo Tauriainen Bold steps needed to support Indigenous 55 ᓈᓚᑲᐃᓐᓇᖁᔨᔾᔪᑎ ᐅᓕᒪᐅᑎᒥᒃ 33 participation at the Arctic Council ᑐᓂᓯᓯᒪᓕᕐᓂᖅ : Jim Gamble ᓱᕖᑕᓐᒥᑦ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᖅᑐᒥ ᑲᑎᒪᔨᐅᔪᓄᑦ ᐃᒃᓯᕙᐅᑕᕆᔭᐅᓚᐅᖅᑐᒥᒃ ᐃᖅᑲᐅᒪᓂᖃᖅᑐᑦ Canada, circumpolar security, 58 Teppo Tauriainen & the Arctic Council Wilfrid Greaves Saami expectations for the Canadian 37 Chairmanship of the Arctic Council ENVIRONMENT Gunn-Britt Retter Reviewing the review board: Was the Giant 63 Mine environmental assessment a success? Inuit youth have a voice 41 Kevin O’Reilly Thomas Anguti Johnston RESEARCH NOTES Canada & the Kiruna Declaration 43 Five lessons from five weeks in Ulukhatok 68 Terry Fenge Linnaea Jasiuk

Yukon & the Arctic Council 48 Hon. Currie Dixon

FEATURES LETTER FROM THE EDITORS Arctic Council rising

Sheena Kennedy and Jerald Sabin Photo credit: Arctic Council

hen the Arctic Council was founded in 1996, access to resources previously locked under the Arc- Wits focus was the environment. In signing the tic’s now rapidly melting ice, and the world’s ma- Ottawa Declaration, the Arctic States — comprising jor powers have turned their attention towards the Canada, the United States, Iceland, Norway, Swe- Circumpolar North. Since 2011, twelve non-Arc- den, Finland, and Russia — agreed to create a “high tic countries have been admitted to the Council as level forum to provide a means for promoting co- permanent observers, including France, Germany, operation, coordination and interaction…on com- and the United Kingdom. Most recently, economic mon Arctic issues, in particular issues of sustainable superpowers Japan, India, and China were granted development and environmental protection in the observer status. Arctic.” Institutionally, the Arctic Council was much What has emerged is a bold vision for the Coun- more. By having Northern and Indigenous peoples cil’s role in world politics. The Arctic Council is as active participants in the organization, the Coun- now the premier forum for international diploma- cil has become a leader in engaging non-state actors cy and dialogue on issues of importance to Arctic on issues of international importance. peoples and nations. But the Council was not always As interest in the Arctic has grown, however, the so prominent internationally. It was only in 2011 Council has changed. Climate change has opened that a United States Secretary of State, then Hillary new opportunities for oceanic transportation, cut- Rodham Clinton, attended a meeting of the Arctic ting shipping times between Europe, Asia, and Council. Previously, the Arctic Council had hosted beyond. The changing climate has also increased junior ministers or bureaucrats. According to Profes-

Arctic Council ministerial meetings at Kiruna, Sweden. (L-R): Erkki Tuomioja (Finland), John Kerry (United States), Leona Aglukkaq (Canada), Carl Bildt (Sweden), Villy Søvndal (Denmark), Espen Barth Eide (Norway), Hermann Örn Ingólfsson (Iceland). sor John English, interviewed in this issue, it may not to addressing climate change and its implications for be long before Arctic heads of government meet to the people of the Arctic remains to be seen. It is no discuss issues of common interest, a reflection on the secret that Canada’s international reputation on cli- increased attention to the Arctic. The Arctic Coun- mate change and the environment has suffered in cil is filling the diplomatic void where no other inter- recent years. The world will now be watching closely national organization has cared, or dared, to go. But as Canada leads the Council. what does this bolder Council mean for Indigenous This issue of Northern Public Affairs brings to- peoples and the environment? gether a wide array of voices on the Arctic Coun- One of the Arctic Council’s defining features has cil. Gunn-Britt Retter, James Gamble, and Thomas been the central role played by Indigenous peoples Anguti Johnston, bring Indigenous and youth per- and communities. Indigenous groups from across the spectives on the Arctic Council. The Honourable Circumpolar North are represented on the Council Currie Dixon writes about Yukon’s place in the cir- as Permanent Participants — a unique institutional cumpolar world and what the Arctic Council means feature seen in few other international organizations. for all Northern Canadians. Ambassador Mona As Canadian Ambassador for Circumpolar Affairs, Elizabeth Brøther (Norway) stresses the importance Inuit leader Mary Simon was instrumental in the of investing in the development of knowledge in and establishment of the Arctic Council, and her vision about the Circumpolar North. Ambassador Teppo along with the others who worked alongside her is Tauriainen (Sweden) reflects on Sweden’s Chair- reflected in the Council’s structure and activities. As manship of the Arctic Council between 2011-2013. the organization grows, recalling these founding mo- Terry Fenge and Wilfrid Greaves comment on the ments will be increasingly important. challenges and opportunities that lay ahead for the In May 2013, Canada took over as Chair of the Council and its work. Arctic Council from Sweden. What is exciting about In closing, we would like to take this opportunity Canada’s turn as Chair is the appointment of the to thank all of our contributors, readers, institutional Honourable Leona Aglukkaq to the position. Minis- partners, staff, and supporters for seeing us through ter Aglukkaq is the first Indigenous chair of the Arc- our first year. This issue marks the beginning of our tic Council — a development Aglukkaq herself says second year, and the second volume of Northern Public signals “a new era” for the organization. The theme Affairs. In 2012, we set out to create space for a new of Canada’s chairmanship is “development for the conversation on issues affecting Northern Canadi- people of the North,” including “responsible Arctic ans, and through your enthusiasm and support, this resource development, safe Arctic shipping and sus- conversation has begun. ◉ tainable circumpolar communities.” These are laud- able goals, although climate change is notably absent Sheena Kennedy is a Founding Editor of Northern Public Af- from the list — an omission made more curious by fairs and a PhD Candidate in the School of Public Policy the recent federal cabinet shuffle. Whether Agluk- and Administration at Carleton University. Jerald Sabin is a kaq’s dual role as Minister of the Environment at Founding Editor of Northern Public Affairs at a PhD Can- home and Minister to the Arctic Council will usher didate in the Department of Political Science at the University in a new era with respect to Canada’s commitment of Toronto. SUBSCRIBE TODAY! Three issues for $28 (plus GST/HST where applicable)

First issue mails Volume 2, Issue 2. Subscribe online at www.northernpublicaffairs.ca. OVERHEARD Kiruna Declaration

This past May, Canada assumed the Chairmanship of the Arctic Council at a ministerial meeting in Kiruna, Sweden. Members of the Arctic Council signed the following Declaration.

Improving economic and social conditions

Recognize the central role of business in the development of the Arctic, and decide to increase cooperation and interaction with the business community to advance sustainable development in the Arctic, Welcome the Arctic Council’s work on corporate social responsibility and sustainable business, and encourage enterprises operating in the Arctic to respect international guidelines and principles, Recognize that Arctic economic endeavors are e, the Ministers representing the eight Arctic integral to sustainable development for peoples and W States, joined by the representatives of the six communities in the region, desire to further enhance Permanent Participant organizations of the Arctic the work of the Arctic Council to promote dynamic Council, have gathered in Kiruna, Sweden, at the and sustainable Arctic economies and best practices, conclusion of the first cycle of Chairmanships for the and decide to establish a Task Force to facilitate the Eighth Ministerial meeting of the Arctic Council, creation of a circumpolar business forum, Recognizing the importance of maintaining Welcome the Arctic Maritime and Aviation peace, stability, and constructive cooperation in the Transportation Infrastructure Initiative and its com- Arctic, parative analysis of seaport and airport infrastruc- Recognizing the importance of the sustainable ture in the Arctic States, and encourage continued use of resources, economic development, and envi- efforts to identify opportunities for complementary ronmental protection, infrastructure development and use, Recognizing that the Arctic is first and foremost an Appreciate that the first legally binding agree- inhabited region with diverse economies, cultures and ment negotiated under the auspices of the Arctic societies, further recognizing the rights of the Indige- Council, the Agreement on Cooperation in Aero- nous peoples and interests of all Arctic inhabitants, and nautical and Maritime Search and Rescue in the emphasizing that a fundamental strength of the Council Arctic, has come into force, recognize its important is the unique role played by Arctic Indigenous peoples, role for safe transport and enhancing cooperation Expressing concern that global emissions of in assisting people in distress in the Arctic, and ac- greenhouse gases are resulting in rapid changes in knowledge the importance of continued operation- the climate and physical environment of the Arctic al exercises in support of its implementation, with widespread effects for societies and ecosystems Acknowledge that Arctic peoples are experienc- and repercussions around the world, reiterating the ing challenges associated with rapid socio-economic urgent need for increased national and global ac- and environmental changes, note the previous work tions to mitigate and adapt to climate change, of the Arctic Council to promote mental health in Noting the substantial progress we have made to Arctic communities, and decide to undertake further strengthen our cooperation and acknowledging the lead- work to improve and develop mental wellness pro- ership of the Arctic Council in taking concrete action to motion strategies, respond to new challenges and opportunities, Recognize that the use of traditional and local Hereby: knowledge is essential to a sustainable future in the Arctic, and decide to develop recommendations 6 Northern Public Affairs, September 2013 Photo credit: Arctic Council Arctic credit: Photo

to integrate traditional and local knowledge in the an agreed outcome with legal force no later than work of the Arctic Council, 2015, and urge all Parties to the Convention to con- Acknowledge the importance of Indigenous tinue to take urgent action to meet the long-term peoples’ traditional ways of life to their economic goal aimed at limiting the increase in global aver- well-being, culture and health, and request Senior age temperature to below 2 degrees Celsius above Arctic Officials to recommend ways to increase pre-industrial levels, awareness regionally and globally on traditional Recognize that reduction of short-lived climate ways of life of the Arctic Indigenous peoples and to forcers, could slow Arctic and global climate change, present a report on this work at the next Ministerial and have positive effects on health, and welcome the meeting in 2015, report on short lived climate forcers, and support its recommendations including that national black carbon Acting on climate change emission inventories for the Arctic should continue to be developed and reported as a matter of priority, Recognize that climate change in the Arctic caus- Urge the Parties to the Montreal Protocol on es significant changes in water, snow, ice and - per Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer to take mafrost conditions, with cascading effects on bio- action as soon as possible, complementary to the diversity, ecosystems, economic and human living UNFCCC, to phase-down the production and con- conditions in the Arctic with repercussions around sumption of hydrofluorocarbons, which contribute the world, and that substantial cuts in emissions of to the warming of the Arctic region, carbon dioxide and other long-lived greenhouse gas- Decide to establish a Task Force to develop ar- es are necessary for any meaningful global climate rangements on actions to achieve enhanced black change mitigation efforts, and commit to strengthen carbon and methane emission reductions in the our efforts to find solutions, Arctic, and report at the next Ministerial meeting Recognize that Arctic States, along with other in 2015, major emitters, substantially contribute to global Welcome the on-going work on the Arctic Resil- greenhouse gas emissions, and confirm the commit- ience Report, and emphasize the need for forward-look- ment of all Arctic States to work together and with ing cooperation with a view to increase Arctic capacity other countries under the United Nations Frame- to adequately address rapid change and resilience, work Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Recognize that adaptation to the impacts of cli- to conclude a protocol, another legal instrument or mate change is a challenge for the Arctic, and the

The Hon. Leona Aglukkaq signs the Kiruna Declaration, Kiruna, Sweden, May 2013. need for strengthened collaboration with Arctic In- vulnerable species and ecosystems, and to continue digenous peoples and other residents, governments existing Arctic biodiversity research and monitoring and industry, welcome the reports, key findings efforts through the Circumpolar Biodiversity Moni- and on-going work on the Adaptation Actions for a toring Program, Changing Arctic initiative, and decide to continue the Welcome the Arctic Ocean Acidification assess- work on enhancing the capacity of decision-makers to ment, approve its recommendations, note with con- manage climate risks including through an on-line in- cern the potential impacts of acidification on ma- formation portal and through improved predictions of rine life and people that are dependent on healthy combined effects, marine ecosystems, recognize that carbon dioxide emission reductions are the only effective way to Protecting the Arctic environment mitigate ocean acidification, and request the Arctic States to continue to take action on mitigation and Announce the Agreement on Cooperation on Ma- adaptation and to monitor and assess the state of rine Oil Pollution Preparedness and Response in the Arctic Ocean acidification, Arctic, the second legally binding agreement nego- Recognize the important ongoing work in the tiated under the auspices of the Arctic Council, and International Maritime Organization to develop a encourage future national, bi-national and multina- mandatory Polar Code on shipping and decide to tional contingency plans, training and exercises, to strengthen our collaboration in that work toward its develop effective response measures, expeditious completion, Recognize that effective prevention, including Welcome the Arctic Ocean Review report, un- related containment practices, is critical to ensuring dertaken to provide guidance to Arctic States on the protection of the Arctic marine environment strengthening governance in the Arctic through a from oil pollution incidents, welcome the Recom- cooperative, coordinated and integrated approach mended Practices in the Prevention of Arctic Ma- to the management of the Arctic marine environ- rine Oil Pollution Project reports and recommen- ment, approve its recommendations and request ap- dations to Ministers, and encourage Arctic States to propriate follow-up actions, and report on progress pursue further work in the recommended areas, at subsequent ministerial meetings, Decide to establish a Task Force to develop an Recognize that there are further persistent or- Arctic Council action plan or other arrangement ganic pollutants to be addressed that pose threats to on oil pollution prevention, and to present the out- human health and the environment in the Arctic, comes of its work and any recommendations for fur- encourage Arctic States to continue monitoring and ther action at the next Ministerial meeting in 2015, assessment activities and enhance their efforts to meet Recognize the value of sustaining Arctic ecosys- the objectives of the Stockholm convention, and wel- tems and biodiversity and that the Arctic environ- come the completion of the successful demonstration ment needs to be protected as a basis for sustain- project preventing the release of 7,000 tons of obso- able development, prosperity, lifestyles and human lete pesticides into the Arctic environment, and look well-being, and commit to pursue the conservation forward to further activities in this area, and sustainable use of Arctic biological resources, Note the work of the Arctic Council in raising Note with concern that Arctic biodiversity is be- global awareness and understanding of the impacts ing degraded and that climate change is the most of mercury on the health of people and wildlife in serious threat, welcome the Arctic Biodiversity As- the Arctic, welcome the Minamata Convention on sessment, the first Arctic-wide comprehensive assess- Mercury, appreciate the reference to the particular ment of status and emerging trends in Arctic biodi- vulnerabilities of Arctic ecosystems and Indigenous versity, approve its recommendations and encourage communities, encourage its swift entry into force Arctic States to follow up on its recommendations, along with robust use and emission reduction actions, and instruct Senior Arctic Officials to ensure that a and pledge to assist the evaluation of its effectiveness plan for further work under the Arctic Council to through continued monitoring and assessments, support and implement its recommendations is de- Welcome the report on Ecosystem Based Man- veloped, and that a progress report is delivered to agement, approve the definition, principles and the next ministerial meeting, recommendations, encourage Arctic States to im- Encourage Arctic States to take decisive action plement recommendations both within and across to help sustain Arctic biodiversity and implement boundaries, and ensure coordination of approaches internationally agreed biodiversity objectives, to in the work of the Arctic Council’s Working Groups, cooperate on adaptive management strategies for Agree that cooperation in scientific research

8 Northern Public Affairs, September 2013 across the circumpolar Arctic is of great importance Adopt the Senior Arctic Officials Report to to the work of the Arctic Council, and establish a Ministers, including its working group work plans, Task Force to work towards an arrangement on im- and instruct Senior Arctic Officials to review and proved scientific research cooperation among the adjust the mandates and work plans of the Arctic eight Arctic States, Council working groups and other subsidiary bodies, and establish new ones, if appropriate, and to Strengthening the Arctic Council follow up on the recommendations agreed to by the Arctic Council, Adopt the statement “Vision for the Arctic”, Thank the Kingdom of Sweden for its Chair- Welcome the establishment of the Arctic Coun- manship of the Arctic Council during the period cil Secretariat in Tromsø, Norway, note the Host 2011-2013, concluding the first round of eight Arc- Country Agreement signed between the Govern- tic States chairmanships, and welcome the offer of ment of Norway and the Director of the Arctic Canada to chair the Arctic Council during the pe- Council Secretariat, approve its Terms of Refer- riod 2013-2015 and to host the Ninth Ministerial ence, Staff rules, Financial rules, Roles and Respon- meeting in 2015. sibilities of the Director, and budget for 2013, and instruct Senior Arctic Officials to approve a budget Signed by the representatives of the Arctic Council for 2014-2015, 15th of May 2013 in Kiruna, Sweden. Approve the revised Arctic Council Rules of Procedure, Note the Chair’s conclusions from the Arctic For the Government of Canada Environment Ministers Meeting in February 2013, Leona Aglukkaq and welcome further high-level engagement and Minister for the Arctic Council meetings, Welcome China, India, Italy, Japan, Republic of For the Government of Denmark Korea and Singapore as new Observer States, and Villy Søvndal take note of the adoption by Senior Arctic Officials Minister of Foreign Affairs of an Observer manual to guide the Council’s subsidiary bodies in relation to meeting logistics and the For the Government of Finland roles played by Observers, Erkki Tuomioja The Arctic Council receives the application of Minister of Foreign Affairs the EU for observer status affirmatively, but defers a final decision on implementation until the Council For the Government of Norway ministers are agreed by consensus that the concerns Espen Barth Eide of Council members, addressed by the President of Minister of Foreign Affairs the European Commission in his letter of 8 May are resolved, with the understanding that the EU may For the Government of Sweden observe Council proceedings until such time as the Carl Bildt Council acts on the letter’s proposal, Minister of Foreign Affairs Acknowledge that the work of the Arctic Coun- cil continues to evolve to respond to new challeng- For the Government of Iceland es and opportunities in the Arctic, request Senior Hermann Örn Ingólfsson Arctic Officials to recommend ways and means to Director General strengthen how the work of the Arctic Council is carried out, including identifying opportunities for For the Government of the Russian Federation Arctic States to use the Council’s work to influence Sergey Lavrov and shape action in other regional and international Minister of Foreign Affairs fora as well as identifying approaches to support the active participation of Permanent Participants, and For the Government of the United States of America to present a report on their work at the next Minis- John F Kerry terial meeting in 2015, Secretary of State Acknowledge the decision of the Permanent Participants to relocate the Indigenous Peoples Sec- retariat to Tromsø, Norway,

Northern Public Affairs, September 2013 9 FOLIO: KIRUNA 2013 Photo credit: Arctic Council

Arctic Council Ministerial Meeting, Kiruna, Sweden, May 15, 2013. Photo credit: Arctic Council Indigenous Peoples Secretariat Photo credit: Arctic Council Below: CarlBelow: Participants. BildtwithArctic CouncilPermanent bv:Cr id,SeihMnse fForeign Affairs. CarlAbove: Bildt,SwedishMinisterof FOLIO: KIRUNA 2013 FOLIO: KIRUNA 2013 Photo credit: US State Department Photo credit: US State Department

Above: Arctic Council Ministerial Meeting, May 15, 2013. Below: (L-R, clockwise) Unknown, Mark Brzezinski (US Ambassador to Sweden), Senator Lisa Murkowski (R-Alaska), US Secretary of State John Kerry, Michael Stickman (Arctic Athabaskan Council), James Stotts (Inuit Circumpolar Council) and Jim Gamble (Aleut International Association). FOLIO: KIRUNA 2013 Photo credit: Department of Foreign Affairs, Trade, and Development. DepartmentPhoto credit: of Trade, Affairs, Foreign The Hon. Leona Aglukkaq outside the Sami Parliament of Sweden with Per Mikael Utsi, the Sami Parliament’s Chairman of the Board, May 14, 2013. LETTER FROM BRITISH COLUMBIA Reflections on the 40th anniversary of the Calder decision Edward Allen

anuary 31, 2013 marked the 40th Anniversary of Indian Tribes upon any Commission which might Jthe Supreme Court of Canada decision Calder et al. then be appointed. v. Attorney-General of British Columbia, [1973] SCR 313 From this remarkably prescient statement, (“Calder”). This anniversary gives the Nisga’a Nation which has guided the Nisga’a Nation for over a cen- a particular moment of pause since Frank Calder tury, one can see some basic principles behind the himself is no longer with us to share in this milestone. Nisga’a approach to the land question. The first is Yet it also provides us with an opportunity to reflect the demand for a treaty. Second, any treaty would on his legacy and on the initiatives of which he was a not only include recognition of our territory, but part. These accomplishments include a profound shift also the right to ‘decide for ourselves’ how we would in Canadian jurisprudence and a reshaping of the deal with that land; that is, through self-government. political landscape of British Columbia, ultimately Third, the Petition highlighted our willingness to leading to the first modern-day comprehensive land take ‘a moderate and reasonable’ position in order claims agreement in B.C. — a treaty that includes the to arrive at an acceptable compromise. Despite these constitutionally protected right of self-government. impressive efforts, there is no record the Petition was These developments continue to guide the approach ever heard. of the Nisga’a Nation as we move forward. Instead, in 1927, the federal government made it illegal for Indians in Canada to organize or raise ◉◉◉ money to retain counsel to pursue land claims. Nonetheless, the efforts of the Nisga’a Land Com- 1890 Land Committee and 1913 Petition mittee established the mandate for the next generation of leaders to pursue the land question. These outcomes are the result of a singular but far reaching objective of the Nisga’a Nation — to re- ◉◉◉ solve the land question. Its roots go back to the 1887 meeting with the premier of British Columbia and Frank Calder the formation of the first Nisga’a Land Committee in 1890. Those original efforts culminated in a pe- Frank Arthur Calder was born August 3, 1915 at tition to the Privy Council in England setting out Nass Harbour. Although he was the third son of the demands of the Nisga’a Nation. Accompanying Job and Emily Clark, they consented to his adop- the Petition was a statement that was unanimously tion to Arthur Calder (Na-qua-oon) and Louisa adopted at a meeting of the Nisga’a Nation held at Calder to raise as their own son. This was because Kincolith on the 22nd day of January, 1913: of a vision. An elder in the Nisga’a Village of Gin- golx had dreamed that Emily would conceive a son We are not opposed to the coming of the white peo- who would carry the chiefly spirit of Na-qua-oon’s ple into our territory, provided this be carried out own child who had drowned. Four years later, Na- justly and in accordance with the British principles qua-oon presented a very young Frank Calder to embodied in the Royal Proclamation. If therefore, the Nisga’a chiefs who were gathered at a meeting as we expect, the aboriginal rights which we claim to consider the land question. Some at this meeting should be established by the decision of His Maj- had described their struggle as equivalent to shifting esty’s Privy Council, we would be prepared to take an immovable mountain. Na-qua-oon stated, “I’m a moderate and reasonable position. In that event, while claiming the right to decide for ourselves the going to send this boy to school where the K’umsii- terms upon which we would deal with our territory, wa [white people] live. And I’m going to make him we would be willing that all matters outstanding learn how the white man eats, how the white man between the Province and ourselves should be final- talks, how the white man thinks, and when he comes ly adjusted by some equitable method to be agreed back, he’s going to move that mountain.” upon which should include representation of the After studying at residential school, Frank went

14 Northern Public Affairs, September 2013 Photo credit: Nisga’a Lisims GovernmentPhoto credit: Frank Calder on Parliament Hill, Ottawa, Ontario. to high school in Chilliwack and then to the Univer- In his book, One Man’s Justice: A life In the Law, sity of British Columbia — the first status Indian Thomas Berger summarized the hurdles in bring- ever to be admitted there. He studied theology and ing forth this claim. His first concern was how to graduated from the Anglican Theological College frame the case so that the courts would take it seri- in 1946. Opting not to be ordained, he ran for the ously. Aboriginal title was not taught in law school, CCF (precursor to the NDP) in the riding of Atlin and judges had no experience in adjudicating such and become the first Aboriginal person elected to a claims. Indeed, as co-counsel to the Calder case Don Canadian legislature — even though he did not have Rosenbloom recounted, this case was not even on the the right to vote.1 radar screen of many members of the legal profession Frank Calder was also one of the key leaders in who apparently were equally dismissive of even the establishing the Nisga’a Tribal Council in 1955 to existence of Aboriginal title. pursue the mandate of the hereditary chiefs set out in the 1913 Petition. However, it soon became ap- ◉◉◉ parent that while it was no longer illegal to organize and discuss land claims, the federal and provincial Changes to Aboriginal Law governments had no intention of entering into a treaty with the Nisga’a Nation. On January 31, 1973, the Supreme Court of Canada Expressing the spirit of the times, in 1969 Prime released the reasons for judgment for Calder. Six of Minister Pierre Trudeau summarized the dismissive the seven judges who heard the case ruled that Ab- outlook of Canada. Trudeau gave the following com- original title existed as a matter of law in Canada, ment in respect of the Nisga’a demands for recogni- regardless of any grant or act of recognition by the tion of our Aboriginal rights: Crown. Three justices, led by Judson J., ruled however that any existing title of the Nisga’a Nation had been extinguished by the laws pertaining to land enacted Our answer is ”no”; we can’t recognize Aboriginal rights because no society can be built on historical by B.C. prior to Confederation. Three justices, led by ‘might have beens’. Hall J., ruled that the laws enacted by B.C. did not evince a clear and plain intent to extinguish Aborig- inal title. Therefore Nisga’a title continued to exist. Frank Calder approached Thomas Berger The seventh deciding judge, Pigeon J., ruled on the to represent the Nisga’a in a legal action to final- basis of a technicality that the action was not properly ly address the land question. In 1967, the Nisga’a brought before the court. With four of seven justices Tribal Council commenced an action in the Su- dismissing the appeal, our action was dismissed. preme Court of British Columbia against the Attor- However, despite the technical result, Calder has ney-General of British Columbia for a declaration served ever since as a catalyst for important changes “that the aboriginal title, otherwise known as the in the field of Aboriginal law. As we shall see below, Indian title, of the Plaintiffs to their ancient tribal the reasoning behind the decision introduced a plu- territory… has never been lawfully extinguished.” A ralistic perspective into Canadian law, opening the legal declaration was the preferred approach of the door to concepts of legal ownership from sources Nisga’a leadership because it would allow the court other than the laws enacted by Canada or B.C. to state the legal conclusion that Nisga’a aboriginal In his reasons for decision of the Court of Ap- title still existed without having to immediately ad- peal, Chief Justice Davey had commented that the dress the consequences of that conclusion. It was Nisga’a people “were undoubtedly at the time of set- hoped that Canada and B.C. would prefer to negoti- tlement a very primitive people with few of the in- ate a comprehensive settlement with Nisga’a Nation stitutions of civilized society, and none at all of our rather than face any subsequent legal proceedings to notions of private property . . .” In rebuking these enforce the declaration. false and outdated notions, Justice Hall commented The parties to the case agreed that the territory at page 346: subject to the action consisted of 1,000 square miles in and around the Nass River Valley, Observatory Inlet, Portland Inlet, and the Portland Canal, all lo- The assessment and interpretation of the historical documents and enactments tendered in evidence cated in northwestern British Columbia. The action must be approached in the light of present-day re- was dismissed at trial by the Supreme Court and the search and knowledge disregarding ancient concepts Court of Appeal of British Columbia rejected the formulated when understanding of the customs and appeal. The Nisga’a Tribal Council then appealed culture of our original people was rudimentary and to the Supreme Court of Canada.

16 Northern Public Affairs, September 2013 Photo credit: End User (creative commons) End User (creative Photo credit: The Supreme Court of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario. incomplete and when they were thought to be whol- the judgments of both Judson J. and Hall J. ly without cohesion, laws or culture. (each speaking for himself and two others) the existence of aboriginal title was recog- As Michael Asch observed in the 30th anniver- nized . . . sary of the Calder decision, Let Right be done,2 Calder marked a significant departure from the previous The position of Judson and Hall JJ. on the stereotypical descriptions of Aboriginal society. He basis for aboriginal title is applicable to the wrote at page 191: aboriginal rights recognized and affirmed by s. 35(1). Aboriginal title is the aspect of aboriginal rights related specifically to aboriginal claims to land; Rarely in the history of a country is a court judg- it is the way in which the common law recognizes ment so momentous that it causes society to reex- aboriginal land rights. As such, the explanation amine basic premises . . . [a]mong these must be of the basis of aboriginal title in Calder, su- counted the 1973 judgment of the Supreme Court pra, can be applied equally to the aboriginal of Canada in Calder et al. v. Attorney-General Brit- rights recognized and affirmed by s. 35(1). ish Columbia. It mounted a fundamental challenge Both aboriginal title and aboriginal rights to the way in which Canada constructs Aboriginal arise from the existence of distinctive ab- rights and, in so doing, propelled this issue from the original communities occupying “the land as periphery to the center of Canadian political life. their forefathers had done for centuries”… [Emphasis added.] The language of Calder has also influenced the interpretation of s. 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982. Some Thus Calder introduced a perspective that has of the origins in Canadian law for the recognition of informed the current doctrine concerning the con- inherent rights can be found in the language of Jud- struction of s. 35. son J.’s ruling at page 328: Calder has also contributed to developments in policy and jurisprudence internationally, particularly in common law jurisdictions. One example can Although I think that it is clear that Indian title in British Columbia cannot owe its origin to the be found in New Zealand. The Treaty of Waitangi Act Proclamation of 1763, the fact is that when the 1975, No. 114, 1975 (New Zealand) established the settlers came, the Indians were there, or- Waitangi Tribunal and gave the Treaty of Waitangi ganized in societies and occupying the land recognition in New Zealand law for the first time. as their forefathers had done for centuries. The Tribunal was empowered to investigate pos- This is what Indian title means and it does sible breaches of the Treaty by the New Zealand not help one in the solution of this problem to call government or any state-controlled body, occurring it a “personal or usufructuary right”. What they are after 1975. It was also empowered to recommend, asserting in this action is that they had a right to but not enforce, remedies. In the proceedings of continue to live on their lands as their forefathers the Motunui — Waitara report, Waitangi Tribunal had lived and that this right has never been lawfully extinguished. [Emphasis added.] 1983 section 10.1, Calder was cited:

Nonetheless the approach of the New Zealand This language has been mirrored in the leading Courts, and of successive Governments, does not cases on interpretation of s. 35 such as R. v. Van der compare favourably with that taken by other Courts Peet, [1996] 2 SCR 507 at paragraphs 30 — 33: and Governments in their consideration of Indig- enous minorities. In North America for example In my view, the doctrine of aboriginal rights exists, treaties with the original Indian populations have and is recognized and affirmed by s. 35(1), because been recognized by the Courts, and in areas not of one simple fact: when Europeans arrived covered by treaties, common law rights are regarded in North America, aboriginal peoples were as vesting in native peoples by virtue of their prior already here, living in communities on the occupation (refer for example, Calder v Attorney-Gener- land, and participating in distinctive cul- al of British Columbia (1973) 34 DLR 145) tures, as they had done for centuries. It is this fact, and this fact above all others, which separates ◉◉◉ aboriginal peoples from all other minority groups in Canadian society and which mandates their special Uncertainty legal, and now constitutional, status. One of the key outcomes of the Calder decision is the . . . This approach to s. 35(1) is also supported by political and economic uncertainty which manifest- the prior jurisprudence of this Court. … in ed itself in a number of contexts. 18 Northern Public Affairs, September 2013 Uncertainty could be seen at the personal lev- lowing the decision, the leadership stated that the el expressed in the comments of leading politicians Calder decision had put the issue of legal uncertainty and legal thinkers of that time. Chief among these in British Columbia front and centre. A very young were the remarks of then Prime Minister Pierre Nelson Leeson, who later served as President of Trudeau. Following the decision, he admitted, “per- Nisga’a Nation, had been brought in to assist with haps you have more legal rights than we thought you communications for the Nisga’a Tribal Council. He had when we did the White Paper.”3 received strict instructions that whenever a camera There was also uncertainty amongst ranking was pointed anywhere in his direction, he was to federal officials who advised the Government of ensure that he captured airtime and promoted the Canada. At the 30th anniversary of the Calder deci- message of the Nisga’a Nation. Eventually, uncer- sion hosted by the University of Victoria in 2003, re- tainty acquired a political life of its own creating tired Justice Gérard La Forest of the Supreme Court pressure for resolution. of Canada commented on the surprise he personally As one example of the far-reaching effects of experienced when Calder was decided. La Forest had this uncertainty, the results of a 1990 Price Water- been Assistant Deputy Attorney General of Canada house study on the economic impacts of uncertainty and explained that even the leading policy advisors reached the following conclusions: of the day were caught completely off guard by this development. • Uncertainty was associated with a $1 billion im- Uncertainty as to existence of Aboriginal title pact and affected 1,500 jobs. • Lost capital expenditures in the mining industry became a new variable in British Columbia’s polit- were estimated to be $50 million per year, and a fur- ical landscape. Despite the result, the leadership of ther $75 million per year of expenditures were de- Nisga’a Tribal Council decided that it would pro- layed an average of three years. claim the result in Calder to be a victory for the Nis- ga’a Nation. The case had been a way to put British To this day, one can see the lasting effects of justice and the Canadian legal system on trial. Fol- this uncertainty. The federal Aboriginal Affairs and

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CREATING CANADA: From the Royal Proclamation of 1763 to Modern Treaties October 7, 2013 Auditorium, Canadian Museum of Civilization

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Explore the importance of the Royal Proclamation for understanding of Canadian history, land claims and self-government agreements, and the treaty making process — both historic and modern. Featuring prominent academics, Aboriginal leaders and legal experts, this symposium will give you the background and context you need to work successfully with treaty organizations across Canada.

Hosted by the Land Claims Agreements Coalition. More details and registration links at www.landclaimscoalition.ca. Northern Development website includes: reasoning of the B.C. Court of Appeal applied, in which case Aboriginal title had never existed in Brit- The federal government is negotiating treaties in ish Columbia. It was not until 1990 that B.C. finally British Columbia (BC) in order to resolve questions joined the table. of uncertainty with respect to land ownership and When the language of the Nisga’a Final Agree- usage, the management and regulation of lands and ment was finalized, the historical contribution of resources, and the application of laws . . . . Calder was of course highlighted in the Preamble to Uncertainty about the existence and location of our treaty: Aboriginal rights create uncertainty with respect to ownership, use and management of land and WHEREAS the Nisga’a Nation has sought a just resources. That uncertainty has led to disruptions and equitable settlement of the land question since and delays to economic activity in BC. It has also the arrival of the British Crown, including the discouraged investment.4 preparation of the Nisga’a Petition to His Majesty’s Privy Council, dated 21 May, 1913, and the conduct ◉◉◉ of the litigation that led to the decision of the Su- preme Court of Canada in Calder v. the Attorney-Gen- eral of British Columbia in 1973, and this Agreement is Land Claims Policy intended to be the just and equitable settlement of the land question. Soon after Calder, there was shift in addressing land claims generally. In 1973, the federal government Of course Frank Calder was with the negotiat- announced a new “comprehensive claims policy.” ing team in Ottawa during the federal ratification The 1981 version of the policy, entitled In All Fair- process for our treaty. As the federal ratifying legisla- ness, recounted the history: tion wound its way through the House of Commons and Senate, many of us distinctly recall the House [B]y early 1973 the whole question of claims based of Commons debate when the Reform Party of on aboriginal title again became a central issue; the decision of the Supreme Court of Canada in the Canada filibustered the bill by posing 471 amend- Calder Case, an action concerning the right of as- ing motions to the proposed settlement legislation, sertion of Native title by the Nishga Indians of Brit- each of which had to be voted upon. All during the ish Columbia, established the pressing importance late evening, on the parliamentary channel which of this matter. Six of the judges acknowledged the was broadcasting the votes in the House, the camera existence of aboriginal title. The court itself, howev- just managed to capture in the distance, in the upper er, while dismissing the claim on a technicality, split rows of the gallery above the fray, the profiles of two evenly (three-three) on the matter raised: did the elderly gentlemen — Frank Calder and Rod Robin- native or aboriginal title still apply or had it lapsed? son — both of whom were vigilantly monitoring the At the same time, the Cree of James Bay and the progress of the legislation. Inuit of Arctic Quebec were trying to protect their position in the face of the James Bay Hydro Electric project. ◉◉◉ It is from these actions that the current method of dealing with Native claims Campbell Decision emerged. [Emphasis added.] We celebrated the effective date of our treaty, but a ◉◉◉ few days later the Nisga’a Nation was once again in the Supreme Court of B.C. The Liberal opposition Nisga’a Final Agreement in the B.C. legislature, which included then-leader of the Liberal Party Gordon Campbell, future At- Aside from these important impacts on the fields of torney General Geoff Plant, and future Minster of law, politics and international Indigenous rights, the Forestry (and eventually Aboriginal Affairs) Michael main intent behind launching the case was to force de Jong, had jointly filed a legal challenge to the the Crown to the negotiation table. The Calder deci- constitutional validity of the Nisga’a Final Agree- sion accomplished that objective. ment. Campbell and his colleagues primarily took Canada came to the negotiation table with the issue with the Nisga’a Government provisions of the Nisga’a in 1976. British Columbia did not, holding treaty. to its position that since the Supreme Court split on In their statement of claim, they asserted that whether Aboriginal title had been extinguished, the the treaty violated the constitution because parts

20 Northern Public Affairs, September 2013 of it set out Nisga’a Government legislative juris- In other litigation respecting the treaty, the B.C. diction inconsistent with the exhaustive division of Court of Appeal arrived at the following conclusion powers granted to Parliament and the Legislative on the legal validity of the Nisga’a Final Agreement: Assemblies of the provinces by sections 91 and 92 of the Constitution Act, 1867. Second, they submitted The Treaty has been carefully crafted to respect the legislative powers set out in the treaty interfere constitutional principle and to fit into the wider con- with concept of royal assent. Finally, they argued stitutional fabric of Canada. It is what it purports that non-Nisga’a Canadian citizens who reside in to be: an honourable attempt to resolve important but disputed claims, to achieve reconciliation, and to or have other interests in the territory subject to the lay the foundation for a productive and harmonious Nisga’a Government were denied democratic rights future relationship between the Nisga’a Nation and guaranteed to them by Section 3 of the Canadian the non-Aboriginal population of Canada.5 Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Ironically, in this instance it was the challengers ◉◉◉ to the treaty that faced a number of interesting hurdles. The first was that the onus was on Campbell Conclusion to disprove the validity of the treaty. Second, as parties to the treaty, B.C. and Canada were obligated to On the occasion of the 40th anniversary of the Calder defend the Nisga’a Final Agreement from any such decision, we continue to celebrate the many accom- legal challenge. On this basis, it marks one of the plishments of Frank Calder, the legacy of that gen- very few instances in Canadian litigation in which eration of great leaders, and the many important the Crown in right of Canada and a Province actu- outcomes that have resulted from the Calder decision. ally defended the constitutionally protected right to These outcomes include a sea change in Canadian self-government. jurisprudence which now includes recognition of In this instance, Calder once again provided the self-government; a shift in the political landscape of framework of reference for consideration of Aborig- Canada that recognizes the uncertainty that con- inal rights that had been lacking prior to 1973. At tinues to challenge Canadian political, social, and paragraph 20, Justice Williamson wrote in his deci- economic institutions in the absence of reconcilia- sion: tion; and a major shift in policy to address the issue of land claims in Canada. As a result of the treaty, It is not disputed that long before the arrival of Eu- the Nisga’a Nation has begun to reap major bene- ropeans, the Nisga’a occupied substantial areas of fits from economic developments in the Nass Valley. the Nass Valley in northwestern British Columbia. There has also been a resurgence in our pride and They had identifiable cultural traditions, language, self-confidence as we live under rules that we make territories, and systems in place for governing themselves. This history was reviewed in both the ourselves. Never again will we be subject to the vi- majority and the dissenting judgments in Calder v. cissitudes of the Indian Act. We can only wonder at Attorney General of B.C., 1973 CanLII 4 (SCC), what we may be able to celebrate at our 50th anni- [1973] S.C.R. 313. versary.◉

On the issue of the s. 35 right of self-government, Edward Allen is Director of Communications & Intergov- Justice Williamson ruled at paragraph 179: ernmental Relations for the Nisga’a Lisims Government. He thanks Jim Aldridge, QC for his comments. For the reasons set out above, I have concluded that after the assertion of sovereignty by the British Footnotes Crown, and continuing to and after the time of 1 Martin, Sandra “Frank Calder, Politician and Nisga’a Chief ” Globe Confederation, although the right of aboriginal and Mail, November 9, 2006. 2 Ach, Michael. 2007. “Calder and the Representation of Indigenous people to govern themselves was diminished, it was Society in Canadian Jurisprudence”. In Let Right Be Done: Aboriginal not extinguished. Any aboriginal right to self-gov- Title, the Calder Case, and the future of Indigenous rights, ed Hamar Foster, ernment could be extinguished after Confederation Heather Raven and Jeremy Webber. Vancouver: UBC Press. and before l982 by federal legislation which plainly 3 Kevin Roberts Important First Nation events of the 20th century Saskatchewan Sage volume 4, issue, 1999 Page 6 (http://www. expressed that intention, or it could be replaced or ammsa.com/publications/saskatchewan-sage/important-first-na- modified by the negotiation of a treaty. Post-1982, tion-events-20th-century-0). such rights cannot be extinguished, but they may 4 http://www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/ be defined (given content) in a treaty. The Nisga’a eng/1100100016299/1100100016300 5 Sga’nisim Sim’augit (Chief Mountain) v. Canada (Attorney General) 2013 Final Agreement does the latter expressly. BCCA 49.

Northern Public Affairs, September 2013 21 IN CONVERSATION Professor John English

Our editor, Jerald Sabin, spoke with Professor John English about his new book, Ice and Water: Politics, Peoples, and the Arctic Council. It will be published by Allen Lane and in stores October 8, 2013

erald Sabin: Your new book, Ice and Wa- social concerns, and nothing about the human ele- Jter, comes out in October. In the book, ment of the Arctic. you argue that Canada’s relationship to the The Canadians had been very active in the Arctic Council under Prime Minister Ste- 1980s in the North with an Arctic environmental phen Harper has shifted considerably since strategy of their own. Much of this work had been the 1990s. Can you take us back to the begin- done in the Department of Indian and Northern ning of the Council and to how it emerged? Development (DIAND). When the Canadians saw [the Finnish proposal], they saw it as an opportunity. John English: The Arctic Council starts with the last Canada had been doing a lot of international work years of the Cold War. I credit [former Soviet Union on pollutants. The notion was that the Arctic was President Mikhail] Gorbachev with giving the ini- a sink that attracted pollutants from the rest of the tiative for the Arctic Council by talking in October world, so the AEPS was timely from the Canadian 1987 about an Arctic “zone of peace,” about open- point of view.1 ing up the Arctic more widely, and about contact between Arctic states being essential. It immediately How did the AEPS transform into the Arctic had an impact. In NATO Headquarters and else- Council as we know it today? where this was treated skeptically — not suprisingly, given the history. But the Finns took up Gorbachev’s In 1982, [Prime Minister Brian] Mulroney had gone idea and proposed an Arctic environmental organi- to the Arctic and proposed an “Arctic Council” of zation of some kind or another. It was very vague at some kind. Again, he was very vague about it. In the start. Canada, a group of people took up this challenge to form an international Arctic organization. A gath- That was the Arctic Environmental Protec- ering of Arctic nations had been proposed as ear- tion Strategy (AEPS), a precursor to the Arc- ly as the 1970s by Maxwell Cohen — a Canadian tic Council. What was Canada’s position on lawyer of great eminence and our most prominent this Arctic “zone of peace” and the Finnish international lawyer at the time. He proposed to proposal? the Canadian Institute of International Affairs that something like this be created. At University of Ot- The Canadians were thrown off course by the end tawa’s Faculty of Law, Donat Pharand had proposed of the Cold War. Our Defence Department’s 1987 an Arctic treaty similar to the Antarctic treaty dating White Paper was a very hard lined and included — from the 1950s. So, these ideas were in the air and apropos the Arctic — nuclear submarines, which Canadians were central to the discussion. would be in the North to watch the other Soviet Conferences took place here in Toronto, funded and American submarines. This was going to be mainly by the Walter and Duncan Gordon Founda- our commitment to an intensified Cold War, which tion — a foundation which has been long active in seemed to be the way things were going since 1984. the North and a special Northern focus. They paid Then there was this sudden change. for the setting up of an Arctic Council panel. Kyra The Canadians were surprised by the Finnish Montagu, who is a Gordon daughter, was especially initiative. The Finnish proposal was understandable, active in that respect. Franklin Griffiths, the Univer- because the Finns wanted every possible opportu- sity of Toronto professor, was to be the Chair. He nity to bring the Soviet Union out of what it had recognized right from the very start that it would be been. What the Finns was proposed an environmen- impossible to have this group of Toronto academ- tal agency — nothing about security, nothing about ics and Tom Axworthy — a former aide to [Prime

22 Northern Public Affairs, September 2013 English’s book will be published in October by Allen Lane (an imprint of Penguin Canada). Minister] Pierre Trudeau — in the lead. This had our focus. The government didn’t want to push it. to have more of a Northern focus and Northern The Arctic Council panel was upset with this. And peoples had to be reflected in its composition and the third reason was the position of our Indigenous outlook. peoples. The Canadian government supported them Griffiths proposed Rosemarie Kuptana for the as permanent participants. Not all parts of govern- position of Co-Chair. Their initial interest was in ment did, however. In Foreign Affairs there was clear a “zone of peace” and the demilitarization of the doubt about whether we should have non-govern- Arctic. During the 1980s, the Inuit Circumpolar mental bodies or individuals at tables where states Conference (ICC) were very active. Mary Simon were present. In other countries, Norway is often became especially prominent in the early meetings mentioned, there was opposition to this idea. Mary [leading to the AEPS] as president of the ICC. At Simon, for example, recalls that opposition. Every- the Canadian meeting in Yellowknife in the lead up thing doesn’t move very far. to the signing of the AEPS, Mary intervened and said that she was not going to sit at the side but that How was this inertia overcome? she would sit at the table with the state representatives. From that point on, [Indigenous participation] Well, the Liberals come to power in 1993. They became a central matter for discussion. She wrote to talked about a new Northern foreign policy and had the Swedish Foreign Minister and said that [Indige- promised a new Circumpolar Ambassador. This was nous peoples] must be at the table. He took a long one of their pledges that they had made before the time to answer her, as he consulted other delega- election campaign. They appointed Mary Simon as tions. The Canadian government supported her and their first Circumpolar Ambassador, and the specific [the Walter and Duncan Gordon Foundation’s] Arc- instructions for her were to create the Arctic Coun- tic Council panel took that up as a cause. Gradually, cil. It was a bipartisan issue — the Liberals support- the concept developed of permanent participants by ed this and didn’t have opposition. about 1991-1992. And it was part of the mood of the time. The world was changing fundamentally. The United Na- The AEPS was signed in 1991. Was Canada tions was more important than ever. There was talk satisfied with that outcome, or did they want of something called “human security” developed by something more? the United Nations — a security beyond the boundaries of the state and concern for individuals. This The Canadian government, after Mulroney made was something picked up especially by Lloyd Ax- this pledge for an Arctic Council, tried to develop worthy when he became Minister of Foreign Affairs it. Canada wanted it to be a comprehensive panel in 1996. This was all heightened by the various ca- to consider all matters Arctic. In terms of a treaty, tastrophes of the time, whether it Somalia, Rwanda, it was uncertain, but Canada did want an organiza- or the former Yugoslavia. How can we “get beyond tion and wanted it to go beyond the narrow environ- state sovereignty,” as Axworthy would often say. mental focus of the AEPS which was too scientific So, in 1996 when Axworthy came, [Prime Min- and sterile. It didn’t have the people involved. ister Jean] Chrétien met [President Bill] Clinton and The Arctic was different from Antarctica, which proposed the Arctic Council again. This became part had no people. It was a different composition. There of Axworthy’s human security initiative. So there is were clear sovereign states and clear cases of sov- no doubt that it was the Canadians who pushed it. ereignty in the North. By 1991, [the AEPS] was The United States was not interested, and proba- moving forward pretty quickly, but then it slowed bly opposed most of the time. And in Europe itself, dramatically. the Norwegians had organized a European barrens There were three principal reasons for this. One council, which was very active and fairly success- was the United States, who just did not like the Arc- ful in dealing with human security questions. The tic Council idea. They don’t really see themselves AEPS had been created too, and the Americans said as an Arctic nation. They thought this could inter- somewhat justifiably that we should see how these fere with American foreign policy. They also didn’t things work before we go further. But the Canadians like the idea, in this post-Cold War era, of setting by this point had built up momentum, appointed a up new international organizations as it was just too Circumpolar Ambassador with an Arctic Council fluid. They were, it is fair to say, in opposition to an mandate, and beyond that, there was strong support Arctic Council. Second, within Canada itself, those from Indigenous peoples. were the years of our constitutional debates. We lost

24 Northern Public Affairs, September 2013 How did Indigenous peoples propel the cre- North, predating even Diefenbaker’s North- ation of the Arctic Council? ern Vision. There has been a close relationship between the Conservative Party, the What was very significant was the role played by In- North, and political and economic develop- digenous peoples themselves. They came to take up ment. So, why wasn’t the Arctic Council em- the creation of an Arctic Council as their cause. Not braced? Was it just its Liberal origins or its at the very first, when it seemed like they were ex- international outlook? cluded. But it appeared to them by 1992-1994, that this was a real opportunity. I think that was it, it was what surrounded the Arc- This is an organization that would never have tic Council. The human security rhetoric. The fact happened if the Inuit Circumpolar Council had not that the United States had opposed it in 2004, when taken the lead. So, Indigenous people, they creat- the Arctic Council ran into trouble. What put the ed the Arctic Council. You do get a sense now that Arctic Council on the map in the first part of this others have taken it over, and probably pushing the century was the Arctic Climate Impact Assessment. direction, but Indigenous peoples are still there and It got into the question of climate change. Climate have a prominent place at the table. change was controversial with the Bush Administra- The Arctic Council was eventually established tion and, quite frankly, controversial with the Harp- under the Ottawa Declaration in 1996. The Liberal er government when it came in too. So because of government continued to support the work of the that mixture of things, it is not surprising that the Council throughout that time, appointing Jack An- Conservatives didn’t have an interest in the Council. awak as Circumpolar Ambassador in 2003. In 2006, Where the Harper government did show inter- the Conservatives were elected to their first minority est was on the military side. It is a very high priority government, and they promptly axed the position for the Canadian Forces and incidents such as the of Circumpolar Ambassador. How did changes in Russian flag planting at the North Pole. The para- Canada’s foreign policy under Prime Minister Ste- dox is that in the Arctic Council, Canada and Russia phen Harper affect the Arctic Council and the work are now often on the same side, such as vetoing the it was doing? participation of the EU because of its stance on fur One gets the sense that when they came into and fish. We’re also on the same side because both office they hadn’t thought very much about it. The have Arctic sea passages, and the other states don’t Conservatives had thought a lot about the Arctic. necessarily recognize their national rights in those Prime Minister Harper had given a speech in 2005 specific passages. that Arctic sovereignty was our principal concern and we must defend it and rank it high in our de- So, why have the Conservatives embraced fence profile. Secondly, when he came into office the Arctic Council at this specific moment in he attacked the American Ambassador about some its history? musings the Ambassador had on the Northwest Pas- sage. So, it was clear that he was uninterested in the Well, it’s the major game in town. By 2009-2010, Arctic, but that the Arctic Council didn’t really fit the Arctic’s prominence in international politics had and the Arctic Ambassador was abolished. They become so much more obvious and so much more said that it didn’t really give us very much, which impossible to avoid. The need for collaboration had was quite an insult to Mary Simon and Jack Anawak become so much stronger. I mentioned the incident who had been doing it. of Russia planting its flag in 2007. In response, the I think the Conservatives saw it as a Liberal ini- Arctic coastal nations — of which Canada is one tiative. I think it is fair to say that by 2006, the gov- — made a declaration saying that we don’t need ernment itself had been less active in the Council a treaty, we can handle this ourselves. We’re going than it had been in the 1990s. It was more of our to move forward by collaboration, not by conflict. game then, but a change came with 9/11 and so The incident of the flag should not be an indication much else. As one prominent Conservative told me, that there is conflict among us, rather we will stand they were told to call the Arctic Council the “Mul- together, we will work together, and we will settle roney Initiative” — which technically is true as Mul- things through what is the Arctic Council. roney had proposed it first. When the Arctic Council was being formed, the Finns looked around and asked how many interna- Well, you could say that the Conservative tional agreements have the Arctic as a prominent Party has had a long relationship with the part or have agreements that specifically cover Arc-

Northern Public Affairs, September 2013 25 tic states? There was only one and it dealt with polar administration that had opposed the Arctic Council. bears. In all the others, the Arctic was a subset or a clause — like in the United Nations of Law of the Sea it’s At Kiruna, non-Arctic states like China, In- just a clause. So, there was a need to treat the Arctic dia, and Japan were made permanent ob- distinctly. servers. How has the Council changed in the After 2008, it became impossible to ignore the past few years? Arctic for all of these states. The pressures towards collaboration were much greater because there were The Scandinavians have Chaired the Arctic Coun- threats from the outside. In 2010, Hillary Clinton cil recently, and as they always manage to do, they came to Ottawa and she blasted the Canadian gov- made it a very effective organization that started to ernment for only having the coastal states there. matter more. When I was at Kiruna this year, one This was a great irony because it was her husband’s of the veteran delegates from the Arctic Athabaskan

Professor John English Council said the Council really started to change er mentioned climate change once, he mentioned when the Scandinavians took over. It had been so it continuously. It’s not that she’s denying there are much more of a talk shop before that. Now, you see changes, but she’s saying let’s focus on the people. things getting done, such as search and rescue agree- And that is within the Canadian tradition. ments. There is a lot going on behind the scenes. Having said that, a lot of what the Arctic Coun- The meetings used to be very small and now cil does is becoming very high politics. The other they are massive. The New York Times sent a corre- representatives at the Council are representatives of spondent! You know, it is only the Canadian news- Foreign Offices and Foreign Ministries. The fact that papers that didn’t send any correspondents. All of Aglukkaq was in health meant that her domestic re- the major European outlets were there. Even John sponsibilities were pretty far from an Arctic perspec- Kerry was there. Until Hillary Clinton came, the tive. In Environment, well it is very clear that the US Secretary of State never attended the ministe- environment in the Arctic is being affected. Even the rial meetings. Frankly, when the Arctic Council was oil companies are saying that it’s being affected — formed, the only foreign minister who was there was they can drill more easily because the ice is receding. Lloyd Axworthy. It has become a much more serious In Environment she’ll have a more direct relation- organization. ship to Arctic issues. At Kiruna every country, bar Iceland because of an election, had their foreign minister there. That Why should Northerners be keeping their includes [John] Kerry and [Russian Foreign Min- eyes on the Arctic Council? ister Sergei] Lavrov, and the Scandinavian foreign ministers. It was Chaired by Carl Bildt, a former They should be keeping their eyes on the Council Prime Minister of Sweden and one of the great in- because it will affect how they live. It is a very simple ternational diplomats of our time in the former Yu- answer. The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment had goslavia. He is a man of tremendous weight — he’ll a huge impact on the way the Arctic was perceived get all his phone calls answered if he calls any capi- as a canary in the mine shaft. Search and rescue co- tal in the world. So, this is an organization that has ordination has a direct impact on individuals in the suddenly moved into the major league because the Arctic — and I do mean individuals. playing field has changed so dramatically. I wouldn’t I was impressed by the buzz at the side of the be surprised if in the next two or three years — it meetings in Kiruna. It used to be, I was told, that depends on external circumstances — to see leaders the meetings were brief and low-level affairs among coming together of the Arctic Nations. people without the capacity to make decisions. Now Before Kiruna, the outstanding issue was what people come there, including business people trying to do about the observers. That touches on our In- to sell things, and it is clearly a place where some- digenous peoples and permanent participants. They thing is happening. That kind of happening is going had a sense that if you admit observers of the size to affect how people live on the ground in Nunavut, and weight of China, it will affect the operations of the Northwest Territories, and elsewhere. And it is the Council. Having had some discussion with the the only organization I can think of which has a sig- permanent participants, there was that sense, but nificant presence of non-state actors — Indigenous there was a recognition that, as the Arctic becomes peoples — at the table. It was the first, and as Lloyd increasingly significant in international politics, to Axworthy said in 1996 when it was founded, this will have a Chinese voice vetoed or absent would be be a precedent, and that may well be. ◉ very difficult. There was an acceptance, with a small amount of reluctance, to bring China into it. John English is a professor of history at the University of Waterloo and a former MP. He is the author of the acclaimed In his latest cabinet shuffle, the Prime Min- two-volume biography of Pierre Elliott Trudeau, which com- ister moved Leona Aglukkaq from Health to prises Citizen of the World: The Life of Pierre Elliott the Environment. What do you make of that? Trudeau, 1919-1968 and the award-winning Just Watch Me: The Life of Pierre Elliott Trudeau, 1968-2000. I think it is interesting that she was moved to Envi- ronment. In her speech at Kiruna, the Canadians Footnotes emphasized what one could call domestic matters 1. Negotiations began for the AEPS in 1989. It was signed — how people live in the North. Whereas Kerry, by Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, the So- for example, talked almost exclusively about climate viet Union, Sweden, and the United States in 1991. change. There was a huge difference there. She nev-

Northern Public Affairs, September 2013 27 SWEDEN Photo credit: Fredrik Broman/imagebank.sweden.se

The peaks of Kebenekaise reflecting in lake Ladtjojaure. ARTICLES ARCTIC COUNCIL Handing over the gavel: Reflections on Sweden’s Chairmanship of the Arctic Council Teppo Tauriainen Photo credit: Ola Ericson/imagebank.sweden.se

he first Swedish chairmanship of the Arctic Council was both challenging and rewarding. The T Council has come to an end, thereby com- Arctic file received more attention than ever, both at pleting the first full round of rotating chairmanships the working level and among political decision-mak- among the eight member states of the Arctic Council. ers in my country. The chairmanship inspired us On the 14th of May Sweden’s Minister for Foreign Af- to better define our own national priorities and to fairs, Mr. Carl Bildt, welcomed colleagues from mem- strengthen the co-operation among the many differ- ber countries, permanent participants and observers ent entities that are engaged in Artic matters in Swe- to Kiruna, the Northern most city in Sweden, for the den. As a result of this, the first coherent Swedish Arctic Council biannual Ministerial meeting. The national strategy for the Arctic region was adopted Canadian delegation was headed by the Honorable in the spring of 2011.1 Leona Aglukkaq, Minister for the Arctic Council. At Kiruna, Sweden handed over the gavel to Canada, ◉◉◉ who will be in the Chair for the next two years. While Sweden is a relatively small player in the The Arctic Council itself is at a crossroads. A previ- Arctic we do have a long experience of engaging ously predominantly scientific body mainly dealing in Arctic matters including through our explorers with environmental issues has lately developed into and researchers. The time at the helm of the Arctic a more hands-on co-operation. The Council is slow- Stora Vånskär, an archipelago islet in Stockholm, Sweden, 2011. Photo credit: Lola Akinmade/imagebank.sweden.sePhoto credit: ly moving from policy-shaping to policy-making as scientific work that is the result of co-operation well as focusing more on the practical applications among researchers and experts from the different of the results of its scientific work. Arctic Council member states. As chair Sweden gave priority to better equip the At the same time important substantive work, Council to meet the expectations from its members including the Arctic Ocean Acidification Assessment and the people living in the Arctic region for con- report and the finalization of the Arctic Ocean Re- crete results. This included administrative measures, view, has been carried out in the last two years. The basic housekeeping and improved working methods. Ocean Review includes recommendations on what Staying relevant in a changing environment and im- the Arctic states can do to avoid environmental de- proving efficiency were two of the main principles terioration of the Arctic waters. Biological diversity that guided us. and the preservation of the Arctic ecosystems were A number of steps have been taken to strength- other substantive themes on the agenda during the en and transform the Council to a well-functioning Swedish chairmanship. A Swedish proposal of an co-operation among the Arctic states since the pre- Arctic Resilience Report was taken up by the Coun- vious Ministerial meeting at Nuuk in Greenland in cil. It describes the risks of passing certain threshold 2011. The Council’s capacity to deal with the many values in ecosystems and outlines what is required challenges facing the Arctic, and to reap the full po- to establish conditions for resilient ecosystems in the tential of co-operation to the benefit of the Arctic Arctic. Sweden also initiated a dialogue with busi- and the people living there, has been improved. A ness on the importance of sustainability and corpo- common budget for the Council and the establish- rate social responsibility when engaging in economic ment of a standing secretariat in Tromsø in Norway activity in the Arctic. are just two examples of recent institutional reforms. At their meeting in Kiruna the participating Working methods, including internal co-ordination Ministers approved the second binding agreement in among the different working parties and the govern- the framework of the Arctic Council. It is an agree- ing bodies of the Council, have also been amend- ment on cooperation between the member states in ed. We have agreed to encourage better follow-up dealing with possible oil spills accidents in the Arctic. and national implementation of the often excellent Two years have passed since the Council’s first bind-

White reindeer, Sápmi, Sweden, 2012. ing agreement, on search and rescue cooperation in over national priorities in order to achieve results the Arctic, was signed at Nuuk. or make progress in general. As Chair it is also im- During the Swedish chairmanship considerable portant to be mindful of the dividing line between attention was given to improving the way the Council mainly domestic issues that need to be handled at informs stakeholders and the interested public about home by national or local decision makers, and its work and activities. The Council is still relatively those issues that are suitable and relevant to address unknown, including among people living in the Arc- in an international context like the Arctic Council. It tic. Thus there is a need to better communicate its do- would be counterproductive, both for those directly ings and accomplishments. By implementing a new affected and for the Council in general, to give the communication strategy and developing the Coun- impression that the Council can be tasked with du- cil’s webpage we are better placed to spread the word ties that fall outside its mandate. about the extensive and often successful work that is The organizational and administrative mea- being done in the context of the Arctic Council. sures implemented in the Arctic Council in the last two years will allow Canada to spend more time on ◉◉◉ its substantive priorities and aim for further concrete results. We owe it to the Arctic and its peoples to do Regardless of the differences of opinion among the our utmost to address the changes and challenges member states of the Arctic Council, their overall facing the region today. We need to deliver on the vision for the future of the Arctic is relatively sim- expectations those living in the North have for more ilar. This combined with the recent structural re- concrete results. forms provide a good basis for even more productive As a sign of their commitment to the Arctic all par- co-operation. Over the years the Council has shown ticipating Ministers in Kiruna signed on to the Kiruna that it is able to respond to common challenges in a vision for the Arctic proposed by the Swedish chair- pragmatic way without unnecessary tension. manship (http://www.arctic-council.org/index.php/ To make the most out of the internation- en/document-archive/category/425-main-docu- al co-operation on Arctic matters the Arctic states ments-from-kiruna-ministerial-meeting). At the end must also reflect on how to relate to the rest of the of the first round of chairmanships, and in view of world. We see an ever-increasing interest in the Arc- the rapid changes taking place in the Arctic, the Kiru- tic from other countries, which will continue to grow na vision goes beyond the day-to-day business and regardless of how the Council decides to relate to gives a longer term perspective of cooperation in the them. Through constructive engagement and open- context of the Arctic Council. ness we can pave the way for others to contribute to Sweden wants the Arctic Council to remain the and benefit from the work carried out in the Arc- pre-eminent forum for circumpolar co-operation tic Council. If we allow access to those who express and to build on its successful past. Sweden will con- an interest and commitment to contribute to a sus- tinue to be an active and constructive member of tainable future for the Arctic we can increase their the Council also in the years to come. ◉ understanding and knowledge about the realities and the very particular circumstances that prevail His Excellency Teppo Tauriainen is the Swedish Ambassador in the far North. By engaging with interested par- to Canada. ties we can reduce the risk for decisions elsewhere that may have an adverse effect on the Arctic and Footnotes 1 The Swedish national strategy for the Arctic is available here: its inhabitants. Consequently, Sweden welcomes the http://www.government.se/sb/d/15912/a/186169 affirmative decision in Kiruna on the applications of observers to the Arctic Council.

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Presiding over the Arctic Council has once again shown us that the role of the Chair has its opportunities and limitations. To a certain extent the chair can influence the agenda but in a consensus-based organization like the Arctic Council the chair is always dependent on the respect and support of the rest of the membership for any decision. The need to act as an honest broker often takes precedence 32 Northern Public Affairs, September 2013 ARCTIC COUNCIL

ᓈᓚᑲᐃᓐᓇᖁᔨᔾᔪᑎ ᐅᓕᒪᐅᑎᒥᒃ ᑐᓂᓯᓯᒪᓕᕐᓂᖅ : ᓱᕖᑕᓐᒥᑦ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᖅᑐᒥ ᑲᑎᒪᔨᐅᔪᓄᑦ ᐃᒃᓯᕙᐅᑕᕆᔭᐅᓚᐅᖅᑐᒥᒃ ᐃᖅᑲᐅᒪᓂᖃᖅᑐᑦ

Teppo Tauriainen Photo credit: GovernmentPhoto credit: of Sweden/Henrik trygg

ᕗᓪᓕᖅᐹᕆᔭᐅᓪᓗᓂ ᓱᕖᑕᓐᒥᑦ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᖅᑐᒥ ᑲᓇᑕᒥᐅᓄᑦ, ᐃᒃᓯᕙᐅᑕᕆᔭᐅᓂᐊᓕᖅᑐᑎᒃ ᐅᑭᐅᓐᓄᑦ ᓯᑲᑎᒪᔨᐅᔪᓄᑦ ᐃᒃᓯᕙᐅᑕᐅᑉ ᐃᓂᖃᖅᑎᑕᐅᓂᖓ ᒪᕐᕉᓐᓄᑦ. ᐃᓱᓕᓯᒪᓕᕐᒪᑦ, ᑕᐃᒪᓕ ᓯᕗᓪᓕᖅᐹᒻᒪᕆᒻᒥᒃ ᓱᕖᑕᓐᒥᐅᑦ ᓄᓇᕐᔪᐊᕆᔭᖓᓂᕐᒥᐅᑦ ᐃᒃᓯᕙᐅᑕᕆᔭᐅᖃᑦᑕᕐᓂᐊᖅᑐᑦ ᑭᖑᓕᕇᓐᓂᖃᕐᓗᑎᒃ ᐊᖏᓗᐊᖖᒋᑦᑐᒥᒃ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖃᖃᑕᐅᓂᖃᕋᓗᐊᖅᑐᑎᒃ ᐃᓂᖃᖅᑎᑕᐅᓂᕆᕙᓐᓂᐊᖅᑕᖏᑦ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᖅᑐᒥ ᐊᑯᓂᑲᓪᓚᒻᒪᕆᐅᓕᖅᑐᒥᒃ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᖅᑐᒧᑦ ᐱᔭᕇᖅᓯᒪᓕᕐᐳᖅ 8-ᖑᓪᓗᑎᒃ ᐃᓚᒋᔭᐅᓪᓗᑎᒃ ᑐᕌᖓᔪᓂᒃ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖃᖃᑕᐅᖃᑦᑕᖅᓯᒪᓕᕋᑦᑕ ᓄᓇᕐᔪᐊᕆᔭᐅᔪᓂᖖᒑᖅᓯᒪᓪᓗᑎᒃ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᖅᑐᒥ ᐃᓚᖃᖅᑐᒋᑦ ᕿᓂᖅᑎᐅᖃᑦᑕᖅᓯᒪᔪᓂᑦ ᑲᑎᒪᔨᒋᔭᐅᔪᓂ. ᒪᐃ 14-ᖑᑎᓪᓗᒍ ᓱᕖᑕᓐᒥᑦ ᑕᒫᖖᒑᖅᓯᒪᓪᓗᑎᒃ ᐊᒻᒪᓗ ᖃᐅᔨᓴᖅᑎᐅᖃᑦᑕᖅᓯᒪᔪᓂᒃ. ᓄᓇᕐᔪᐊᑉ ᓯᓚᑖᓃᑦᑐᓕᕆᔨᒃᑯᓐᓄᑦ ᒥᓂᔅᑕᕆᔭᐅᔪᖅ, ᑐᑭᒧᐊᒃᑎᑦᑎᔨᐅᓚᐅᕐᓂᕗᑦ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᖅᑐᒥ ᑲᑎᒪᔨᐅᔪᓄᑦ ᒥᔅᑕ ᑳᕈᓪ ᐱᐅᓪᑦ, ᐃᓚᒋᔭᐅᖃᑕᐅᓪᓗᑎᒃ ᐱᔭᕆᑐᔫᓚᐅᖅᐳᑦ ᐃᑲᔪᕐᓂᖃᒻᒪᕆᓚᐅᖅᑐᑎᒃᓗ ᓄᓇᕐᔪᐊᕆᔭᐅᔪᓂᑦ ᑲᑎᒪᔨᐅᖃᑎᒥᓂᒃ ᐊᑕᐃᓐᓇᖅᑐᒥᒃ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᒃᓴᕆᕙᑦᑕᑦᑎᓐᓂ. ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᕐᑐᒧᑦ ᐃᓚᒋᔭᐅᖃᑕᐅᔪᓂᒃ ᐊᒻᒪᓗ ᑐᓵᔭᖅᑐᕐᓯᒪᔪᓂᒃ ᑯᕉᓇᒧᑦ ᑐᕌᖓᓪᓗᑎᒃ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᒃᓴᐅᓕᖅᓯᒪᔪᑦ ᑐᖖᒐᓱᒃᑎᑦᑎᓚᐅᖅᐳᖅ, ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᕐᑐᖅᐸᓯᐊᓂᑦ ᓱᕖᑕᓐ ᐊᖏᓪᓕᕙᓪᓕᐊᓪᓗᑎᒃ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᒃᓴᐃᑦ ᓄᓇᓕᐸᐅᔭᖓᓄᑦ, ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᖅᑐᒥ ᑲᑎᒪᔨᐅᔪᓄᑦ ᐅᑭᐅᖅ ᓴᖅᑭᑉᐸᓪᓕᐊᓯᒪᓕᕐᒪᑕ, ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖃᖅᑎᐅᔪᑦ ᒪᕐᕈᐃᖅᐸᒃᑐᒍ ᒥᓂᔅᑕᕆᔭᐅᔪᑦ ᑲᑎᒪᓂᖃᖅᐸᓐᓂᖏᓄᑦ. ᖁᑦᑎᖕᓂᕆᔭᖓᒍᑦ ᐊᒻᒪᓗ ᒐᕙᒪᐅᔪᓂᑦ ᑲᓇᑕᒥᖖᒑᖅᑐᑎᒃ ᑲᑎᒪᕕᒡᔪᐊᕆᐊᖃᑕᐅᔪᑦ ᐃᓱᒪᓕᐅᖅᑎᒋᔭᐅᕙᑦᑐᓂᑦ ᓄᓇᕐᔪᐊᕆᔭᑦᑎᓐᓂ. ᓯᕗᓕᖅᑎᖃᓚᐅᖅᐳᑦ ᒥᓂᔅᑕ ᓕᐅᓇ ᐊᒡᓘᒡᑲᕐᒥᒃ, ᐃᒃᓯᕙᐅᑕᐅᓚᐅᕐᓂᑦᑎᓐᓂᑦ ᐱᐅᓂᖅᓴᐅᔪᒃᑯᑦ ᓇᖕᒥᓂᖅ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᖅᑐᒥ ᑲᑎᒪᔨᐅᔪᓄᑦ ᒥᓂᔅᑕᕆᔭᐅᔪᒥᒃ. ᓄᓇᕐᔪᐊᑦᑎᓐᓂ ᓯᕗᓪᓕᖅᐸᐅᑎᑕᐅᖁᔭᑦᑎᓐᓂᒃ ᑯᕉᓇ, ᓱᕕᑦᓱᓚᓐᒦᑦᑐᑎᒃ ᑐᓂᓯᓯᒪᓕᓚᐅᖅᐳᑦ ᓇᓗᓇᐃᔭᐃᓯᒪᓕᕈᒪᓕᓚᐅᖅᐳᒍᑦ ᓈᓚᑲᐃᓐᓇᖁᔨᔾᔪᑎ ᐅᓕᒪᐅᑕᖓᓂᒃ ᐃᒃᓯᕙᐅᑕᕆᔭᐅᔫᑉ ᐊᒻᒪᓗ ᓴᖖᒋᒃᑎᒋᐊᖅᑎᑦᑐᒪᓕᖅᑐᑎᒍ Left: His Excellency Teppo Tauriainen, Swedish Ambassador to Canada. Right: Björkliden, Kiruna, a small mountain village and resort on the edge of wilderness, 2011. ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖃᖃᑎᒌᓕᖅᓯᒪᓂᖏᑕ ᐊᔾᔨᒌᖖᒋᐅᖅᑐᑎᒃ ᐊᒻᒪᓗ ᐊᐅᓚᑦᑎᔨᐅᓪᓗᑎᒃ ᑲᑎᒪᔨᐅᔪᓂ ᑎᒥᖁᑎᒋᔭᐅᔪᑦ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᖅᑐᒧᑦ ᑐᕌᖓᓂᖃᖅᑐᓄᑦ ᑎᒥᖁᑎᒋᔭᐅᔪᑦ, ᐋᖅᑭᒋᐊᖅᑕᐅᓯᒪᓕᕆᕗᑦ. ᓱᕖᑕᓐ ᐃᓗᐊᓂ. ᑕᒪᒃᑯᐊᓗ ᐱᔾᔪᑎᒋᓪᓗᒋᑦ, ᐊᖏᖅᓯᒪᓕᓚᐅᕋᑦᑕ ᐃᑲᔪᖅᓯᓂᖃᓕᕐᓂᐊᕐᓂᑦᑎᓐᓄᑦ ᓯᕗᓪᓕᖅᐸᐅᓪᓗᑎᒃ ᒥᑦᓯᖃᑦᑎᐊᖅᑐᑎᒃ ᓱᕖᑕᕐᒥᐅᑦ ᖃᐅᔨᒋᐊᖃᑦᑕᕆᐊᖃᕐᓂᕐᒥᒃ ᐊᒻᒪᓗ ᓄᓇᕐᔪᐊᖑᔪᑦ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᕆᔪᒪᓕᖅᑕᖏᓂᒃ ᐋᖅᑭᒃᓱᖅᑕᐅᓯᒪᔪᓂᒃ ᐊᑐᓕᖅᑎᑦᑎᕙᓪᓕᐊᓂᖏᓂᒃ ᖁᑦᑎᖕᓂᖅᐸᐅᔪᒃᑯᑦ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᖅᑐᑉ ᐊᕕᒃᑐᖅᓯᒪᓂᖓᓄᑦ ᓱᓇᑐᐃᓐᓇᓂᒃ ᖃᐅᔨᓴᕐᓂᐅᕙᑦᑐᓂᑦ ᐊᑐᓂᑦᑎᑦᑎᑎᓴᓂᓇᐅᑦᔭᐅᑦ ᐅᐱᕐᒑᖓᓂ 2011. ᑖᒃᑯᐊᓗ ᐱᔾᔪᑎᒋᓪᓗᒋᑦ ᖃᐅᔨᓴᖅᑎᐅᔪᐃᑦ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖃᖃᑎᒌᓕᕈᓐᓇᖃᑦᑕᕐᒪᑕ ᐊᒻᒪᓗ ◉◉◉ ᖃᐅᔨᒪᔨᒻᒪᕆᒋᔭᐅᔪᐃᑦ ᐊᔾᔨᒌᖖᒋᐅᖅᑐᑎᒃ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᖅᑐᒥ ᑲᑎᒪᔨᐅᔪᓄᑦ ᐃᓚᒋᔭᐅᔪᓂᑦ. ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᖅᑐᒥ ᑲᑎᒪᔨᐅᔪᑦ ᑕᕝᕙ ᐊᓯᐊᓄᑦ ᑕᐃᒪᐅᑎᓪᓗᒍᑦᑕᐅᖅ ᐱᒻᒪᕆᐅᑎᐅᓪᓗᑎᒃ ᓴᖑᒋᐊᕐᕕᒋᔪᓐᓇᖅᑕᒥᓐᓃᓕᕐᒪᑕ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᒃᓴᕆᔭᒥᓐᓂ. ᐱᔭᒃᓴᑲᒻᒪᕆᐅᔪᓂᒃ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᒃᓴᒥᓐᓂᒃ, ᐊᖏᓂᖅᐸᐅᓚᐅᖅᑐᓂ ᓱᓇᑐᐃᓐᓇᓂᒃ ᖃᐅᔨᓴᖅᑎᐅᔪᑦ ᐃᓚᖃᖅᑐᒋᑦ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᖅᑐᑉ ᑕᕆᐅᖓᓂ ᑎᒥᖁᑎᒋᓚᐅᖅᑕᖏᑦ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖃᖅᑎᐅᓪᓗᑎᒃ ᓄᖑᑉᐸᓪᓕᐊᓐᓇᖅᑐᖃᕐᓂᖓᓂᒃ ᖃᐅᔨᒋᐊᕈᑎᓄᑦ ᐊᕙᑎᓕᕆᓂᕐᒧᑦ ᐱᕙᓪᓕᐊᔪᓕᕆᓂᐅᔪᓄᑦ ᐅᓂᒃᑳᓕᐊᖑᓯᒪᔪᓂᒃ ᐊᒻᒪᓗ ᑭᖑᓪᓕᖅᐹᕐᓯᐅᑎᐅᓪᓗᑎᒃ ᐊᓯᔾᔩᓯᒪᓕᕐᒪᑕ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖃᖅᑎᓪᓚᕆᐅᖔᓕᖅᑐᑎᒃ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᕐᑐᑉ ᑕᕆᐅᖓᓂᒃ ᖃᐅᔨᓴᐃᓂᕐᓂᒃ, ᐱᓕᕆᐊᒃᓴᐅᓕᖅᓯᒪᔪᓄᑦ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖃᖃᑎᒌᑦᑎᐅᔪᓂ. ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖃᖅᓯᒪᓕᖅᐳᑦ ᐅᑭᐅᖑᓚᐅᕐᑐᓐᓂ ᒪᕐᕉᓐᓂ. ᑲᑎᒪᔨᐅᔪᑦ ᓱᒃᑲᐃᑦᑑᒐᓗᐊᒥᒃ ᒪᓕᒐᖁᑎᐅᓕᕐᓂᐊᖅᑐᓂᒃ ᑕᕆᐅᒥᒃ ᖃᐅᔨᓴᕐᓂᐅᓚᐅᖅᑐᖅ ᐃᓚᖃᕐᐳᖅ ᑲᒪᔨᐅᓂᕐᒥᓐᓂᑦ ᒪᓕᒐᖁᑎᓕᐅᖅᑎᖖᒍᖅᐸᓪᓕᐊᓕᕐᒪᑕ ᐃᓱᒪᓕᐅᕈᑎᓕᐅᕐᓂᕐᒥᒃ ᖃᓄᖅ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᕐᑐᖏᑦ ᐃᓚᖃᖅᑐᒋᑦ ᑐᕌᖓᓕᖅᓯᒪᓂᕐᒥᓐᓄᑦ ᐊᑐᕐᓂᖃᖅᑐᑎᒍᑦ ᓄᓇᕐᔪᐊᖑᔪᑦ ᐊᕙᑎᓕᕆᓂᕐᒥ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᕐᑐᑉ ᐊᑐᓕᖅᑎᑦᑎᕙᓪᓕᐊᔨᐅᓪᓗᑎᒃ ᓱᓇᑐᐃᓐᓇᓂᒃ ᐃᒪᖁᑎᖏᑕ ᓄᖑᑉᐸᓪᓕᐊᔭᐅᓂᖓᓂᒃ ᖃᐅᔨᓴᖅᑎᐅᔪᓂᑦ ᖃᐅᔨᔭᐅᓯᒪᓕᓚᐅᖅᑐᑎᒃ ᓄᖅᑲᕐᑎᑦᑎᓯᒪᓕᕈᓐᓇᕐᒪᖔᑕ. ᖃᓄᐃᑦᑐᑐᐃᓐᓇᓂᒃ ᓴᖅᑭᑕᐅᓯᒪᓕᓚᐅᖅᑐᓂᑦ. ᐆᒪᔪᖃᐅᕐᓂᖓᓄᑦ ᐊᒻᒪᓗ ᐸᐸᑕᐅᓯᒪᓕᕆᐊᖃᕐᓂᖏᑕ ᓱᕖᑕᓐᒥᐅᑦ ᐃᒃᓯᕙᐅᑕᕆᔭᐅᓪᓗᑎᒃ ᐅᑭᐅᕐᑕᖅᑐᒥ ᐊᕙᑎᖁᑎᒋᔭᐅᔪᓕᕆᓂᐅᔪᑦ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᒃᓴᐅᔪᓂᑦ ᓯᕗᓪᓕᖅᐸᐅᑎᑕᒃᓴᖃᓚᐅᕐᒪᑕ ᐊᖏᔪᒥᒃ ᑐᕌᖓᔭᐅᓪᓗᑎᒃ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᒃᓴᐅᓚᐅᕆᕗᑦ ᐱᐅᓂᖅᓴᐅᔪᓂᒃ ᑲᑎᒪᔨᐅᔪᑦ ᐸᕐᓇᒃᓯᒪᓕᕆᐊᖁᓪᓗᒋᑦ ᓱᕖᑕᕐᒥᐅᑦ ᐃᒃᓯᕙᐅᑕᐅᓂᖃᖅᑎᓪᓗᒋᑦ ᑲᑎᒪᔨᐅᔪᓄᑦ. ᐱᓕᕆᐊᒃᓴᐅᓕᖅᑎᑕᐅᓯᒪᔪᓂᒃ ᐃᓚᒋᔭᐅᖃᑕᐅᔪᓂᑦ ᓱᕖᑦᓚᓐᒥᐅᑦ ᐃᓱᒪᓕᐅᕈᑎᒋᓯᒪᔭᖓᑦ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᕐᑐᑉ ᐊᒻᒪᓗ ᐃᓄᒋᔭᐅᔪᓂᑦ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᖅᑐᑉ ᐃᓕᖅᑯᓯᑐᖃᒥᓄᑦ ᐅᑎᖅᑎᑕᐅᔪᓐᓇᕐᓂᖓᓄᑦ ᐊᕕᒃᑐᖅᓯᒪᓂᖓᓂ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖃᕈᓐᓇᖅᓯᓯᒪᓕᖁᓪᓗᒋᑦ ᐅᓂᒃᑳᓕᐊᖑᓯᒪᔪᑦ ᑲᑎᒪᔨᐅᔪᓂᑦ ᓴᖅᑭᔪᓐᓇᓕᕐᓂᐊᕐᒪᑕ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᕆᓯᒪᓕᖅᑕᒥᓐᓂᒃ. ᐱᓕᕆᐊᒃᓴᖑᖅᓯᒪᓕᓚᐅᕐᐳᖅ. ᓇᓗᓇᐃᔭᐃᓯᒪᓪᓗᑎᒃ ᑖᓐᓇ ᐃᓚᖃᖅᑎᑕᐅᓚᐅᖅᑐᖅ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᒃᓴᐅᔪᓂᒃ ᐊᑦᑕᓇᖅᑐᒦᓕᖅᑎᑦᑎᔪᓐᓇᕐᓂᐅᔪᓂᒃ ᐋᖅᑭᒃᑕᐅᔭᕆᐊᓕᓐᓂᒃ, ᐋᖅᑮᒋᐊᒃᑲᓐᓂᒐᒃᓴᓂᒃ ᐊᒻᒪᓗ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖑᕙᓪᓕᐊᔪᓄᑦ ᐃᓪᓕᕐᓇᖅᑑᑎᐅᓪᓗᑎᒃ ᐱᐅᓯᒋᐊᖅᑎᑕᐅᓯᒪᓪᓗᑎᒃ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖃᐅᓯᐅᓕᕋᔭᖅᑐᓂᒃ. ᖃᓄᐃᑦᑐᑐᐃᓐᓇᓂᒃ ᐆᒪᓂᖃᖅᑐᓂᒃ ᐃᓚᖏᓂᒃ ᒥᑦᓯᖃᑦᑎᐊᖏᓐᓇᖅᑎᑦᑎᒋᐊᕐᓂᖅ ᑲᔪᓯᑎᑦᑎᓯᒪᓕᕋᔭᖅᐸᑕ ᐊᒻᒪᓗ ᓇᓗᓇᐃᔭᐃᓯᒪᓪᓗᑎᒃ ᐊᓯᔾᔨᖅᐸᓪᓕᐊᓕᖅᑐᓂ ᐊᕙᑎᖃᓕᕐᓂᕐᒥ ᐊᒻᒪᓗ ᖃᓄᐃᑦᑐᓂᒃ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖃᖅᓯᒪᔭᕆᐊᖃᕋᔭᕐᓂᖏᓂᒃ ᐱᐅᓯᒋᐊᖅᑎᑦᑎᓯᒪᓃᑦ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖃᑦᑎᐊᕐᓂᕐᒥᓐᓄᑦ ᐋᖅᑭᓯᒪᓕᕐᓂᐊᕈᑎᒃ ᒪᓕᒐᖁᑎᐅᓕᕋᔭᖅᑐᓂᒃ ᒪᕐᕉᓪᓗᑎᒃ ᒪᓕᒐᒃᓴᖁᑎᒋᔭᐅᓚᐅᕐᒪᑕ ᐅᑎᖅᑎᑕᐅᓯᒪᓕᕈᓐᓇᕐᓂᐊᖅᐸᑕ ᖃᓄᐃᑦᑐᑐᐃᓐᓇᐃᑦ ᑐᑭᒧᐊᒍᑎᒋᕙᓪᓕᐊᓪᓗᑎᒍᓗ. ᐆᒪᓂᖃᖅᑐᑦ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᖅᑐᒥ. ᓱᕖᑦᓚᓐᒥᐅᑦ ᑲᑎᒪᔨᐅᔪᐃᑦ ᓴᖖᒋᒃᑎᒋᐊᕈᑎᔅᓴᖏᓂᒃ ᐱᒋᐊᖅᑎᑦᑎᓯᒪᓕᓚᐅᕆᕗᑦ ᐱᔅᓇᓯᐅᔪᓂᒃ ᐊᒻᒪᓗ ᐊᓯᔾᔨᖅᑎᑕᐅᔾᔪᑎᔅᓴᖏᓂᒃ ᐅᖃᖃᑎᖃᖃᑦᑕᕐᓂᔅᓴᓂᒃ ᐱᕈᒃᑲᓐᓂᕈᓐᓇᖅᑐᖁᑎᐅᔪᑦ ᐋᖅᑭᒃᓱᐃᓯᒪᓕᕐᒪᑕ ᐊᐅᓚᑦᑎᓂᖃᑦᑎᐊᖅᑑᓕᕐᓗᑎᒃ ᐱᒻᒪᕆᐅᓂᖏᓄᑦ ᐊᒻᒪᓗ ᐱᔅᓇᓯᐅᔪᑦ ᐃᓅᖃᑎᒌᒃᑐᓄᑦ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖃᖃᑎᒌᓕᕈᑎᔅᓴᖏᓂᒃ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᖅᑐᕆᔭᐅᔪᓂ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᒃᓴᖃᖅᐸᓐᓂᖏᓂᒃ ᑮᓇᐅᔭᓕᐅᓕᕈᑎᔅᓴᒥᓐᓂᒃ ᓄᓇᕐᔪᐊᖑᔪᓂᑦ ᑕᐃᒪᖖᒐᓂᑦ ᑭᖑᓪᓕᕐᒥᒃ ᐱᓕᕆᓂᖃᓕᕌᖓᑕ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᕐᑐᑉ ᐊᕙᑎᒋᔭᖓᓂ. ᒥᓂᔅᑕᕆᔭᐅᔪᑦ ᑲᑎᒪᖃᑎᒌᓚᐅᖅᓯᒪᒻᒪᑕ ᑯᕉᓇᒥ ᑲᑎᒪᖃᑎᒌᒃᑐᑎᒃ ᒥᓂᔅᑕᕆᔭᐅᔪᑦ ᓅᒃ ᐊᑯᑭᒃᑐᓂ 2011-ᖑᑎᓪᓗᒍ. ᑲᑎᒪᔨᐅᔪᑦ ᑲᑎᒪᔭᖅᑐᖃᑕᐅᓯᒪᔪᑦ ᑲᔪᓯᑎᑦᑎᓚᐅᕐᒪᑕ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖃᖅᑎᐅᔪᓐᓇᕐᓂᖏᑦ ᐊᒥᓱᐃᖑᓪᓗᑎᒃ ᑐᒡᓕᕆᓪᓗᓂᐅᒃ ᒪᓕᒋᐊᖃᖅᑐᒍ ᐊᖏᖃᑎᒌᒃᓯᒪᓂᕐᓂᒃ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᒃᓴᑲᓪᓚᐅᓕᖅᓯᒪᔪᓂ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᖅᑐᒥ, ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᖅᑐᒥ ᑲᑎᒪᔨᐅᔪᑦ ᐋᖅᑭᒃᓱᖅᑕᐅᓯᒪᓂᖏᓄᑦ. ᐊᒻᒪᓗ ᐱᓯᒪᓕᕈᑎᔅᓴᐅᔪᓂᒃ ᐃᓗᐃᒃᑲᐅᑦᑎᐊᖅᑐᒃᑯᑦ ᐃᓚᒋᔭᐅᖃᑕᐅᓪᓗᑎᒃ ᓄᓇᕐᔪᐊᕆᔭᐅᔪᐃᑦ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖃᖃᑎᒌᒃᓯᒪᓂᖏᓂᑦ ᐱᓯᒪᓕᕈᓐᓇᖁᓪᓗᒋᑦ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖃᖃᑎᒌᑦᑎᐊᕐᓂᐊᕐᓂᖏᓄᑦ ᐊᖏᕈᑎᐅᒻᒪᑕ ᐃᑲᔪᖅᑕᐅᔾᔪᑎᐅᓕᕈᓐᓇᖅᑐᓂᒃ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᖅᑐᑦ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖃᓕᕌᖓᒥᒃ ᐅᖅᓱᐊᓗᒻᒥᒃ ᑯᕕᔪᖃᕋᔭᕐᓂᖅᐸᑦ ᐊᕕᒃᑐᖅᓯᒪᓂᕆᔭᖓᓂ ᐊᒻᒪᓗ ᐃᓄᖁᑎᒋᔭᖏᑕ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᕐᑐᑉ ᐊᕙᑎᖓᓂ. ᐅᑭᐅᒃ ᒪᕐᕈᓪᓗᐊᒃ ᑕᐅᕙᓂᕐᒥᐅᑕᐅᔪᑦ, ᐱᐅᓯᒋᐊᖅᑎᑕᐅᓯᒪᓕᕐᒪᑕ. ᖄᖏᖅᓯᒪᓕᕐᐳᑦ ᑕᐃᒪ ᑲᑎᒪᔨᐅᔪᑦ ᓯᕗᓪᓕᕐᒥᒃ ᑲᑎᒪᔨᐅᔪᑦ ᑮᓇᐅᔭᖁᑎᔅᓴᕆᓂᐊᖅᑕᖏᑦ ᒪᓕᒋᐊᖃᖅᑐᒋᑦ ᐊᖏᕈᑎᓕᐅᕐᓯᒪᓕᓚᐅᕐᓂᖏᓄᑦ, ᐊᒻᒪᓗ ᐱᒋᐊᖅᑎᑕᐅᓯᒪᓕᖅᑐᑎᒃ ᕿᓂᖅᑎᐅᕙᓐᓂᕐᒧᑦ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖃᖃᑎᒌᒃᐸᓐᓂᕐᒥᓐᓂ ᑐᑭᒧᐊᒃᑎᑦᑎᔨᐅᖏᓐᓇᕐᓂᐊᖅᑐᑦ ᑐᕌᒻᔅ ᓄᐊᕖᒥ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᕐᑐᒥ, ᐊᑎᓕᐅᖅᑕᐅᓯᒪᓕᓚᐅᕐᓂᖓᑕ ᒪᕐᕈᑐᐃᓐᓇᐅᒻᒪᑎᒃ ᐆᑦᑐᕋᐅᑎᐅᔪᓐᓇᖅᑐᒃ ᐊᖏᕈᑎᖏᑕ ᓅᒃᒥ. ᓴᓇᕝᕕᓕᕆᓂᕐᒥ ᐋᖅᑭᒋᐊᖅᑕᐅᓯᒪᓕᖅᑐᓂᑦ. ᑕᐃᒪ ᓱᕖᑦᓚᓐᒥᐅᑦ ᐃᒃᓯᕙᐅᑕᐅᑎᓪᓗᒋᑦ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖃᐅᓯᐅᕙᓐᓂᐊᖅᑐᑦ, ᐃᓚᖃᕐᓗᒋᑦ ᑲᑎᒪᔨᓄᑦ ᐊᖏᔪᒻᒪᕆᒻᒥᒃ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᒃᓴᐅᔪᓄᑦ ᐃᖅᑲᓇᐃᔭᕐᕕᐅᑉ ᐋᖅᑭᔅᓱᖅᑕᐅᓯᒪᓂᖏᑕ ᐱᐅᓯᒋᐊᖅᑎᑦᑎᓯᒪᓕᕋᔭᕐᓂᕐᒥᓐᓄ ᖃᓄᖅ ᑲᑎᒪᔨᐅᔪᑦ ᐊᔾᔨᒌᖖᒋᐅᖅᑐᑎᒃ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖃᖅᑎᐅᔪᓂᑦ ᑐᓴᐅᒪᑎᑦᑎᕙᓐᓂᖏᓄᑦ ᑎᒍᒥᐊᖅᑎᐅᔪᓄᑦ ᐊᒻᒪᓗ 34 Northern Public Affairs, September 2013 Photo credit: Tina Stafrén/imagebank.sweden.sePhoto credit:

ᑭᒃᑯᑐᐃᓐᓇᓄᑦ ᐃᓄᓐᓄᑦ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖃᖅᑎᐅᓂᕐᒥᓐᓄᑦ ᐊᔾᔨᒌᑦᑐᒥᒃ ᓂᕆᐅᓐᓂᖃᕐᓂᖓᑦ ᐃᓚᖃᖅᑎᓪᓗᒍ ᐊᒻᒪᓗ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᕆᔭᒥᓐᓄᑦ ᐱᓕᕆᓂᖃᓚᐅᖅᐳᑦ. ᐋᖅᑭᐅᒪᓂᕐᒥᓐᓂᒃ ᓄᑕᐅᓕᖅᑎᑦᑎᒋᐊᕐᓯᒪᓂᖏᓂᒃ ᑲᑎᓴᓕᐅ)ᑦ ᑐᓂ ᑐᓴᐅᒪᔭᐅᑦᑎᐊᖖᖏᒻᒪᑕ ᐱᐅᑦᑎᐊᖅᑐᒥᒃ ᑐᖖᒐᕝᕕᖃᓕᖅᓯᒪᕗᑦ ᐊᖏᓂᖅᓴᐅᔪᒥᒃ ᓱᓇᓕᕆᔨᐅᒋᐊᖏᓐᓄᑦ, ᐃᓚᖃᖅᑐᒋᑦ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖃᖃᑎᒌᓕᕈᓐᓇᕐᓂᖏᓄᑦ. ᐅᑭᐅᖑᓯᒪᓕᖅᑐᓂ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᕐᑐᒥᐅᖑᔪᓂᑦ. ᑕᐃᒪᓕ ᐱᐅᓂᖅᓴᐅᔪᒃᑯᑦ ᑲᑎᒪᔨᐅᔪᑦ ᓇᓗᓇᐃᖅᓯᖃᑦᑕᕐᓯᒪᓕᕐᒪᑕ ᑐᓴᐅᒪᑎᑦᑎᕙᓕᕆᐊᖃᕐᑐᒍᑦ ᓱᓕᕆᐊᕆᕙᑦᑕᑦᑎᓐᓄᑦ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᒃᓴᑲᓪᓚᐅᓕᖅᓯᒪᔪᓂᒃ ᐊᒻᒪᓗ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᕆᓯᒪᓕᖅᑕᑦᑎᓐᓄᑦ ᐱᔾᔪᑎᖃᖅᑐᓂᒃ. ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖃᕈᓐᓇᑦᑎᐊᕐᓂᖏᓂᒃ ᐊᑐᓕᖅᑎᑦᑎᓂᑦᑎᒍᑦ ᓄᑖᖑᓪᓗᑎᒃ ᑐᕌᕐᕕᖃᑦᑎᐊᕆᐊᖅᐸᓪᓗᑎᒃ ᑐᓴᐅᒪᖃᑦᑕᐅᑎᓕᕆᓂᕐᒧ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᒃᓴᐅᔪᓂᒃ ᐊᒻᒪᓗ ᐊᒃᓱᕈᕐᓇᓕᖅᑎᕝᕕᒋᑐᕋᐅᓯᒪᖖᒋᓪᑑᓗᑎᒃ. ᐋᖅᑮᓯᒪᓕᕐᓂᑦᑎᒍᑦ ᑲᑎᒪᔨᐅᔪᑦ ᖃᕆᑕᐅᔭᑎᒍᑦ ᖁᑦᑎᖕᓂᖅᐸᐅᔪᑎᒍᑦ ᓯᓚᕐᔪᐊᓕᒫᒥ ᐊᑦᑕᑕᕐᕕᑦᑎᓐᓂᒃ (http://www.arctic-council.org/ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖃᖃᑎᒌᓕᕋᔭᕐᓃᑦ ᑐᕌᖓᔪᓄᑦ index.php/en/) ᓯᐊᒻᒪᒃᓯᓯᒪᓕᖅᑎᑦᑎᔪᓐᓇᖅᓯᕗᒍᑦ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᕐᑐᑉ ᐊᕕᒃᑐᖅᓯᒪᓂᖓᓂ ᐅᖃᐅᓯᑦᓴᑦᑎᓐᓂᒃ ᐊᖏᔪᒥᒃ ᐊᒻᒪᓗ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖃᓕᖅᑎᑕᐅᔪᓐᓇᖁᓪᓗᒋᑦ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᑐᒥ ᐃᖏᕐᕋᑦᑎᐊᕐᓂᖃᕋᔪᑦᑐᑎᒃ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᕆᓯᒪᑦᑎᓐᓂᒃ ᓄᓇᕐᔪᐊᕆᔭᐅᔪᐃᑦ ᑕᑯᔅᓴᐅᑎᑦᑎᕙᒋᐊᖃᕆᕗᑦ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᖅᑐᒥ ᑲᑎᒪᔨᐅᔪᓂ. ᖃᓄᖅ ᑐᓴᐅᒪᑎᑦᑎᕙᒍᓐᓇᕐᓂᕐᒥᓐᓂᒃ ᐊᓯᖏᓂᒃ ᐃᓚᒋᔭᐅᓪᓗᑎᒃ ᓄᓇᕐᔪᐊᖑᔪᓂᑦ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᖅᑐᒥ ᓄᓇᕐᔪᐊᕆᔭᐅᔪᓄᑦ. ᐅᔾᔨᕈᓱᒃᑲᑦᑕ ᐊᓯᖏᑦ ᑲᑎᒪᔨᐅᔪᓄᑦ ᐃᓱᒪᖃᖃᑎᒌᖖᒋᒃᑲᓗᐊᖅᑐᑎᒃ ᓄᓇᕐᔪᐊᕆᔭᐅᔪᐃᑦ ᐊᖏᓪᓕᕙᓪᓕᐊᖏᓐᓇᖅᑐᒥᒃ ᑕᒪᐃᓄᑦ, ᓂᕆᐅᓐᓂᖃᕐᓂᖏᑦ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᕐᑐᑉ ᐱᓕᕆᕝᕕᐅᓕᕈᒪᓂᖓᑕ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᕐᑐᒥ, ᑕᒪᒃᑯᐊᓗ ᓯᕗᓂᒃᓴᕆᓂᐊᖅᑕᖓᓄᑦ ᐊᔾᔨᒌᒡᓚᓐᓂᖃᖅᐳᑦ. ᐱᕈᖅᐸᓪᓕᐊᖏᓐᓇᕐᓂᐊᖅᑐᑎᒃ ᖃᓄᐃᑦᑑᔪᓂᒃ A pair of traditional Sami winter boots, 2012. ᑲᑎᒪᔨᐅᔪᑦ ᐃᓱᒪᓕᐅᖅᓯᒪᓕᖅᐸᒃᑲᓗᐊᖅᐸᑕ ᑐᕌᖅᑎᑦᑎᒋᐊᕈᑕᐅᓗᑎᒃ ᐊᖏᓂᖅᓴᐅᔪᒥᒃ ᑐᓴᐅᒪᑎᑦᑎᕙᓐᓂᐊᕐᓂᕐᒥᓐᓂᒃ. ᐊᑐᕐᓂᖃᑦᑎᐊᖅᑐᑎᒍᑦ ᓴᖅᑮᓯᒪᓕᕈᓐᓇᕋᔭᕐᓂᕐᒥᓐᓄᑦ. ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᕐᑐᑉ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖃᖃᑕᐅᓕᕐᓂᒃᑯᑦ ᐊᒻᒪᓗ ᐊᕕᒃᑐᖅᓯᒪᓂᕆᔭᖓᓄᑦ ᐃᓄᒋᔭᖏᓄᓪᓗ ᑕᒪᒃᑯᐊ ᒪᑐᐃᖖᒐᑦᑎᐊᖅᑑᓗᑕ ᐋᖅᑮᕙᓪᓕᐊᔪᓐᓇᕐᓂᐊᕋᑦᑕ ᓴᖅᑭᓯᒪᓕᕆᐊᖃᕋᑦᑎᒍᑦ ᖁᑦᑎᖕᓂᖅᐸᐅᔪᒃᑯᑦ ᐊᓯᑦᑕ ᐃᑲᔪᖃᑕᐅᓕᕈᓐᓇᕐᓂᖏᓂᒃ ᐊᒻᒪᓗ ᐊᓯᔾᔨᖅᐸᓪᓕᐊᓂᐅᔪᓂᒃ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᒃᓴᑲᓪᓚᐅᔪᓂᒃᓗ ᐃᑲᔪᖅᑕᐅᓯᒪᓕᕐᓗᑎᒃ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖑᓯᒪᓕᖅᑐᓂᑦ ᐊᕕᒃᑐᖅᓯᒪᓂᐅᔪᒥ ᐅᓪᓗᒥ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᒃᓴᕆᔭᑦᑎᒍᑦ. ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᕐᑐᒥ ᑲᑎᒪᔨᐅᔪᓂᑦ. ᐃᑎᕈᓐᓇᖅᓯᑎᑦᑎᒐᔭᕈᑦᑕ ᓴᖅᑮᓯᒪᓕᕆᐊᖃᕋᑦᑕ ᑕᐃᒃᑯᓄᖓ ᑕᐃᒃᑯᓂᖓ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖃᓕᕈᒪᔪᓂᒃ ᐊᒻᒪᓗ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᕐᑐᒥᐅᑕᐅᔪᓄᑦ ᓂᕆᐅᓐᓂᕆᔭᐅᔪᓂᒃ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᒃᓴᖃᖅᑎᑕᐅᔪᓂᒃ ᐃᑲᔪᖃᑕᐅᓕᕋᔭᕐᓂᕐᒧᑦ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖃᖅᓯᒪᓂᑦᑎᓐᓂᒃ ᐱᔪᓐᓇᑦᑎᐊᖅᑑᓗᑕ. ᐱᕈᒃᑲᓐᓂᕈᓐᓇᕐᑑᓂᖓᓄᑦ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᕐᑐᑉ ᓯᕗᓂᕐᒥ ᐱᑦᑎᐊᖅᑑᓗᑎᒃ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖃᖅᑎᐅᔪᓐᓇᕐᓂᕐᒥᓐᓂᒃ ᐊᖏᓂᖅᓴᐅᔪᑭᒃ ᑐᑭᓯᐅᒪᓕᖅᑎᒍᓐᓇᕐᓂᐊᕋᑦᑎᒍ ᐊᒻᒪᓗ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᕐᑐᑉ ᐊᕕᒃᑐᖅᓯᒪᓂᖓᓄᑦ ᑕᒪᕐᒥᒃ ᖃᐅᔨᒪᓂᖃᓕᖅᑎᓪᓗᑎᒍ ᖃᓄᐃᓪᓚᕆᒃᑑᓂᖏᑕ ᒥᓂᔅᑕᕆᔭᐅᔪᑦ ᑯᕉᓇᒥ ᐊᑎᓕᐅᕆᓚᐅᕐᒪᑕ ᐊᒻᒪᓗ ᓇᓗᓇᐃᖅᑕᐅᓯᒪᑦᑎᐊᖅᑐᑎᒃ ᑯᕉᓇᒥᐅᑦ ᓂᕆᐅᖕᓂᕆᔭᖏᓂᒃ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᕐᑐᒧᑦ ᐃᓕᖓᓐᓂᐅᓕᖅᓯᒪᔪᓄᑦ ᑕᐃᒪᐅᖏᓐᓇᖅᑑᓪᓗᑎᒃ ᐃᓱᒪᓕᐅᕈᑕᐅᓯᒪᔪᓂᒃ ᓱᕖᑕᓐᒥᐅᑦ ᐃᒃᓯᕙᐅᑕᕆᔭᖏᓂᑦ. ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᕐᑐᑉ ᑲᓇᖕᓇᒻᒪᕆᐊᓂ. ᐃᓚᐅᓕᖅᑎᑦᑎᓂᑦᑎᒍᑦ ᓯᕗᓪᓕᕐᒥᒃ ᐃᒃᓯᕙᐅᑕᕆᔭᐅᑲᐃᓐᓇᖅᑐᑦ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖃᖃᑕᐅᓕᕈᒪᔪᓂᒃ ᒥᒃᖠᒋᐊᖅᓯᒪᓕᕈᓐᓇᕋᔭᕐᒪᑕ ᐃᓱᓕᓐᓂᖃᓕᖅᑎᓪᓗᒋᑦ ᐃᓂᖃᖅᑎᑕᐅᓂᖏᓂ, ᐊᒻᒪᓗ ᐃᓱᒪᓕᐅᕈᑕᐅᓕᖅᐸᑦᑐᓂᒃ ᐊᓯᖏᓂᑦ ᓈᒻᒪᖖᒋᑦᑐᑎᒍᑦ ᐃᓱᒪᒋᓗᒋᑦ ᓱᒃᑲᓕᒻᒪᕆᒃᑐᒥᒃ ᐊᓯᔾᔨᖅᐸᓪᓕᐊᓂᖓᑕ ᐃᓕᖖᒐᐃᔾᔪᑕᐅᓯᒪᓕᕈᓐᓇᖅᑐᓄᑦ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᖅᑐᒧᑦ ᐊᒻᒪᓗ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᕐᑐᑉ, ᑯᕉᓇᒥ ᓂᕆᐅᓐᓂᕆᔭᐅᔪᑦ ᓄᓇᖃᖅᑐᓄᑦ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᕐᑐᒥ. ᑕᐃᒪᓕ, ᓱᕖᑕᓐᒥᐅᑦ ᐅᖓᑖᓄᐊᖅᓯᒪᒻᒪᑕ ᖃᐅᑕᒫᖅᓯᐅᑎᓂᒃ ᐊᖏᖅᓯᒪᓪᓗᑎᒃ ᐃᓱᒪᓕᐅᕈᑕᐅᓕᓚᐅᖅᑐᓂᒃ ᑯᕉᓇᒥ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖃᖅᐸᓐᓂᐅᔪᓂᑦ ᐊᒻᒪᓗ ᐊᑯᓃᕐᓂᒃᓴᒧᑦ ᓈᒻᒪᒍᓱᑦᑎᐊᒻᒪᕆᒃᑐᑦ ᑐᓵᔭᖅᑐᕐᑎᑦᑎᕙᒍᓐᓇᕐᓂᕐᒥᒃ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖃᖃᑎᒌᒍᓐᓇᕐᓂᖏᑕ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᕐᑐᒥ ᑲᑎᒪᔨᐅᔪᑦ. ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᕐᑐᒥ ᑲᑎᒪᔨᐅᔪᑦ ᑲᑎᒪᓂᖃᖅᑎᓪᓗᒋᑦ. ᓱᕖᑕᕐᒥᐅᑦ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᕐᑐᒥ ᑲᑎᒪᔨᐅᔪᓂᒃ ᑲᔪᓯᓗᑎᒃ ᓴᖅᑭᔮᖏᓐᓇᕐᑑᓗᑎᒃ ᑲᑎᒪᔨᕐᔪᐊᖑᖁᔨᒻᒪᑕ ᓄᓇᕐᔪᐊᑉ ◉◉◉ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᕐᑐᖏᓄᑦ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖃᖃᑎᒌᒃᑎᐅᓗᑎᒃ ᐊᒻᒪᓗ ᐃᖏᕐᕋᑦᑎᐊᖅᑎᑦᑎᕙᒃᓯᒪᓂᕐᒥᓐᓂᒃ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᕐᑐᒥ ᑲᑎᒪᔨᐅᔪᓄᑦ ᐃᒃᓯᕙᐅᑕᐅᓂᑦᑎᓐᓂ ᐱᕈᖅᑎᑦᑎᕙᓪᓕᐊᓗᑎᒃ. ᓱᕖᑕᕐᒥᐅᑦ ᑲᔪᓯᓗᑎᒃ ᖃᐅᔨᔾᔪᑎᒋᓚᐅᕋᑦᑎᒍ ᐃᒃᓯᕙᐅᑕᕆᔭᐅᔪᓄᑦ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖃᖅᑎᐅᖃᑕᐅᓂᐊᕐᒪᑕ ᐊᒻᒪᓗ ᖃᓄᐃᓕᐅᕈᓐᓇᕐᓂᖃᕐᓂᖏᓂᒃ ᐊᒻᒪᓗ ᐃᑲᔪᕐᓂᖃᖅᑑᓗᑎᒃ ᐃᓚᒋᔭᐅᖏᓐᓇᕐᓗᑎᒃ ᑭᒡᓕᒋᔭᐅᓕᖅᐸᑦᑐᓂᒃ. ᐃᓚᖓᒍᑦ ᐃᒃᓯᕙᐅᑕᕆᔭᐅᔪᑦ ᑲᑎᒪᔨᐅᔪᓄᑦ ᐅᑭᐅᖑᓂᐊᖅᑐᓂ. ◉ ᐊᒃᑐᐃᓂᖃᕈᓐᓇᖅᐸᒻᒪᑕ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᒃᓴᕆᔭᐅᔪᓂᒃ ᑭᓯᐊᓂᓗ ᓂᕈᐊᕈᑕᐅᓯᒪᕙᑦᑐᑎᒃ ᑲᑐᔾᔨᖃᑎᒌᒃᑎᐅᔪᓂᑦ ᓲᕐᓗ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᖅᑐᒥ ᑲᑎᒪᔨᐅᔪᓄᑦ ᐃᒃᓯᕙᐅᑕᕆᔭᐅᔪᑦ ᒥᓂᔅᑕ ᑎᐊᑉᐳ ᑕᐅᕆᐊᓂᓐ ᓱᕖᑕᓐᒥᑦ ᐃᓛᒃᑰᖓᑎᑕᐅᕙᒻᒪᑕ ᐅᐱᒋᔭᐅᑦᐊᖅᑐᑎᒃ ᑭᒡᒐᖅᑐᕐᑎᒋᔭᐅᕗᖅ ᑲᓇᑕᒧᑦ ᐃᑲᔪᖅᓯᒐᐅᑦᑎᐊᖅᑑᓪᓗᑎᒃᓗ ᐃᓚᒋᔭᐅᖃᑕᐅᔪᓂᑦ ᖃᓄᑐᐃᓐᓇᖅ ᐃᓱᒪᓕᐅᕈᑎᒋᓕᖅᐸᑦᑕᖏᓂ. ᓇᓗᓇᐃᒃᑯᑕᖅ ᓱᓕᑦᑎᐊᖅᑑᓗᓂ ᐱᓕᕆᔨᐅᓂᕐᒥᓂᒃ 1. ᓱᕖᑕᓐᒥᐅᑦ ᓄᓇᕐᔪᐊᖓᓂ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖑᓕᕈᒪᔪᑦ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᖅᑐᒥ ᓇᓗᓇᐃᖅᓯᓯᒪᔭᕆᐊᖃᕐᑑᓂᖓ ᓯᕗᓪᓕᖅᐸᐅᑎᑕᐅᕙᒻᒪᑕ ᐱᔾᔪᑎᖃᖅᑐᑦ ᐱᔭᐅᔪᓐᓇᖅᑐᑦ ᐅᕙᖖᒐᑦ: http://www.government. ᓄᓇᕐᔪᐊᕆᔭᐅᔪᓂᑦ ᓯᕗᓪᓕᖅᐸᐅᑎᑕᐅᖁᔭᐅᓯᒪᔪᓂᑦ se/sb/d/15912/a/186169 ᓇᓗᓇᐃᑦᑐᒥᒃ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖃᖅᓯᒪᓕᕈᓐᓇᖁᓪᓗᒋᑦ ᐅᕝᕙᓘᓐᓃᑦ ᓯᕗᒻᒧᒋᐊᒃᓯᒪᓕᖅᑎᑕᐅᔪᓐᓇᖁᓪᓗᒋᑦ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᒃᓴᕆᔭᐅᔪᑦ. ᐃᒃᓯᕙᐅᑕᕆᔭᐅᓗᓂᑦᑕᐅᖅ ᐱᒻᕆᐅᓗᐊᕆᕗᖅ ᐅᔾᔨᕈᓱᐃᓐᓇᕆᐊᖃᕐᓂᖅ ᓄᓇᕐᔪᐊᕆᔭᐅᔪᓂ ᐱᕙᓪᓕᐊᔪᓕᕆᓂᐅᔪᑦ ᑭᒡᓕᖃᖅᑎᑕᐅᕙᓐᓂᖏᑕ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖑᓂᐊᕐᓗᑎᓪᓕ ᓄᓇᒋᔭᐅᔪᓂ ᓄᓇᕐᔪᐊᖑᔪᒥ ᐅᕝᕙᓘᓐᓃᑦ ᓄᓇᓕᒋᔭᐅᔪᒥ ᐃᓱᒪᓕᐅᖅᑎᒋᔭᐅᔪᓂᑦ, ᐊᒻᒪᓗ ᑕᒪᒃᑯᐊ ᐱᕙᓪᓕᐊᔪᓕᕆᓂᐅᔪᑦ ᓈᒻᒪᒃᑲᓗᐊᕆᐊᖏᑕ ᒥᑦᓯᖃᑦᑎᐊᕋᓗᐊᕆᐊᖏᑕᓗ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖑᔪᑦᓴᐅᓂᐊᕐᓗᑎᒃ ᓯᓚᕐᔪᐊᓕᒫᒥ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᒃᓴᕈᔭᐅᕙᑦᑐᓄᑦ ᓲᕐᓗ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᖅᑐᒥ ᑲᑎᒪᔨᐅᔪᓂᑦ. ᐊᔾᔨᒌᖖᒋᖅᑎᑦᑎᓗᑎᒃ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖃᖅᓯᒪᓕᕈᓐᓇᕐᒪᑕ, ᑕᒪᐃᑎᒍᑦ ᐊᒃᑐᐃᓯᒪᓂᖃᓕᕐᓗᑎᒃ ᑕᐃᒃᑯᓄᖓ ᐊᒻᒪᓗ ᑲᑎᒪᔨᐅᔪᓄᑦᑕᐅᖅ, ᐃᓱᒻᒥᖅᑎᑦᑎᓯᒪᓕᕋᔭᖅᐸᑕ ᑲᑎᒪᔨᐅᔪᑦ ᑎᓕᔭᐅᓯᒪᓕᕈᓐᓇᕐᓂᖏᑕ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᒃᓴᓂᒃ ᓯᓚᑖᓃᑎᓪᓗᒋᑦ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᒃᓴᕆᔭᐅᔪᓂᑦ ᑖᒃᑯᓇᖖᒐᑦ. ᑲᑐᔾᔨᖃᑎᒌᖑᔪᓂᑦ ᐊᒻᒪᓗ ᐊᐅᓚᑦᓯᔨᐅᔪᓂᑦ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᒃᓴᐅᔪᑦ ᐊᑐᓕᖅᑎᑕᐅᓚᐅᖅᑐᑦ ᐅᑭᐅᖅᑕᕐᑐᒥ ᑲᑎᒪᔨᐅᔪᓄᑦ ᒪᕐᕉᓕᕐᑐᓄᑦ ᐅᑭᐅᓐᓄᑦ ᑲᓇᑕᒥᐅᓂᑦ ᐊᑯᓂᐅᓂᖅᓴᖅ ᐊᖏᔪᒥᒃ ᓯᕗᓪᓕᖅᐸᐅᑎᑕᐅᖁᔭᖏᓄᑦ ᐱᓕᕆᐊᖃᕈᑕᐅᔪᓐᓇᖅᓯᓂᐊᓕᕐᒪᑕ ᐊᒻᒪᓗ 36 Northern Public Affairs, September 2013 ARCTIC COUNCIL Saami expectations for the Canadian Chairmanship of the Arctic Council Gunn-Britt Retter Photo credit: Alexander commons) Cahlenstein (creative Photo credit:

he Saami People are the Indigenous people that Minister Aglukkaq invited the Permanent Par- T whose traditional territory spans what is known ticipants and the Sami people in particular to provide today as Finland, Norway, the northeastern parts of input on issues that concern us. The Saami Coun- the Russian Federation and Sweden. The Saami cul- cil forwarded its input, which we are pleased to see ture is based on traditional livelihoods like reindeer more or less reflected in the chairmanship program herding, fishing, hunting, gathering and picking. for the coming years. Given the thematic parameters The Saami culture thus depends on the living re- set for us, our input focused on mental health, In- sources of healthy ecosystems. The Saami Council’s digenous entrepreneurship, and the importance of motivation for engaging with the Arctic Council as incorporating traditional knowledge in the work of one of its Permanent Participants is the protection Arctic Council. In particular, the latter has appeared and development of living resources and biodiver- to be quite a challenge in the face of calls for more sity as the basis for our culture and livelihoods. A efficiency at the Arctic Council, combined with hu- healthy environment, sustainable development, and man and financial capacity shortages among the management of Northern resources mean healthy Arctic Indigenous peoples’ organisations. The Saa- peoples of the Arctic. mi Council is most pleased to see that the Kiruna The Saami Council appreciates Canada’s efforts Declaration and the Canadian chairmanship have to consult Indigenous peoples in preparing for the placed a strong emphasis on the incorporation of Arctic Council chairmanship, and we are grateful traditional knowledge in the Council’s work.

A river in Sápmi (Härjedalen, Sweden), 2012. ◉◉◉ reflected in resources spent. In 2012, Sweden spent SEK 3,5 billion (USD 500 million) to promote min- Responsible Arctic resource development — ing activities in the Saami areas. In the same year, At what cost? Sweden invested zero dollars in measures to protect the rights of Saami reindeer herding communities. Central to the Arctic Council’s mandate is to pro- The fact that Saami and other Arctic Indigenous mote cooperation, coordination, and interaction peoples’ territories continue to be exploited without on issues concerning sustainable development and their consent implies that the colonisation of Sápmi environmental protection. As the activities of the (Saami territory) and other Indigenous peoples’ ter- Arctic Council receive increasing interest from the ritories is not a practice of the past but is very much rest of the world, the Arctic Council has begun to a continuing process of today. place more emphasis on the economic component Based on the above, we should all keep in mind of sustainable development, including facilitating that economic development in the Arctic must not relations with the business community. This is stated only be sustainable in economical terms, but it must in the Kiruna Declaration and the Canadian Chair- put Northerners first and say “no” when environmen- manship program that recognizes the central role tal protection and traditional economies are at risk. of business in the development of the Arctic, and expresses the intention to increase cooperation and ◉◉◉ interaction with the business community to advance sustainable development in the Arctic. Strengthening the capacity of the Arctic The Saami Council is concerned about the in- Indigenous peoples’ organisations creased focus on business and industrial development. We emphasize that the relationship between The Saami Council considers the designation of the business community and the Arctic Council Permanent Participants at the Arctic Council to be must be guided by a shared commitment to careful a great achievement. The role emerged in the early business practices in the Arctic. For us this means 1990s thanks to brave Indigenous peoples’ represen- that business activities must proceed without harm tatives participating actively during the course of the to existing Indigenous economies and in full respect Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy (AEPS). of Indigenous people’s human rights. Due to judicious Canadian leadership, the role In- The Kiruna Declaration welcomes the Arctic digenous peoples’ organisations occupied during the Council’s past work on corporate social responsibility AEPS was consolidated when the Arctic Council and sustainable business, and encourages enterprises was formed. Ultimately, the 1996 Ottawa Declara- operating in the Arctic to respect international guide- tion establishing the Council institutionalized per- lines and principles. In these regards, it is important manent Indigenous participation. to emphasize that the increasing focus on the private The challenge since then has been to fill this role sector’s responsibility to respect human rights does in the most meaningful manner. For the Saami Coun- not mean that state responsibility should diminish cil, this has meant participating and contributing at correspondingly. Corporate responsibility does not the working group level with our insights, perspec- change the fact that states with Indigenous popula- tives and unique knowledge. The reports and assess- tions have the ultimate legal responsibility to respect, ments from the Arctic Council working groups form protect and fulfil Indigenous peoples’ human rights. the basis for the Arctic Council recommendations. The Saami Council’s statement at the recent By contributing our own expertise together with Kiruna ministerial meeting points to an example in science at the working group level, we believe the the Giron (Kiruna) area, where industrial develop- resulting recommendations would be based on the ment — in particular mining — poses a tremendous best available knowledge. Such recommendations challenge to the local Saami reindeer herding peo- would be difficult for decision-makers to ignore. The ple. Local reindeer herders point out that corporate Saami Council has also set a high priority on partic- responsibility can be a double-edged sword. The ipating at the Senior Arctic Officials level and at the Swedish government expects the mining industry to Ministerial level to impact final decisions and to be behave responsibly when operating in Saami territo- part of defining further priorities. In these ways, the ry, while the mining industry says it follows Swedish Saami Council wants to affect decision-making for law. Thus, in the Giron area, corporate responsibili- and with the peoples of the North - the homeland ty equals minimal responsibility. for the Saami and other Arctic Indigenous Peoples. Sweden’s interest in the survival of reindeer The Giron Ministerial in May concluded the husbandry and the mining industry respectively is first round of Arctic Council chairmanships. The 38 Northern Public Affairs, September 2013 Kiruna Declaration devotes a section to strength- Background: What is the Saami Council? ening the Arctic Council, and again recognizes the unique role of Indigenous peoples. While the gen- The Saami Council was established at the second erous financial support the Saami Council receives Saami Conference in Kárášjohka, Norway, in 1956. from Finland, Norway and Sweden for the activi- The initiative represented a new effort of the Saami ties in the Arctic Council is appreciated, the need to people to establish and organize cooperation across strengthen the capacities of the Permanent Partic- the national borders. The Saami people live in four ipants is immense. The Arctic Council cannot be- countries: Finland, Norway, Russian Federation and Sweden, but only since 1992 the Saami organisations come stronger than the weakest link and not more from the Russian side of Sápmi achieved full member- efficient than the least efficient part. In order to ship in the Saami Council. Today the Saami Council strengthen the Arctic Council, the Permanent Par- can be characterized as a voluntary Saami organization ticipants’ capacities also have to be strengthened. (a non—governmental organization) holding a broad The Saami Council holds high expectations that constituency and representing Saami civil society with Canada, in its second Arctic Council chairmanship, nine member organisations from all over Sápmi. will again be at the forefront ensuring the full and The primary aim of the Saami Council is the pro- effective participation of the Arctic Indigenous eo- motion of Saami rights and interests in the four coun- ples in the work and activities of the Arctic Council. tries where the Saami are living, to consolidate the We are pleased to see that the program presented by feeling of affinity among the Saami people, to attain recognition for the Saami as a nation and to maintain Canada outlines the intention to continue strength- the economic, social and cultural rights of the Saami in ening the Arctic Council, including the capacity of the legislation of the four states (Finland, Norway, the Permanent Participants. It is time for Canada to Russian Federation and Sweden). This objective can be lead the way again. ◉ achieved through agreements between these states and the elected bodies representing the Saami people, the Gunn-Britt Retter is head of the Arctic and Environmental Saami Parliaments. Unit, Saami Council. -Gunn-Britt Retter

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Northern Public Affairs, September 2013 39 ICELAND Photo credit: Danny Nicholson (creative commons)

View outside Reykjavik, Iceland, 2013. ARCTIC COUNCIL Inuit youth have a voice

Thomas Anguti Johnston

qausiqsaqarama. Ippigijavut makkuktuujutigut “It’s an opportunity to support the business U puiguqtauqungitavut. community that’s developed in the Arctic,”1 Leona I can still speak my language, the language of Aglukkaq said about the Arctic Council Chairman- my mother and my land. I’m a twenty-five year-old ship moving to Canada. Yes, but it is also an oppor- Inuk, and I have lived my whole life in the eastern tunity to support the youth in our communities to Arctic. Here it is common more so than not that an develop the Arctic. The Canadian Arctic has had Inuk my age still speaks Inuktitut and still takes part many visitors over the years: whalers, fur-traders, in hunts and land trips and still sews clothing. The missionaries, and even the Government of Canada. statement that appears in Inuktitut above translates All these groups have something in common, they all into English as: came to the Arctic because they wanted something, “I have something to say. We don’t want what something they could take away and bring back to the youth feel to be forgotten.” their homes. This process has made a lot of families

NIYC President Thomas Anguti Johnston wealthy, but not necessarily the people of the Arctic, the hopes and fears of youth may not be observed and even less so the Inuit. and considered. Youth committees and councils, such To Minister Aglukkaq and to the Government as the Youth Arctic Council, are essential in sharing of Canada I would like to point out that Canada’s the youth perspective and ideas on important issues, chairmanship of the Arctic Council is also an oppor- such as suicide prevention, culture and language pres- tunity to show you are more interested in the people ervation, education, climate change, and the future of — their families and their lives, their prosperity, and where we call home. the place that they call home. I understand business is going to have to be a part of developing the hu- ◉◉◉ man dynamic of the Arctic, but it shouldn’t be the first priority. The issues stopping Inuit from being Inuuttiavaugasuarniq. Growing into a good full participants in the development of the econo- person. Piliritiaqatigiinniq. Working well together. my in the Arctic are the ones we hear of everyday: I ask that Minister Aglukkaq and other North- over-crowded homes, low high-school completion ern politicians and leaders consider seriously the rates, hopelessness that sometimes leads to suicide, people they represent, both on the public side and loss of traditional knowledge and skills, and loss of the Inuit side and to think about and listen to the language. I believe Minister Aglukkaq, as an Inuk of voices of their people. It is my hope that when they Nunavut, understands the challenges dealt with on a are making decisions about our future, they listen daily basis by Inuit in the Arctic on a deep level and not only to the voices of business people and scien- will represent Inuit and the people of the Arctic of tists but that they also listen to the sometimes high- Canada as best as she can. pitched and squeaky voices of the Arctic’s young people who need proper guidance and care (and ◉◉◉ patience) to develop into self-sufficient, self-deter- mining people. Because as youth we are not only the Nunavut isuqanngittuq. Our land has no ending. Nunavut future scientists, business people and leaders of the assijjiinnaujaqtuq. Our land is always changing. arctic, we are also here now — ready to learn, ready Our culture, our connection to the land, will to contribute, ready to start taking over our futures. always be important to Inuit. The preservation and It is the hope of the National Inuit Youth Coun- prosperity of the Inuit culture and language does not cil (NIYC) that while Canada is Chair of the Arctic seem to be a main concern of the Arctic Council. We Council, the views of Inuit youth will be heard and are unique, grown through the climate of the Arc- represented. As an Inuk youth and the President of tic. And now we find ourselves wedged between the NIYC, I would welcome the opportunity to meet modern lifestyle and the traditional one. Sometimes I with Minister Aglukkaq to discuss the priorities of pay my bills with money I made from demonstrating the NIYC and Inuit youth across Canada. traditional drum dancing. Sometimes my family has Saangata. Let us look forward. Sivuniksavummut. goose stew for supper at the kitchen table. At times Towards our future. Sangijuulluta. With we have found balance in the old and the new, to cre- Strength.◉ ate an environment in which we are comfortable and confident. But often finding that balance has been challenging and sometimes impossible. Thomas Anguti Johnston is President of the National Inuit Here is what we know about Inuit. Inuit make up Youth Council and Regional Youth Coordinator for the the majority of the population of Arctic Canada, and Qikiqtani Inuit Association. Johnston is also a writer and we are among the youngest in Canada with most of cast member of the popular show Qanurli? broadcast on the us under 25 years of age. It is my hope that during Aboriginal Peoples Television Network. Canada’s chairmanship the Arctic Council will make youth and the challenges youth face today their top priority. The Arctic Council can demonstrate its com- Footnotes mitment to the circumpolar youth population — cur- 1 Jim Bell, “Canada takes Arctic Council in new rent and future — by supporting the development direction with business forum: Aglukkaq,” Nunatsiaq of the Youth Arctic Council, and by supporting and News (May 17, 2013) http://www.nunatsiaqonline.ca/ developing existing youth groups, from the National stories/article/65674canada_hopes_to_use_circum- Inuit Youth Council right down to local community polar_business_forum_as_a_showcase_aglukkaq/ youth committees. Without these youth groups there is a danger that the youth voice will go unheard and

42 Northern Public Affairs, September 2013 ARCTIC COUNCIL Canada & the Kiruna Declaration

Terry Fenge Photo credit: Embassy of Photo credit: Ottawa, commons) Canada (creative the United States,

anada assumed the chair of the eight-nation states have now chaired the Council for two-year C Arctic Council on May 15, 2013 at a ministeri- terms. What can we expect in the next two years — al meeting in Kiruna, Northern Sweden. Carl Bildt, Canada’s second term as Chair — before we pass Sweden’s Minister of Foreign Affairs and outgoing the gavel to the United States? chair of the Council, handed the gavel to Leona Ministers from each of the “Arctic eight”, as Aglukkaq, then Canada’s Minister of Health and they are sometimes called, signed a six-page declara- presently Minister of Environment who in 2012 was tion in Kiruna which endorsed several new priorities appointed by Prime Minister Harper to lead Can- and reaffirmed commitments to numerous existing ada’s engagement in the Council. All eight Arctic initiatives. They also received a report nearly 100

A view of Pangnirtung, Nunavut, during a tour by American consular staff in 2009. pages in length from their Senior Arctic Officials initiatives are items 2 and 7. In addition, Canada pro- (SAOs) detailing the past and planned activities of posed a “robust [Arctic] Council advocacy campaign the Council’s working groups and task forces. In ad- in the International Maritime Organization (IMO)” dition, ministers signed on to a broad vision state- to promote a mandatory and environmentally strin- ment and signed off on a circumpolar agreement to gent code for ships operating in Polar waters. Nego- improve preparedness and response to oil pollution tiation of such a code has been underway for some in the marine environment. years. Canada also proposed negotiation of two new As the incoming chair, Canada had significant agreements between the Arctic states; one to prevent influence on the Kiruna Declaration, but the signed marine oil pollution from offshore hydrocarbon ex- text is the result of negotiation and compromise be- ploration and development, and the other to reduce tween the Arctic states and reflects their consensus emissions of black carbon (soot) which contributes view of what the Council should and should not do. significantly to climate change in the region. Both What did Canada propose, what was accepted by initiatives drew upon work already completed in the the Arctic states and incorporated in the declaration, Council, particularly the 2009 Arctic Marine Ship- and what do the next two years likely have in store? ping Assessment completed by the Working Group In January 2013, Minister Aglukkaq authorized on Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment, the submission to the SAOs of a two-page concept and the 2011 and 2013 reports of the Council’s Task paper that proposed “Development for the People of Force on Short-Lived Climate Forcers. The language the North” as the overall theme for Canada’s 2013- proposed by Canada and that adopted in the Kiruna 2015 chairmanship. This theme reflected the Gov- Declaration are compared below. ernment of Canada’s 2009 Northern Strategy and 2010 Arctic Foreign Policy statement, as well as the ◉◉◉ minister’s consultations with business organizations, the territorial governments and Aboriginal peoples. Oil Spill Prevention Instrument In subsequent weeks, Canada tabled project propos- als of two to three pages each, dealing with: Canada’s Proposal — “decide to establish a Task Force, reporting to Senior Arctic Officials, to work towards an international instrument on Arctic ma- 1. Circumpolar Business Network; rine oil pollution prevention, with a focus on the 2. Oil Spill Prevention Instrument; development of standards for offshore oil and gas 3. Arctic Oil Spill Environmental Sensitivity operations, and to present the outcome of its work Mapping; at the next Ministerial meeting in 2015.” 4. Guidelines for Arctic Tourism and Cruise Ship Kiruna Declaration — “decide to establish an Operations; Arctic Council action plan or other arrangement on 5. Arctic Council Leadership for an International oil pollution prevention, and to present the outcome Polar Code; 6. Supporting Traditional Lifestyles and Knowledge; of its work and any recommendations for further ac- 7. Short-Lived Climate Forcers; and tion at the next Ministerial meeting in 2015.” 8. Adaptation to Climate Change Best Practices. ◉◉◉ For several of these initiatives Canada proposed specific text for the Kiruna Declaration. Few of Short-Lived Climate Forcers Canada’s initiatives survived the rough and tumble of negotiations in the form in which they were orig- Canada’s Proposal — “decide to establish a Task inally proposed. The major exception to this is the Force for Action on Short-Lived Climate Pollutants, declaration’s commitment to “establish a Task Force reporting to the Senior Arctic Officials, to devel- to facilitate the creation of a circumpolar business op an instrument or other arrangement to address forum”, for this is precisely what Canada proposed. short-lived climate pollutants in the Arctic, and to Several of Canada’s initiatives, specifically items report on the outcomes of its work at the Ministerial 3, 6, and 8, while important, are essentially techni- meeting in 2015.” cal and/or educative in intent and scope. In terms Kiruna Declaration — “welcome the report of using the Council as a foreign policy vehicle to es- on short-lived climate fo rcers, and support its rec- tablish Arctic-specific rules and procedures to guide ommendations including that national black carbon development, the most important of the Canadian emission inventories for the Arctic should continue to

44 Northern Public Affairs, September 2013 Photo credit: Embassy ofPhoto credit: Ottawa, commons) Canada (creative the United States, be developed and reported as a matter of priority.” cil. While supported by the Permanent Participants, In terms of the IMO polar shipping code, the this paper was considered but not endorsed by the Kiruna Declaration does not commit to a robust, co- SAOs who were themselves mandated by the Kiru- ordinated advocacy campaign, but only to “strength- na Declaration “to recommend ways and means to en” the collaboration of the Arctic states. strengthen how the work of the Arctic Council is Six Indigenous peoples’ organizations, three of carried out”, including identifying “approaches to which are based, in part, in Canada, are Permanent support the active participation of Permanent Par- Participants to the Arctic Council, enabling them to ticipants.” operate and intervene in virtually the same fashion The most divisive and time consuming issue as states. Notwithstanding their status, inadequate fi- discussed in Kiruna concerned applications by nancial and human resources significantly limit their non-Arctic states and the European Union for ob- effectiveness in the Council. In 2012, foundations in server status in the Council. China, India, Italy, Ja- Canada and the United States supported the devel- pan, Republic of Korea and Singapore were admit- opment of a paper that proposed an Arctic Coun- ted as observers joining the UK, Germany, France, cil task force to examine the financial and capacity the Netherlands, Poland, and Spain, most of whom needs of the Permanent Participants with the goal have enjoyed observer status since the Council was of enabling them to more fully engage in the Coun- formed. The European Union application was

Sled dogs at Alert, Nunavut, 2010. addressed in the following clause: gotiate “an instrument or other arrangement to The Arctic Council receives the application of enhance efforts to reduce emissions of black car- the EU for observer status affirmatively, but defers bon.” Notwithstanding these efforts, the most sub- a final decision on implementation until Council stantial components of Canada’s proposed poli- ministers are agreed by consensus that the concerns cy agenda — preventing pollution of the marine of Council members, addressed by the President of environment, reducing emissions of black carbon the European Commission in his letter of May 8 are and concluding a polar code for shipping — have resolved, with the understanding that the EU may been visibly watered down. These issues will still observe proceedings until such time as the Council be addressed during Canada’s chairmanship, but acts on the letter’s proposal. instead of negotiation of international agreements The EU has not been admitted to the Council or “instruments”—processes which attract and fo- but neither has its application been rejected. cus political attention—the stage seems set for fur- Reflecting in large measure Canada’s continuing ther research and technical analysis. Moving these dispute with the EU regarding its ban on the issues from research to international public policy placement of seal products on the European market, formation will likely have to await the chairman- Canada has for some years opposed the EU’s ship of the USA. application for observer status. In 2011 Canada Concluding a Polar Code for shipping, and an initiated action in the World Trade Organization international instrument or treaty among the Arc- to persuade the EU to reverse its decision, and to tic states to prevent marine oil pollution, are surely the same end Canadian and Greenlandic Inuit preconditions to exploration for and development initiated legal action in the European General of hydrocarbons in the offshore Arctic. That neither Court in 2010. The letter from the President of seems likely to be achieved during Canada’s chair- the European Commission referenced above was manship is disappointing, particularly to those who not, as might be expected, to the Arctic Council imagined that Canada could persuade the Arctic but to Prime Minister Harper, revealing, it would states to embrace these initiatives. This prompts an appear, that Canada alone among the Arctic obvious question: What will be achieved in line with states objected to the EU being awarded observer Canada’s Arctic Council theme, “Development for status. While Canada has not released this letter, the People of the North”? the word in the corridors of the Arctic Council The likely answer to this question is promotion is that the European Commission is making an of business through the proposed Circumpolar Busi- offer related to importation of seal products to ness Network. This may be a worthwhile objective, mollify Canada’s objections in order that it may be but it surely does not require the attention of the formally awarded observer status. The timing of Arctic Council. If business, particularly “big” busi- this offer is intriguing, for in May 2013 Canada and ness, believes it needs a circumpolar network it is the EU were negotiating a broad-based free trade more than capable of establishing one without the agreement in which importation of seal products assistance of the Arctic states operating through the can only have been a very minor component. Council. In recent years the Arctic Council has be- The Permanent Participants have trenchant but come an acknowledged forum within which Arctic differing views as to the advisability of admitting the states can negotiate international laws, rules and EU to the Council. They were not permitted to at- procedures to ensure that development in the region tend the face to face debates among Senior Arctic accords with long-standing principles of environ- Officials that preceded the Kiruna meeting, or the mental and social sustainability. The Council should “private” meeting of ministers at which this issue remain committed to this role even as it becomes was “resolved”. As a result of the time taken to de- more business friendly. ◉ bate the observer applications by non-Arctic states and the EU, ministers deferred consideration of ap- Terry Fenge is an Ottawa-based consultant. From 1996 to plications by seven non-governmental organizations 2006 he was Strategic Counsel to the Chair of the Inuit Cir- for observer status. cumpolar Conference (now Council), a Permanent Participant As outlined above, Canada proposed an ex- to the Arctic Council, and from 2006 to date has advised pansive policy agenda for the Arctic Council in the Arctic Athabaskan Council which also enjoys Permanent the months preceding the Kiruna meeting. In do- Participant status. ing so Canada drew upon a February 2013 statement by environment ministers of all Arctic states which urged the Arctic Council to commit to ne-

46 Northern Public Affairs, September 2013 DENMARK (GREENLAND) Photo credit: Peter Lovstrom (creative commons) (creative Lovstrom Peter credit: Photo

A view of Nuuk, Greenland, 2008. ARCTIC COUNCIL Yukon & the Arctic Council

Hon. Currie Dixon

anada is assuming the Chair of the Arctic the past decade, exploration for those various deposits C Council at a pivotal time for the Canadian has brought over $1.3 billion in investment to the ter- North and for the entire Arctic region. Interna- ritory. Furthermore, in the past six years, Yukon has tional attention has never been more focused on seen three hard-rock mines brought into production, the Circumpolar North, and the Arctic Council is and the forecast value of the mineral production this a well-suited instrument for facilitating international year is between $550-600 million. discussions on a range of matters of great impor- Beyond mineral resources, Yukon also holds tance to all, but most importantly to Northerners considerable natural gas potential estimated at 20 themselves. Prime Minister Stephen Harper’s ap- trillion cubic feet and oil potential estimated at 900 pointment of Minister Leona Aglukkaq as Canada’s million barrels. The economic potential of our tim- lead makes her the first Inuk person to hold the posi- ber resources is considerable as well, but is threat- tion, and was a decision that has been welcomed by ened by beetle infestation and forest fire. Northerners in Canada and abroad. While Northern jurisdictions are usually thought Under Aglukkaq’s lead, Canada has identified of as remote, Yukon is actually well-positioned and the overarching theme of its chairmanship as De- well-connected. Yukon has a modern, all-weather veloping for the People of the North. Additionally, three road network and is the land bridge between Alas- sub-themes have been identified: Responsible Arc- ka and southern Canada and ultimately the rest of tic Resource Development; Sustainable Circumpo- North America. Our strong relationship with our lar Communities; and Safe Arctic Shipping. These neighbours in the State of Alaska provides access to themes resonate with those of us who live in the two deep-water, ice-free year round ports in Skagway North, especially with Yukoners. and Haines. Interestingly, the distance between Skag- way and most key Asian market ports is considerably ◉◉◉ shorter than other North American ports. This provides a significant competitive advantage for Yukon. Responsible Arctic Resource Development What is arguably the most important feature of natural resource development in Yukon is the Natural resource development is a keystone of Yu- role played by Yukon First Nations. Of 14 Yukon kon’s economy. Mining and mineral exploration First Nations, 11 have modern comprehensive land have taken the lead role throughout Yukon’s history, claims agreements and each of those has signed but oil and gas, renewable energy, and forest-based commensurate self-government agreements. With- industries have all contributed to the growth and de- out a doubt, First Nations are partners and key play- velopment of our private sector economy. We envi- ers in the development of Yukon’s economy and are sion these various forms of natural resource devel- increasingly pursuing business and economic development continuing to shape the economic future of opment initiatives. First Nation development corpo- Yukon and for this there are several reasons. rations, businesses and entrepreneurs are well-posi- First of all, like the rest of the Circumpolar and tioned to generate opportunities and wealth for their Canadian North, Yukon is well-endowed with natural citizens, communities and all Yukoners. resources that are in demand throughout the world. Yukon First Nations also play key roles in the For both historic and contemporary reasons, gold is management and assessment of natural resource perhaps the best-known Yukon resource and certain- projects. Natural resources on settlement lands are ly remains of great interest. Yukon boasts significant owned outright by First Nations and thus they ac- placer and hard-rock gold deposits and has been a crue royalties and taxes as a result of development gold producer for over a century. However Yukon is of those resources. Yukon’s unique environmental also blessed with a wealth of other minerals, including and socio-economic assessment process also pro- over 80 defined mineral deposits of copper, lead, zinc, vides guaranteed opportunity for input from First tungsten, molybdenum, uranium, silver and iron. In Nation governments as well as the public.

48 Northern Public Affairs, September 2013 Photo credit: Yukon Government. Yukon Photo credit:

The Honourable Currie Dixon. Finally, unlike other jurisdictions in Northern Asia and German-speaking Europe. Visitors expe- Canada, Yukon controls and manages our own nat- rience the vast open spaces, breathtaking scenery, ural resources as a result of that authority being de- heritage and culture. In both summer and winter, volved from Canada (although the Northwest Terri- visitors can experience world-class outdoor adven- tories is in the negotiating process). This means that tures, festivals and events. Yukon lands, waters, and resources fall under the The knowledge sector is also strong in Yukon management regime of the territorial government and has been identified as an area of considerable and the responsibility and benefits rest with Yukon- growth potential. Information technology firms, ers. Premier Darrell Pasloski summed it up quite graphic designers, artists, animators, and inter- nicely in a letter to the Globe and Mail this March net-based companies involved with new media tech- when he said, “For Yukon, devolution has really nologies are proving Yukon is a prime location for meant evolution, bringing an autonomy and degree the knowledge-based sector. We have developed the of self-determination that has helped us build one Yukon Research Centre, under the aegis of Yukon of the strongest economies in the country, lead in College, as a hub for Northern research, innovation, land-claims implementation and make meaningful and technology industries and the knowledge sector contributions to the nation.” in general. While research and innovation in the North provides important economic benefits, there ◉◉◉ are also additional benefits associated with improving our scientific understanding of our region. Sustainable Circumpolar Communities Global climate change is affecting Northern regions and communities far more acutely than most In order to ensure the benefits of natural resource others throughout the world. These changes affect development rest with those who live here, it has not only our climate and weather, but also our build- been a priority of the Yukon government to improve ings and infrastructure, and more generally, our way the sustainability of Yukon communities. This in- of life. Adapting to these changes is a tremendous cludes strengthening and diversifying our economy challenge that is shared by all Northern and Arctic to realize the maximum benefit of outside invest- regions. Yukon has made great strides in this respect, ment in the North, and improving our resiliency to and we look forward to sharing some of our experi- adapt to our changing environment. ence, scientific knowledge gathered through research, Natural resource development has been the and innovative technologies developed here in the backbone of Yukon’s economy for most of its his- North. Much of this work has been done in collabora- tory. Like many other Northern regions, this depen- tion with our neighbours in the Northwest Territories dency can result in vulnerability to economic cycles. and Nunavut through our Pan-Territorial Adaptation To flatten some of that economic pattern, ween- Strategy. The strategy acknowledges that the North courage the development of capacity throughout needs to build on climate change adaptation knowl- the mining supply chain to maximize the impact edge and harness more effective adaptation strategies of investment. Over the past several years, we have for immediate and long-term solutions. seen growth in the service and supply industries that Yukon recognizes that circumpolar communi- helps keep mineral investment in the territory rather ties need to be sustainable economically as well as than flowing south. Preparation laboratories, drilling environmentally, and have made this a priority of companies, environmental and engineering consult- our government. We are pleased that Canada has ing firms, and other service and supply companies chosen this as a sub-theme for its time as Chair of have all established offices in the territory. This type the Arctic Council. of ‘spin-off ’ is critical to improving the economic sustainability of resource development. ◉◉◉ As important as resource development is, di- versification beyond that sector is essential tosus- Safe Arctic Shipping tainable development. The Yukon government has identified a number of strategic areas that are Although Yukon has only a small Northern coast- non-cyclical or even counter-cyclical to balance line compared to our other North American neigh- our economic development. The most prominent bours, the protection and safe use of our Northern of these is tourism. Yukon enjoys a robust tourism waters is of great importance to Yukoners. We have industry focused on highway traffic between Alaska already begun to experience increased activity at our and the lower 48 states, cruise-ship passengers in- Northernmost Territorial Park, Herschel Island — bound from Alaskan ports, and fly-in tourists from Qikiqtaryuk. While we see potential benefit of off- 50 Northern Public Affairs, September 2013 Photo credit: Arthur D. Chapman and Audrey commons) Bendus (creative Arthur D. Photo credit: shore resource development and Arctic tourism, we ing with and supporting Canada as it takes on the look forward to engaging with the Arctic Council on role of Chair of the Arctic Council. The theme and how best these activities may proceed. sub-themes identified certainly reflect the direction The Arctic Council’s Guidelines for Arctic tour- Yukon has taken with regard to the development of ism and cruise ship operations have the potential our own economy and the development of healthy to directly impact Yukon’s tourism sector and are communities in our territory. As the North increas- therefore an important component of this year’s ingly becomes the focus of international attention, theme for the territory. Likewise the work done by investment, and activity, these endeavours will the Arctic Council regarding emergency prepared- become ever-more important. We look forward to ness and response will be of great interest to Yukon. sharing our experience through the themes identi- While the importance of this theme is less ob- fied by Canada over the next two years.◉ vious than the two above, Yukon sees great opportunity and potential in Arctic shipping and supports The Honourable Currie Dixon is Yukon Minister of Econom- Canada’s decision to focus the attention of the Arc- ic Development and Environment. He represents Copperbelt tic Council on this issue. North in the Yukon Legislative Assembly. For our part, Yukon looks forward to work-

A view of the Stewart River near Mayo, Yukon, 2009. ARCTIC COUNCIL Norway and the Arctic: The importance of knowledge for sustainable development Mona Elisabeth Brøther

ike Canada, Norway is a country with a strong in 1968, is the largest educational institution in the L Northern identity. A significant part of our North. It is also the Northernmost university in the population lives north of the Arctic Circle. As the world. In 2011, Northern Norway acquired its sec- name of our country indicates, the Norwegian coast ond university, the University of Nordland. In addi- has been the gateway to the High North of Europe tion, there are university colleges in Finnmark and since time immemorial. For centuries, the rich fish- Narvik, and a Saami University College in Kauto- eries outside Lofoten and in the Barents Sea were keino. To ensure quality and critical mass in educa- the main basis for prosperity under otherwise hard tion and research at these institutions, the Norwe- climatic conditions. However, the climate change gian government has steadily increased the number and increased activity are changing the image of the of students, and has earmarked research funding for region. Diminishing sea ice makes possible increased institutions in the North. maritime activity around the Arctic, putting Norway strategically on a new sea route between Asia and ◉◉◉ Europe. The dynamic developments in the Arctic are not A region rich in resources only opening up new opportunities, but are at the same time creating challenges for the environment Harvesting the riches of the sea is still of crucial im- and for the safety and security of the people living portance for the communities along the coast. Nor- there. We can only tackle these challenges by having way has built up a fisheries management system based access to current, high quality information that can on scientific advice, and, through a successful cooper- help us predict and respond to development trends. ation with Russia, has put an end to pirate fishing. This is the reason why ‘knowledge’ is one of Oil and gas is changing the North. The industry the pillars of Norwegian policy for the High North. has provided new types of employment and has had Since the first High North strategy paper in 2006, significant ripple effects on the communities in the the Norwegian government has systematically pro- region. The petroleum activity is now at its highest moted the development of knowledge on the North level ever, and, thanks to the agreement with Rus- by funding research and strengthening infrastruc- sia on the delimitation line in the Barents Sea, new ture at universities, university colleges, and other fields are currently being studied. However, before knowledge institutions. any licenses are issued, an environmental assessment has to be completed and subjected to political scru- ◉◉◉ tiny. Norway wants to be in the forefront of developing strong environmental standards for the oil and Norway’s High North Strategy gas industry. The government has recently decided to establish a research center for petroleum activities The overall objective of the High North strategy is in the North. to provide a framework for increased value creation Increased maritime activity poses both challenges in the High North. Its focus is on the people living and opportunities. Recently, a government-appointed in the High North, and on maintaining modern and working group presented their recommendations on prosperous communities far from the mainstay of Eu- how Norway should work nationally and internation- rope. The Northernmost regions of Norway are still ally to ensure effective, safe, and secure handling of threatened by emigration, an aging population, and increased maritime traffic. The work by the Interna- lower education levels than the rest of the country. tional Maritime Organization (IMO) on Arctic ship- Norway has systematically built a network of ping standards is key, but Norway also needs to build universities and university colleges in Northern Nor- up its own infrastructure to regulate and monitor way, which has filled a crucial role in developing traffic. Competence building and education is also an the region. The University of Tromsø, established integral part of Norway’s policies in this sector.

52 Northern Public Affairs, September 2013 Onshore, there are also possibilities that need Norway’s bilateral cooperation with Russia. to be explored. The government has recently com- It is important to ensure that economic develop- pleted a strategy to develop the mining and mineral ment in areas with Indigenous populations are un- extraction sector. In addition, there are also several dertaken in a balanced and environmentally sustain- ongoing initiatives to stimulate the tourism sector able way through consultations between all parties, and to promote innovation in general. Cross-bor- and that new employment opportunities can also be der cooperation and development of regional infra- accessible for Indigenous persons. structure is important to develop the private sector. ◉◉◉ ◉◉◉ Climate and environment Indigenous peoples The work to resolve global climate and environmen- Norway is home to the largest population of the tal challenges is an important aspect of Norway’s Saami speaking peoples of Scandinavia and the foreign policy. The High North is a particularly high Kola Peninsula. The preservation and development priority and Norway wants to be a leader in envi- of Saami culture and society is a priority in Nor- ronmental sustainability in the North. Economic de- way’s Arctic policies. Important milestones in Nor- velopment in the North must be achieved in a way way-Saami relations include: the establishment of that brings into account the environment and the the Saami Parliament and establishment of Saami changing climate. language educational institutions up to the univer- One of the Norwegian government’s most im- sity college level. The government consults regular- portant initiatives to increase our knowledge about ly with the Saami Parliament on High North poli- the changing climate in the North is the Fram Cen- cies and supports Saami participation in the Arctic tre in Tromsø. The centre opened in 2010 and is Council and the Euro-Barents cooperation, as well already an internationally renowned research centre as in the international cooperation between reindeer for climate and environmental research. It compris- herders. Indigenous issues are an important part of es nineteen different institutions, cooperating on five

Her Excellency Mona Elisabeth Brøther, Norwegian Ambassador to Canada. focus areas (Arctic Ocean, Terrestrial, Hazardous tional Cooperation in Education (SIU). substances, Ocean acidification, Fjord and coast). SIU also administers a programme on behalf of At the heart of the Centre is the Norwegian Polar the Ministry of Foreign Affairs known as the Fellow- Institute, with its research centre for Ice, Climate ship Programme for Studies in the High North. This and Ecosystems (ICE). ICE is important for map- program offers scholarships to students from the US, ping and monitoring the melting ice in the Arctic. Canada, and Russia who are enrolled in an institu- The Ministry of Environment recently announced tion in Northern Norway as part of their higher ed- the opening of a new research centre on the Arctic ucation. The goal of the Fellowship Programme is to environment as part of the Fram Centre. contribute to increased academic collaboration and Norway’s Northernmost territory, Svalbard, has student mobility in the High North. become an important arena for international cooperation on research and education on the High ◉◉◉ North. Its geographic location offers excellent opportunities for research on Arctic conditions. Nor- Norway, a predictable and active partner in way has made significant investments in the research the Arctic infrastructure on the Archipelago. Every year the capacity to host students has increased at the Uni- Norway is a resourceful Arctic nation that aims to versity Centre on Svalbard (UNIS). maintain its sovereignty in the North in a reliable Svalbard has become an important internation- and consistent. UNCLOS, United Nation Con- al science hub. Ten nations have established research vention on the Law of the Sea, is the basis for our stations in Ny-Ålesund, including emerging powers policies, and Norway will continue working for its such as China and India. In addition to this, half of implementation and for the development and im- the students at UNIS are foreign nationals. Norway plementation of new international standards for the has also initiated the establishment of SIOS - Sval- shipping industry in the IMO Polar Code. Norway bard Integrated Arctic Earth Observing System, places high priority on cooperation with the other which is now in its preparatory phase. Twenty coun- Arctic nations in the Arctic Council and the Eu- tries are cooperating to establish a system that will ro-Barents Cooperation. For us, cooperation with combine data from all other observation systems for Russia is of particular interest. We share borders marine, ice, atmospheric and terrestrial conditions. both at land and at sea, and have common interests in developing the region in a sustainable manner for ◉◉◉ the benefit of our population in the North. Canada and Norway share the same objective: Scientific cooperation between Norway and to develop the Northern parts of our countries in Canada a sustainable manner for the benefit of the people who live there, and to protect the rights and culture A report by Science-Metrix Inc. in Montréal1 shows of our Indigenous populations. As Ambassador to that Norway and Canada’s research profiles have Canada, I hope to further develop and strengthen much in common, with mutually strong specializa- Norway’s cooperation with Canada on all issues re- tions in Arctic research, aquaculture and fisheries, lated to the Arctic. As Canada takes over the Chair and climate research. The report notes that Norway of the Arctic Council, Norway will stand ready to and Canada can benefit from collaborating in the provide its support and contribute in the construc- fields of energy, health and information and com- tive exchange of ideas and best practices for man- munications technology (ICT). Aboriginal studies aging one of the most fragile parts of our planet. ◉ are also an area of mutual interest. Overall, we do see that there is extensive ongoing collaboration be- Her Excellency Mona Elisabeth Brøther is the Norwegian tween Norwegian and Canadian researchers. Meas- Ambassador to Canada. ured by co-publication, collaboration has more than doubled between 2003 and 2010. Footnote The Norwegian Ministry of Education and Re- 1 Michelle Picard-Aitken, Grégoire Coté, and Éric search has a specific North America Strategy that Archambault, Scientific Production of Norway and aims to further stimulate cooperation between Nor- Collaboration with the US, Canada and China, Select way and Canada/USA. The strategy is supported Bibliometric Indicators, Report prepared by Scien- by a financial contribution of approximately $1.7 ce-Metrix Inc for Forskningsradet — The Resear- million CAD per year for four years. The fund is ch Council of Norway (July 2011). administrated by the Norwegian Centre for Interna- 54 Northern Public Affairs, September 2013 ARCTIC COUNCIL Bold steps needed to support Indigenous participation at the Arctic Council Jim Gamble

or the Indigenous people of the circumpolar are about 3,000 westward transits each year pass- FNorth, the Arctic Council represents an unprec- ing within 75 miles of the Aleutian shores, and an edented opportunity to influence policy and have a equal number of eastward transits passing within role in directing research, monitoring, and assessment 200 miles. This enormous amount of traffic com- activities in the Arctic. However, the ability of Indig- bined with the region’s notoriously bad weather has enous people to influence the work of the Council resulted in numerous accidents and near misses over is tied directly to the capacity of Indigenous organi- the years. In 2004, a freighter named the Selendang zations to participate fully in its activities. Under the Ayu lost power and ran aground on the Northern Canadian chairmanship, the Council must not be re- shore of Unalaska Island, home to the communi- luctant to recommend bold initiatives to support ac- ty of Dutch Harbor and one of the largest fishing tive Indigenous participation in Arctic Council affairs, fleets in the world. The ship broke apart in a storm, nor should it hesitate to take determined measures to dumping 328,000 gallons of heavy fuel and other improve the lives of the people of the North. petroleum products in a disaster second only to the The Arctic Council is an intergovernmental fo- wreck of the Exxon Valdez in severity. rum consisting of the eight circumpolar countries. Shipping in the region is about to get busier. As Within the Council, this Indigenous influence is car- sea ice retreats and ice free summers become a re- ried out by the Permanent Participant organizations ality, the Northern sea route between Northern Eu- or PPs. In 1996, the Inuit Circumpolar Council rope and Asia will see more traffic, posing additional (ICC), the Russian Association of Indigenous Peo- risks to coastal peoples. Unfortunately, since the for- ples of the North (RAIPON) and the Saami Council eign-flagged vessels traveling this route are entitled to were the first PPs recognized in the Ottawa Declara- “innocent passage” through the Aleutian Islands, they tion, the founding document of the Arctic Council. are not bound by the regulations of the U.S. Oil Pol- Two years later, the Aleut International Association lution Act of 1990 (OPA 90) or other Federal or State (AIA) became the fourth Permanent Participant, of Alaska regulations. This compounds the risks indi- and two years after that the final two PPs — the cated by studies pointing out that the equipment and Arctic Athabaskan Council (AAC) and the Gwich’in materials needed to assist a large ship in trouble, or to Council International (GCI) — joined the Council. respond to a major release of hazardous material, are AIA represents the Aleut people of the United not consistently available in the area.1 States (the Aleutian and Pribilof Islands of Alaska) This is why the shipping-related work of the Arc- and the Russian Federation (the Commander Is- tic Council has been particularly important to the lands). The Aleuts have inhabited their island homes Aleut people. In 2009 the Arctic Council released for at least 8,000 years, but since first contact in 1741 the Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment (AMSA), the times have been turbulent. Hostility, disease, which provides seventeen recommendations aimed forced relocation, war, and nuclear testing on their at reducing impacts from marine shipping at cur- lands have all tested the resilience and adaptability of rent and potentially increased levels of future activ- the Aleut People. It is fitting then that AIA has been ity.2These recommendations include support for the involved in projects with the Arctic Council includ- development of a Polar Code for ships operating in ing The Arctic Resiliency Report and Adaptation Actions for Arctic waters, surveys of Indigenous marine use to a Changing Arctic, which address the challenges facing fill knowledge gaps about subsistence use and to as- Arctic peoples in a period of unparalleled change. sess the impacts from Arctic shipping on such activ- The Arctic Council’s work on marine shipping ities, and identification of areas of heightened eco- has yielded positive results for the region’s Indige- logical and cultural significance in light of changing nous peoples. As an island people, the Aleuts have climate conditions and increasing multiple marine deep ties with the marine environment and depend uses. Successful implementation of these recom- on the ocean as a major source of subsistence. Due mendations would provide important safeguards, to geographic coincidence they also live on one especially as shipping increases in the region. of the busiest shipping routes in the world. There In the past, the Arctic Council has been a body Northern Public Affairs, September 2013 55 Photo credit: NASA (creative commons).

whose work influences policy. Now the Council is organization and some fairly bold initiatives, Sweden becoming a forum for policy-making. The Council managed to achieve beyond what was expected. has negotiated legally binding agreements on cross Now the pressure is on the Canadian chairman- border search and rescue procedures (May 2011) ship. To its credit, Canada has come forward with and oil pollution preparedness and response (May some bold initiatives of its own including a task force 2013). Both of these agreements are based on rec- to examine marine oil pollution prevention, another ommendations made in the AMSA report. The ne- task force to potentially produce an instrument on gotiation of legally binding agreements between the the reduction of the emission of short lived climate Arctic states under the auspices of the Arctic Coun- pollutants (black carbon and methane), and the for- cil ensures that Indigenous voices will be heard via mation of a circumpolar business forum. These ini- the Permanent Participants. Negotiations among tiatives began as Arctic Council Initiatives often do, states outside the Council do not mandate any such with rather forceful language directing the Council Indigenous presence. towards a specific goal. For political reasons, this lan- The level of international focus on the Arc- guage was toned down during the negotiation of the tic Council has been at an all-time high in the lead final text of the Kiruna Declaration and the accom- up to the start of the new Canadian chairmanship. panying Senior Arctic Officials Report to Ministers. This is partly because of the increased attention on Of the initiatives now moving forward under the the Arctic in general, but also because the preceding Canadian chairmanship, the new task force on short Swedish chairmanship was able to achieve significant lived climate pollutants is a good example of a strong advances despite relatively low expectations. Tradi- initiative that was weakened during the negotiating tionally the Swedish government has not been the process. In the last two years, a previous task force most actively engaged of the eight Arctic states in the on short lived climate forcers produced an excellent work of the Council. However, through very efficient report which incorporated the very latest in scientific

Aleutian Islands, Alaska, seen from space. Photo captured by the Terra satellite, 2010. understanding of how black carbon, methane, and represent each Arctic State and Permanent Partici- tropospheric ozone affect the climate. This report rec- pant, which in turn depends on the political will of ommended (among other things) that the Arctic states the states and PPs. With the right individuals and a work towards reducing black carbon emissions, which willingness to move forward, significant accomplish- are linked to climate impacts such as accelerated ice ments can still be made. and snow melt and increased temperatures.3 Black Looking back on the Kiruna Ministerial meeting, carbon cycles out of the atmosphere very quickly, so one source of frustration was the high level of focus reductions in emissions today could have a significant on the observer issue. Early on, AIA developed the impact in just few months or years. Arctic states could opinion that any state or organization who met the contribute substantially to mitigation efforts because basic criteria for admittance established by the Nuuk the affect of black carbon is largely based on the Declaration should be accepted. Unfortunately, the source’s proximity to the Arctic. Early drafts of the amount of attention placed on this issue by the me- Kiruna Declaration directed the Task Force to pro- dia may have distracted from the release of extremely pose specific steps to achieve black carbon emission significant scientific reports produced by the Council. reductions, with a view toward developing an instru- Some of these reports were many years in the mak- ment or other arrangement. The final text reads sim- ing and were initiated long before the Swedish chair- ply that the Task Force is to “develop arrangements manship began. That the Arctic Ocean Acidification on actions to achieve enhanced black carbon and Assessment, the Arctic Biodiversity Assessment and methane emission reductions in the Arctic” and re- other significant Kiruna deliverables received so little port at the next Ministerial meeting.4 attention was truly unfortunate. Some might argue that an emissions reduction Despite these challenges, the Arctic Council re- agreement is not really necessary. All Arctic states mains the preeminent international forum for dia- (except perhaps the Russian Federation) already have logue and action on Arctic issues, and the only fo- measures in place to reduce black carbon emissions, rum to include the voices of the Indigenous Peoples while some say reductions by the Arctic states may of the Arctic in a meaningful way. The Permanent only amount to the proverbial “drop in the bucket” Participants make important contributions in the globally. However, for AIA the point of an emissions face of limited resources, which is why the pending agreement is two-fold: to reduce emissions, and to examination by the Council’s Senior Arctic Officials show leadership on the world stage. After all, if the of ways to strengthen how the work of the Council Arctic states themselves are unwilling to take bold is carried out, including approaches to support the measures to protect the Arctic, how can we expect active participation of the PPs, is so important. We non-Arctic nations to step up to the challenge? look forward to the results of this review, which will Another Canadian initiative that was weakened be reported to the Ministers at the end of the Cana- during the negotiating process was the task force to dian chairmanship. ◉ develop an action plan to prevent marine oil pollution. Early drafts of the language establishing this Jim Gamble is Executive Director of Aleut International task force would have directed it to pursue an in- Association. ternational instrument on prevention, but final language merely directs it to develop an action plan or Footnotes other arrangement on oil pollution prevention. The 1 ERM-West, Inc. & Det Norske Veritas (U.S.A.), Inc. (DNV) Arctic Council has extensively studied and docu- (2011). Aleutian Islands Risk Assessment, Phase A -Prelimi- nary Risk Assessment, TASK 6 & 7: Risk Reduction Options mented best practices for oil pollution prevention, Evaluation Report. URL: http://www.aleutiansriskassess- and we feel that the background work is in place ment.com/documents/2011_7_7_RROEvalReport_FINAL- for a legally binding agreement between the Arctic wCovLtr.pdf. Accessed August 1, 2013 2 Arctic Council (2009). Arctic Marine Shipping Assess- States. Again, this would provide important protec- ment 2009 Report. URL: http://pame.is/images/stories/ tion and show leadership globally in an area which is AMSA_2009_Report/AMSA_2009_Report_2nd_print.pdf. extremely important to the Aleut people. Accessed August 1, 2013. While AIA is disappointed by the final language 3 United States Environmental Protection Agency (2013). Effects of Black Carbon. URL: http://epa.gov/blackcarbon/ of this initiative, the possibility of a meaningful step effects.html. Accessed July 20, 2013. forward still exists. In effect, the new language ac- 4 Arctic Council (2013). Kiruna Declaration. URL: http:// cepts a wider range of outcomes, but the strongest www.arctic-council.org/index.php/en/document-archive/cat- of those, such as a binding circumpolar agreement, egory/425-main-documents-from-kiruna-ministerial-meeting. Accessed July 20, 2013 is still possible. This means that what these new initiatives achieve depends largely on who is named to

Northern Public Affairs, September 2013 57 ARCTIC COUNCIL Canada, circumpolar security, & the Arctic Council Wilfrid Greaves

s Canada assumes the chair of the Arctic Coun- for issues of regional security. Though the Ottawa Dec- A cil for the second time in May 2013, many ob- laration prohibits it from considering issues of military servers have reflected on the prospects for Canada’s security, the Arctic Council is already playing a role circumpolar leadership over the coming two years. in circumpolar security through its contributions to Though the Arctic is experiencing tremendous po- planning and coordinating regional search and rescue litical, economic, social, and ecological transforma- (SAR) operations. In this respect, the door has already tion, expectations of Canada’s chairmanship are been opened for the Arctic Council to play a greater muted. Although Canada is a key founding member role in the management, coordination, and integra- of the Council, and a major past proponent of its tion of the military policy and materiel required for core mandate to promote environmental sustain- the search and rescue activities of circumpolar states. ability and Indigenous participation in regional gov- Conversely, despite its crucial role in promoting In- ernance, Arctic observers have expressed scepticism digenous governance and advancing and coordinat- that Canada’s term as chair will result in effective ing scientific research of the Arctic, particularly with regional policy coordination, or the kind of leader- respect to the health and environmental impacts of ship that is likely needed for progress on a variety of pollution and climate change, under Canada’s chair- challenging Arctic issues. manship the Council is unlikely to significantly con- On one hand, the problem may be Canada: a fed- tribute to the promotion of regional environmental, eral Government preoccupied with domestic political cultural, and human security. challenges; a governing Conservative ethos sceptical Although Canada was a leader in the concep- of international institutions; a narrow socio-political tual widening of security that occurred in the post- construction of what ‘the Arctic’ means; and a stead- Cold War period, pursuing a holistic conception fast vision of Northern natural resource extraction of regional security that prioritizes protection of that threatens to undermine the founding purpose of the Arctic ecosystem, the health and wellbeing of the Arctic Council to monitor and preserve the fragile Northerners, the cultural integrity of Arctic Indig- Arctic ecosystem, all inspire pessimism at the prospect enous peoples, and mitigating the impacts of hu- of a positive Canadian term as chair. On the other man-caused climate change is incompatible with the hand, the problem may be the Arctic Council itself: Conservative vision of the North as a storehouse of limited by its mandate to ‘soft’ policy areas; lacking hydrocarbon and mineral resources waiting to be international legal personality or binding legal au- exploited. Despite its widespread use in academia thority over its members; undermined by state efforts and international policymaking, the Harper Gov- to operate outside its auspices, notably the emergence ernment has banned even the term ‘human security’ of the ‘Arctic 5’ as an ad hoc forum for regional dis- because of its partisan association with the previous cussions; and compromised by member-states reluc- governing Liberals. Thus, despite being nominally tant to include new Observer states from beyond the barred from doing so, the Arctic Council may in- polar region and restrict or control the role of Indig- creasingly contribute to a militarized understanding enous Permanent Participants, one could argue that of Arctic security as it pertains to SAR. And despite such structural and political impediments make it a the Council’s potential to be a valuable forum for troubled vehicle for regional cooperation and policy crafting a comprehensive approach to regional secu- coordination. Given widespread recent attention to, rity, such a role is highly unlikely given the Canadian and contestation of, questions of ‘security’ in the cir- government’s strident opposition to linking security cumpolar region — especially in light of the exclusion and the environment because of the implications for of “matters related to military security” from the Arc- its extractive resource policy agenda. tic Council’s mandate1 — what are the implications Since the establishment of the Arctic Council in for circumpolar security of Canada’s term as chair of 1996, Arctic states and leaders have repeatedly em- the Arctic Council? phasized that the Council does not ‘do’ security is- I suggest that Canada’s chairmanship of the Arc- sues. Indeed, excluding security from the Council’s tic Council is likely to result in something of a paradox mandate was a critical component in the initial deci-

58 Northern Public Affairs, September 2013 sions of the United States and Russia to join, as nei- ticularly appropriate given the exponential increase ther state was prepared to compromise its sovereignty in commercial cruise ship traffic in the Arctic- re by surrendering decision-making power over core gion in the past decade. The collective emphasis on national security interests to a nascent international search and rescue marks an important milestone in institution. Despite this, over its existence the Council Arctic cooperation, but may also suggest a broader has expanded its role until the present when, despite shift in the role and scope of responsibility afforded its nominal prohibition, it has assumed a key coordi- the Arctic Council. As one analyst notes: “One area nating function in a policy realm that necessitates the that was thought to be verboten was that of matters deployment of military resources: search and rescue. related to military security. However, given that the In recent years, SAR has emerged as one of the [SAR Agreement] necessitates the coordination of most important and dynamic policy areas in the Arc- the states’ military, coast guard, police, and transport tic region. Motivated by growth in maritime traffic services for rescue purposes, hard security may be as a result of melting summer sea ice and greater entering into the agenda by stealth.”2 navigability of Arctic waters, as well as too-frequent During its upcoming term as chair, Canada is aircraft accidents often resulting from limited or com- likely to maintain search and rescue as a high prior- promised infrastructure and challenging weather con- ity for the Council. Canada stands to benefit greatly ditions, search and rescue has become an increasing from SAR cooperation given the massive size of its concern for Canada and other Arctic states. Building Arctic territory and its limited response capabilities. on a recent history of SAR cooperation between Arc- Moreover, effective SAR response has become an im- tic states, notably between Russia and Norway in the portant part of demonstrating functional sovereignty Barents Sea, a Task Force on Arctic Search and Res- over the Canadian Arctic, a recurring preoccupation cue was mandated by the Arctic Council’s Tromsø for successive federal governments keen to bolster sov- Declaration in April 2009. The Task Force led to ereignty claims in the face of perceived challenges to the May 2011 signing of the Agreement on Cooperation Canada’s Arctic territory. Since ‘sovereignty’ functions on Aeronautical and Maritime Search and Rescue in the Arc- as a general rhetorical substitute for ‘security’ within tic during the Arctic Council Ministerial Meeting in Canadian Arctic policy, and since SAR is playing an Nuuk, Greenland. The first binding agreement signed increasing role in underpinning Canada’s Arctic sov- under the auspices of the Arctic Council, and the first ereignty claims, the Arctic Council’s coordination of binding legal instrument for the region entered into SAR can be understood to contribute meaningfully by all eight Arctic states, the Agreement mandates to the security interests of the Canadian state. Politi- the parties to: share information about the search and cal pressure to invest further in its SAR capabilities is rescue capabilities and positioning of each state party; emerging domestically as well, given the findings in a provide each other with aid in cases where national recent report by Canada’s Auditor General. Though capabilities are unable to adequately respond to a it concluded that Canada’s current SAR capabilities SAR situation; and conduct joint exercises to improve were adequate, the report warned that “significant interoperability and facilitate greater cooperation be- improvements are needed if [the Canadian Forces tween the military and civilian response agencies of and Canadian Coast Guard] are to continue to ad- each Arctic state. Though modest in its scope, upon equately respond and provide the necessary person- its adoption the SAR Agreement was hailed as au- nel, equipment, and information systems to deliver guring a new era of Arctic regional cooperation, and SAR activities effectively.”3 For these reasons, Canada forms one of the most substantive achievements of is likely to remain a proponent of Arctic search and the Arctic Council to date. rescue cooperation, and the de facto expansion of the In compliance with the Agreement, over 80 Arctic Council’s mandate into areas traditionally as- participants representing the militaries and SAR au- sociated with security that results. thorities of the Arctic states participated in the Arctic The same is unlikely to be true for an expansion Council’s first tabletop SAR exercise in Whitehorse of the Arctic Council’s activities into areas consistent in October 2011. The first live SAR exercise, “SAR- with a widened, post-Cold War understanding of se- EX 2012”, was held off the east coast of Greenland curity, particularly the areas of environmental and in September 2012, and involved military and ci- human security. The conceptual widening of security vilian personnel, government officials, fixed-wing has been a major scholarly and applied development aircraft, helicopters, and maritime vessels from all in recent decades, amounting to a broad recognition Arctic states except Sweden and Finland. The emer- that questions of ‘security’ should not be exclusively gency scenario, a sinking cruise ship, reflected the focused upon sovereign states and their interests, or SAR challenges of a changing Arctic, and was par- upon the threat and use of military force. Instead, hu-

Northern Public Affairs, September 2013 59 man beings are understood as experiencing in/secu- unpredictability in weather and climate reduce the rity at different levels of aggregation — including the availability and accessibility of traditional foods. local, regional, national, and global levels — depend- Reduced quality or corrupted food sources such as ing upon the nature of the threat, and from a variety diseased fish, dried up berries, and unhealthy cari- of different sources, such as threats in the physical, bou have already been observed, but given the high- economic, societal, and environmental sectors of hu- er cost and lesser nutritional benefit of packaged man life. Though not without its critics, during the foods in Northern communities, country foods are tenure of Liberal Foreign Minister Lloyd Axworthy economically impossible for many Northerners to Canada was a leading proponent of widening secu- replace, forcing many to rely upon contaminated or rity under the so-called ‘human security agenda’, a compromised country foods. Declining quality and policy framework that persisted well into the Con- availability of country foods also contribute to the servative Government’s approach to, among other erosion of Indigenous cultural practices, since “to issues, ongoing Canadian involvement in the war in hunt, catch, and share these foods is the essence of Afghanistan. At least on paper, Canada has long rec- Inuit culture. Thus, a decline in [country foods]. . . ognized that security extends within and across the threatens not only the dietary requirements of the boundaries of states, and encompasses an array of Inuit, but also their very way of life.”4 Seen in this factors necessary for the maintenance and promotion light, the impacts of climate change suggest a com- of human wellbeing. plex web of current and emerging insecurities that In the context of the Arctic, a widened view of represent profound short- and long-term challenges security highlights the centrality of the natural en- for the Arctic region and its inhabitants. vironment, particularly the unique ecosystem upon Yet despite its historical leadership in the area of which all human activity in the Arctic has been based. human security, and in spite of the demonstrable hu- As this ecosystem transforms due to human-caused man security implications of a changing Arctic en- climate change, it necessarily impacts all aspects of vironment, Canada’s leadership of the Arctic Coun- life in the region. Changes such as increased lake cil is unlikely to meaningfully address these issues. temperatures, thawing permafrost, stress on plant Indeed, it seems likely that Canada’s term as chair and animal populations, melting glaciers and sea will undermine the Council’s role in spearheading ice, and damage to essential infrastructure present scientific research into the effects of Arctic climate significant and growing physical security hazards change, and will only encourage the expansion of to individuals and communities. Researchers have the industrial and extractive processes driving those identified at least nine ways in which climate change changes. The Arctic Council and its Working Groups exacerbates hazards to human health in the Arctic have been leaders in the production of scientific re- and Inuit leaders, such as Sheila Watt-Cloutier, have search into the North and its people, with several of confirmed that harsh and erratic weather conditions their reports and studies — most prominently the combined with “thin ice [are] claiming the lives of Arctic Climate Impact Assessment and the Arctic Human … [Northern] hunters every year.” The warming Development Report — assuming the status of “touch- environment is changing the landscape such that it stone documents” widely employed by policymak- threatens the physical integrity of communities, mil- ers, activists, and scholars around the world.5 Five itary and industrial installations, and vital infrastruc- out of the Council’s six Working Groups focus ex- ture in vulnerable areas across the North. These clusively on issues related to the Arctic environment, hazards are already apparent in damage to critical and the Council’s initial founding built on the 1991 infrastructure such as roads, airstrips, pipelines, and Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy designed to ad- sewage systems as a result of melting permafrost and dress regional environmental challenges in the wake the ensuing destabilization of the very terrain upon of the Cold War. Since its inception, especially giv- which life in the Arctic has been built. en the exclusion of military security from its formal Environmental changes are also contributing to mandate, the work of the Arctic Council has focused the economic and food insecurities of many North- predominantly on understanding and assessing the erners. Country foods remain an important part of changes to the transforming Arctic ecosystem. the regular diet for many Arctic Indigenous persons, Yet it is exactly this commitment to study and with more than half of all meat and fish consumed protect the Arctic environment that Canada has coming from traditional harvesting. However, in a already signalled its intention to move away from warming Arctic thinning sea ice, changing vegeta- during the next two years. When Canada’s Leona tion, invasive species, altered migration patterns Aglukkaq took over as Chairperson during the Arc- for caribou herds, and increased variability and tic Council’s Eighth Ministerial Meeting in Kiruna,

60 Northern Public Affairs, September 2013 Photo credit: Doc Searls (creative commons) (creative Searls Doc credit: Photo

Sweden in May 2013, she clearly indicated that the that are incompatible with resolving our present, federal Government’s Arctic vision places economic and worsening, climate crisis. On numerous dispa- development, primarily non-renewable resource ex- rate policy issues, the Conservative Government traction, as its highest priority. This vision, recently is the most pro-resource extraction government in outlined in detail by Minister Aglukkaq in the pages Canadian history, valuing the economic benefit of of Northern Public Affairs (Fall 2012), is premised upon such activities seemingly no matter what the asso- the acceleration of private sector industrial activity ciated social, cultural, or ecological costs. It is this in the region, including a greater role for corpora- attitude that leads Canada to emphasize issues like tions in Arctic governance, and the need for scien- oil spill prevention and response and the reduction tific research conducted by the Council to enable of black carbon emissions as the central planks of its the commercialization of the circumpolar region. environmental agenda for the Arctic Council. While In various public statements, Minister Aglukkaq has important policy issues, they are wholly dispropor- been clear that the Council’s scientific work must tionate to the challenge climate change poses to the be made more relevant to private industrial and the Arctic, especially insofar as they distract from the Canadian Government’s agenda of Arctic economic fact that developing greater oil and gas extraction in development, stating in an interview that “We talk the Arctic will, by definition, only contribute to the of . . . Canada’s North developing, the Arctic region problem of global reliance upon fossil fuels that is of every country developing. But it’s the private sec- causing the Arctic to warm uncontrollably. tor that’s actually going to develop those regions, not In this respect, the Government of Canada is scientists.”6 One of the first actions taken by Cana- markedly more pro-development than are organi- da as chair was announcing the establishment of a zations representing Indigenous peoples in the Arc- Circumpolar Business Forum that will allow major tic, though there is significant contestation over just corporate actors a greater say in the development how Arctic Indigenous peoples feel about industri- of Arctic resources, primarily the world’s largest oil al development in their homeland. Notwithstand- and gas companies focused upon the extraction of ing Minister Aglukkaq’s claim that “people in the Arctic hydrocarbons. In Canada’s Northern vision, North want development. We want it!”,7 dozens of the Council’s historical focus upon preserving and Northern organizations, including some bodies rep- understanding the Arctic environment through sci- resenting Canadian Arctic Indigenous peoples, have entific inquiry has been clearly subordinated to the signed the “Joint Statement of Indigenous Solidarity priority of using science to enable faster and greater for Arctic Protection” calling for a moratorium on access to the resource base in the Arctic region. Arctic oil drilling. On the other hand, leading Inu- One of the central factors behind this shift is the it groups have roundly rejected this statement as an fundamental tension that exists at the heart of Cana- example of voice-appropriation by Southern-based da’s current approach to the issue of human-caused NGOs that do not speak on their behalf.8 Inuit lead- climate change. Not limited solely to the Arctic, the ers point instead to the Inuit Declaration on Resource De- contradictions and general incoherence of Cana- velopment Principles, which reserves the right of Inuit da’s climate policy have been widely examined, and to benefit from the development of natural resources amount to simultaneously acknowledging the reali- on their traditional territories while stipulating that ty of climate change while rejecting meaningful re- “Inuit and others — through their institutions and ductions in Canada’s greenhouse gas emissions or international instruments — have a shared respon- regulating practices such as hydrocarbon extraction sibility to evaluate the risks and benefits of their ac- Floe edge, Baffin Island, Nunavut, 2007. tions through the prism of global environmental se- themselves to this expansion of the Council’s role curity.”9 The prospect of expanded Arctic resource into the realm of SAR, a development likely to be development places Indigenous peoples in the unen- supported by recent criticism of Canada’s search viable position of demanding that they benefit from and rescue capabilities from the Auditor General. activities which they do not necessarily support, but As climate change opens the polar region to greater which they insist must benefit Northerners if the in- commercial maritime traffic at the same time that it dustrial activity will inevitably occur as the Govern- makes weather patterns and ice flows less predict- ment appears determined to see happen. able, there is a clear need for coordination on SAR Canada has identified as the theme of its chair- activities. manship ‘development for the people of the North,’ But Canada’s consideration for the security impli- and routinely emphasizes the desire of Northern- cations of climate change stops at addressing its effects, ers for development, and the symbolic meaning of rather than tackling its causes. Canada’s vision of the Minister Aglukkaq being the first Indigenous person Arctic’s future as a storehouse of resources to fuel the to chair the Arctic Council. Crucially, however, the appetites of Southern economies is one that necessi- Government’s emphasis upon Northern economic tates environmental damage. The commitment to hy- development as the definitive policy priority of Can- drocarbon development in the North and elsewhere ada’s term as chair appears to be at odds with the in Canada makes it highly unlikely that scientific reviews of many Northerners with respect to the very search into the impacts of climate change in the Arc- issues that constitute ‘Arctic security’. The first Arctic tic will be among Canada’s priorities as chair. Loftier Security Public Opinion Survey, conducted in 2010, sug- goals, such as engaging the Arctic Council as a forum gests that the Government’s view of resource devel- for discussing mitigation and adaptation to climate opment is not strongly shared among Northerners. change, seem even less likely. Canada’s vision of the When asked to list the most pressing Arctic issues, Arctic is one where resource development and private one third (33%) of Northern respondents listed the sector investment trump all other considerations, and environment first, followed by housing and commu- it is this vision that will underpin the next two years nity infrastructure (9%), and the economy, jobs and of Arctic Council business during Canada’s tenure as employment (7%).10 Thus, by a ratio of 3:1 North- chair. When it comes to Arctic security, search and res- erners consider the environment to be the most im- cue may save many lives, but it will not be enough to portant Arctic issue. When prompted with a list of save the Arctic or its inhabitants from the environmen- various dimensions of ‘security’, environmental se- tal and human insecurities caused by climate change. curity was ranked as most important by large major- Ultimately, rather than build on its human security ities of all Canadians, followed, in descending order, legacy, Canada’s determination to ignore the serious- by social, economic, cultural/linguistic, and nation- ness of climate change in pursuit of short-term riches al security. Overall, 91% of Northerners considered seems likely to leave the Arctic a more insecure place environmental security to be important to their defi- for the people of the circumpolar region.◉ nition of security in the Canadian Arctic, compared to 78% who felt the same for economic security. In- Wilfrid Greaves is a PhD Candidate in the Department of sofar as Northern Canadians think in terms of ‘Arc- Political Science at the University of Toronto. tic security’, it seems clear that they place the Arctic environment equal to or above other considerations. Footnotes In view of all this, what then should we expect 1. Declaration on the Establishment of the Arctic Council, para. 1(a) (Ottawa: Canada, 1996). from Canada’s term as chair of the Arctic Council, 2. Andrea Charron, “Canada and the Arctic Council,” Interna- and what are the implications for the Council’s role tional Journal Vol. 67, No. 3 (2012): 774. with respect to ‘Arctic security’? Upon examining 3. Peter Varga, “Auditor General of Canada urges upgrades to Northern search and rescue,” Nunatsiaq Online (May 7, the policy agenda of the Conservative Government 2013). and their stated goals for the Arctic Council the re- 4. ACIA, Impacts of a Warming Climate: Arctic Climate Impact Assess- sult appears to be somewhat paradoxical. In the area ment (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 94. of search and rescue — a field that necessitates the 5. Charron 771. 6. Randy Boswell, ‘Aglukkaq of the Arctic: Can federal minister set a deployment and coordination of military resources vision for international council?’ Montreal Gazette (May 12, 2013). in situations of emergency response — the role of 7. Boswell 2013. the Arctic Council is likely to expand, despite the 8. Nunatsiaq News, “Indigenous Statement Calls for Arctic Oil De- formal exclusion of ‘military security’ from its man- velopment Moratorium,” Nunatsiaq Online (May 14, 2013). 9. ICC, A Circumpolar Inuit Declaration on Resource Development Principles date. With the signing and subsequent implemen- in Inuit Nunaat (Nuuk: Inuit Circumpolar Council, 2011): s. 5.1 tation of the 2011 Search and Rescue Agreement, 10. EKOS, Rethinking the Top of the World: Arctic Security Public Opin- Canada and the other Arctic states have committed ion Survey (Toronto: Walter and Duncan Gordon Foundation 62 Northern Public Affairs, September 2013 ENVIRONMENT Reviewing the review board: Was the Giant Mine environmental assessment a success? Kevin O’Reilly Photo credit: Kevin O’ReillyPhoto credit:

he Mackenzie Valley Environmental Impact adverse environmental impacts. This was a crucial T Review Board released the long-awaited Envi- finding, giving the Board the authority to recom- ronmental Assessment Report on the Giant Mine Remediation mend binding measures to reduce or eliminate these Plan on June 20, 2013.1 The Report is over 200 pages concerns and impacts. The full Board approved the and chronicles the five-year long process. It would be report and recommended an unprecedented 26 fair to say that the Board listened very carefully to what binding measures that must be adopted by anyone the communities had to say and made every effort carrying out the remediation project, and must in- to clearly reflect the concerns and issues they heard. corporated as terms and conditions on any licences The Board adopted virtually all the recommenda- or permits issued by the federal and territorial gov- tions made by Aboriginal governments — including ernment (see further discussion below). There are the Yellowknives Dene First Nation and North Slave also 16 non-binding suggestions in a variety of areas Metis Alliance — the City of Yellowknife, and civ- including: il society organizations, such as Alternatives North. This was a clear victory for the community as not • consultation with the public on design of various one person spoke at the public hearing in favour of project components; the government’s plan. Let’s review the highlights • creation of a memorial at the site; of the Report, next steps and some conclusions. • inclusion of the Giant Mine legacy in school cur- riculum; • development of a policy framework for perpetual ◉◉◉ care of contaminated sites; and • production of guidelines to clarify the conflicting Highlights from the Report roles of the lead federal government department, Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Can- The Board found that there is significant public con- ada. cern with the project and the potential for significant

Giant Mine Remediation Project sign, Yellowknife, Northwest Territories, 2011. Table 1. Measures and Suggestions from Recent NWT Environmental Assessments

Project Date of Number of Subject of Measures Number of Report Measures Suggestions Giant Mine Remediation June 20, 2013 26 • Comprehensive scope of sub- 16 ject area including human health, social licence, funding, project design, water quality and more Avalon Thor Lake (rare July 26, 2013 5 • Water quality 6 earths) • Groundwater monitoring • Wildlife habitat • Wildlife monitoring Gacho K’ue DeBeers July 19, 2013 3 • Caribou protection 3 (diamonds) • Winter road design and monitoring [carried out as an envi- • Cumulative effects monitoring ronmental impact review] and mitigation NICO Fortune Minerals Jan. 25, 2013 13 • Water use and quality 7 (gold, cobalt, copper) • Dust mitigation • Expert review panels and pilot projects for unproven technologies • Pit backfilling • Caribou protection • Cultural values • Socio-economic agreement Prairie Creek Canadian Dec. 8, 2011 0 Not Applicable 3 Zinc (lead, zinc, silver (dissenting opinion recommended 5)

Contrast that with the number and depth of dependent oversight body, including dispute res- measures and suggestions for a number of other re- olution. This agreement would provide a founda- cent mining projects (see Table 1). tion for beginning to build a social licence for the One of the most significant recommendations project, similar to the arrangements already in from the Board was to redefine the scope of the proj- place for the three diamond mines operating in the ect. The federal government proposed a perpetual Northwest Territories. Part of this legally binding care project that would require constant monitoring, environmental agreement will be a requirement care, and maintenance forever. Many of the partici- to create a multi-stakeholder research agency to pants found this unacceptable. The Board concluded facilitate active research on a permanent solution. that the government’s proposal to freeze the underground arsenic forever was really only an “interim The Board further recommended that: solution” and should be redesigned as reversible, and for a maximum of 100 years. This shifts the onus • The federal government investigate long-term onto this generation and a few subsequent ones, to funding options, including an independent, self-sus- come up with a permanent solution. This paradigm taining trust, to support the long-term management of the site; shift is reinforced with a mandatory twenty-year • An independent quantitative risk assessment and comprehensive and independent review of the entire an improved human health assessment and human project, with the involvement of the communities. health monitoring program focused on arsenic (this The other recommendation, for which Alterna- was largely based on the concerns brought forward tives North takes particular pride, is a requirement by the Yellowknives Dene First Nation); for a legally binding environmental agreement that • The recently proposed water treatment system that would pick up where negotiations left off in August would reduce arsenic levels in water discharged from 2012, and would result in a community-based, in- the mine by up to 10 times, will now become a re-

64 Northern Public Affairs, September 2013 quirement;2 nal governments on the Report. Unlike many other • Diverting Baker Creek away from the Giant Mine environmental assessments, the Office will not be site in the interest of preventing accidents and pro- handling the development and coordination of the tecting fish from the contamination in this water response to the Report by the federal and territorial body; and, government. Aboriginal Affairs and Northern De- • A requirement to conduct a full risk assessment of velopment Canada, who is a key the proponent for the freezing method for the underground arsenic in terms of whether to add water or not. the “interim solution” Project, will coordinate this response. The government response to the Report will As such, the federal government was directed to: apparently not be lead by the same people as those leading the Project, even though they are all on the • Collaboratively work with other parties on the de- same floor of the headquarters building in Gatin- sign and monitoring of the tailings covers, including eau, Quebec. It is not clear what role the territorial prevention of All-Terrain Vehicle access; and, government will play in the government response, • Reconsider the results of the human health risk as- although it is a co-proponent. sessment and consult with the Yellowknives and City The Giant Mine Team, the federal and terri- of Yellowknife to determine suitable end uses of the torial officials responsible for designing the Project mine site. to date, are beetling away at the implications of the Report. They are developing materials on the cost, These measures will go a long way towards policy and scheduling implications of the Report. meeting the calls by the City of Yellowknife and its residents for proper consultation on the end use of ◉◉◉ the site. Conclusions ◉◉◉ Most of the emergency work required at the site Next steps now was exempted from the environmental assessment and is now underway (especially the decon- The Report will now go to the federal and territorial struction of Giant’s Roaster Complex). Scheduling government, who will decide on the following op- implications for the Project should not prevent the tions available to them under s. 130 (1) of the Mack- government’s adoption of the Report’s recommenda- enzie Valley Resource Management Act. There is no set tions. Nothing in the Report should represent a policy timeline for these decisions. The options include: obstacle as much of the social licence related issues can and should have been resolved using best prac- 1. Accept the finding of the Review Board that tices that government used to insist on as part of reg- approval of the project be made subject to the ular project reviews in the past. There is little doubt imposition measures to prevent the significant adverse impact. The measures then become binding that the cost of the Project will increase as a result on regulators and must be incorporated as terms of the Report, but Aboriginal Affairs and Northern and conditions in permits or licences to carry out Development acknowledged this in its internal re- the work; or porting to the Treasury Board in records revealed 2. Refer the project back to the Review Board for under an access to information request by Alterna- further consideration of its findings; or tives North.3 Project costs have also mushroomed to 3. Reject the measures as written, and then the project close to a $1 billion. The most contentious of the goes off to a higher level of assessment (an impact Board’s recommendations will likely be the rerout- review, by the same Board, where alternatives and ing of Baker Creek as there has been little design other factors are considered); or or evaluation work carried out on that option and it 4. Invoke a murky process called “consult-to-modify” where the Ministers write the Review Board and was taken off the table by both levels of government. proved a rationale to change (and/or weaken) the This recommendation alone will likely result in the measures to make them “acceptable”. The role, if Report heading into the secretive consult-to-modify any, for the public in this option is not clear. process. A reasonable Northerner might expect that the The Yellowknife branch of the Northern Ma- Government of the Northwest Territories would ex- jor Project Management Office, now a part of the ert its growing influence over resources as a result of Canadian Northern Economic Development Agen- devolution, in favour of acceptance of the Board’s cy, will handle Crown consultation with Aborigi- findings and recommendations on the Giant Mine.

Northern Public Affairs, September 2013 65 Photo credit: O’Reilly Kevin

This would be entirely consistent with its approach (i.e. Alternatives North); on the Tar Sands development upstream, where in- • A legislated co-management system with pow- dependent monitoring and oversight is finally being er-sharing; and, designed, and where a legally binding trans-bound- • The failure of the proponents to secure a social ary water agreement is under negotiation with Al- licence. berta. The residents of the capital city of the NWT, who make up nearly half of the population of the All of these factors converged to show that a NWT, should clearly be entitled to the same ap- good process can have a good outcome. The real proach. test is to come though. Will governments hold them- Giant Mine is consistently cited as the result of selves to the same standards that they hold many pri- bad mining practices and inadequate government vate developers to? ◉ regulation every time a new mining project comes along in the NWT. An enlightened mining industry Kevin O’Reilly is a member of Alternatives North, a so- would support the Report and its implementation as cial justice coalition in Yellowknife, Northwest Territories. the path forward, to rid themselves of the prover- Footnotes bial monkey on their back. Why should the federal 1. The full report can be found on the Mackenzie Valley Envi- and territorial governments not be held to the same ronmental Impact Review Board’s website at: standards that were imposed on the diamond mines, http://www.reviewboard.ca/upload/project_document/ EA0809-001_Giant_Report_of_Environmental_Assessment_ namely independent oversight, public reporting, June_20_2013.PDF. For the background on the Project, see environmental management plans and monitoring O’Reilly, Kevin. (2012). “Giant Mine, giant legacy.” Northern programs, all implemented though legally binding Public Affairs. Vol. 1, Iss. 2: 50-53. environmental agreements? 2. A new water treatment option only came to light after the Re- view Board issued an information request in February 2013, Great things were accomplished during this en- well after the September 2012 public hearing. For an extra vironmental assessment and showed that citizen par- $16.1 million spread out over 100 years, the arsenic levels in ticipation can make a difference. Why was it seem- treated mine water can be reduced 10 times from traditional ingly easier for the Review Board to impose so many water treatment systems. No reasons were provided as to why the federal government had not considered this option during binding measures? the previous more than 1o years of project development and This environmental assessment represents one design. For further details see http://www.reviewboard.ca/ of those rare moments where several crucial factors upload/project_document/EA0809-001_Giant_Mine_Wa- came together: ter_Disposal-_IR_Response_Report.PDF. 3. See appendices 1 and 2 of the submission by Alternatives North to the Review Board on March 24, 2013 http://www. • The common interests amongst Aboriginal and reviewboard.ca/upload/project_document/EA0809-001_Let- public governments while working with civil society ter_from_Alternatives_North_on_2013_IR_on_Water_Treat- to ensure a better Project that begins to meet comment.PDF. munity expectations and needs; • The successful mobilization of public concern by a small but committed non-governmental organization

Environmental assessment technical sessions, Yellowknife, Northwest Territories, 2011. UNITED STATES Photo credit: Dale Musselman (creative commons) (creative Musselman Dale credit: Photo

A view of Juneau, Alaska. Photo credit: Linnaea Jasiuk - ◉◉◉ snowshoeing, and when my workday permits me to workday my and when snowshoeing, to step desk outside for I am sure my from step away some “fresh” However air. my satisfaction with my “outdoorsy” lifestyle was dismantled rather quickly after arriving in Ulukhaktok. Life in the North oc- curs primarily outside. While the midnight sun and one any at start may day your that mean time’ ‘Inuk of the 24 hours, once you are up, you are outside; fixing at the playground, playing fishing, socializing, equipment, or out on the land or water. Living in ofUlukhaktok with Ulukhaktomiut (people Ulukha- as “out- not be I may that me realize ktok) made em- really this doorsy”What thought. once had I as the and is nature it whether was that me for phasized is so reg that else or anything good coffee, outdoors, ular in my daily life it could easily go unappreciated, unappreciated, easily go could it daily life in my ular granted.it is important to not take these things for - - - Linnaea Jasiuk RESEARCH NOTES RESEARCH 2 a.m. hike to look over Ulukhaktok. Five lessons from five weeks in Ulukhaktok weeks in five from lessons Five ast summer Linnaea Jasiuk travelled to Ulukha- to travelled Jasiuk Linnaea summer ast ktok, Northwest Territories where she lived and Get outside more Get outside more 1. I would consider myself a fairly “outdoorsy” - wom an. I play lacrosse outside several times a week, in on the ski trails or spending a day the winter I enjoy L worked for two months as part ofpart as two months for worked Institute the Canadian IK-ADAPT project funded (CIHR) Research Health for (www.ikadapt.ca). Her objective was to document the of perspectives consid ethical on members community erations for the collection and dissemination ofdissemination and collection the for erations Inuit multi-me using when particularly research, in knowledge This was as dia such filmtechniques orrecording. audio her first time above the Arctic Circle and her first time These some of are living in an Inuit community. the ‘les sons’ that she learned. Photo credit: Linnaea Jasiuk Photo credit:

2. Always carry snacks occasion. Like a magician I pulled from my bag an extra sweater, extra pants, extra socks, mittens and You never know when, for example, beluga whales a toque, but then there was engine trouble. I waited will swim by and the entire community will erupt on shore for my friends to prepare the boat and as I into chaos: brothers off to notify each other, wives waited the cold slowly crept into my stationary body. bustling about to pack thermoses with tea and cof- After about an hour of trying to get the engine run- fee, boats being loaded with gas and supplies, and ning, I didn’t think we would still be going — which then racing out to open waters like a charging caval- was fine with me since by this point I couldn’t feel ry. If you are not ready in the 5 minutes that it takes my toes — but no, my friends were determined to for all of this to occur, you will be left behind. You go fishing. It is difficult to complain about a boat trip don’t want to be the one running down to the shore, along the spectacular shoreline of Victoria Island, pulling on your second boot just in time to watch but there were no fish (well I thought there were no the last boat speed off. Extraordinary events, like the fish) and the cold that set in on the shore was here arrival of whales, are unpredictable, so you need to to stay. There I sat, rod in hand, and the longer I be ready every day and willing to take chances. And sat the colder and more disheartened I became. remember — always carry snacks! Then without warning my line gave a tug, and then another one, and another, and another and then it ◉◉◉ zig-zagged wildly through the water. I had hooked my first Arctic char! Hooking a char was like instant 3. If you think you’re dressed warmly warmth through my body, but now I know that until enough . . . you’re not a char is hooked, three layers of clothing is better than two, and four layers is even better than that!! One day I decided to ‘carpe the diem’ and join some Oh, and also that patience is a virtue — a char will friends from the community at 11:00 pm to go fish- eventually come! ing for what I thought would be only an hour or two given how late it was. Thank goodness that after ◉◉◉ learning lesson #2, my pockets were full of snacks and I was prepared, or so I thought, for such an

A boat sits ready for easy cast-off should whales swim by. Photo credit: Linnaea Jasiuk

4. Arctic char tastes best 5. Sharing is caring

I am a seafood and fish lover and thought that I had Sharing food is an integral part of Ulukhaktok’s cul- experienced it all, and then the char started to run ture and social fabric. There is a pride in sharing with and I got my first taste. It is easy to get lost inthe Elders, family and friends, and the kindness of rec- juicy, flakey, tender meat that when cooked right melts iprocity is evident everywhere in Ulukhaktok. What in your mouth, but there is something more to char brought me to Ulukhaktok, however, was to examine that I learned to appreciate. Fishing, preparing and the exchange of knowledge which is also an integral sharing char is a process, rooted in cultural values and part of Inuit culture. Knowledge and skills are trans- expressed in community pride and happiness. Some mitted among generations through observation, sto- of my fondest memories from my time in Ulukhaktok ries and apprenticeship, with young people working are of walking to the dock at any time of day and and learning alongside their teachers. This learning finding at least half a dozen people with rods in hand environment was a world away from the lecture the- and lures in the water. Sometimes it felt like a com- atres and classrooms I left behind at the University. munity event with dozens of people at the dock and Nothing was asked for in return for the lessons I saw along the shore: little ones, Elders, and everyone in being shared; they were for the benefit of the teacher, between, all sharing in the delight of the midnight sun student and the community as a whole, ensuring that and the char. It was quite an experience to walk down traditions and culture continue. ◉ to the dock and be able to smell the fresh caught fish, coffee, and marshmallows all cooking over a fire, to Linnaea Jasiuk graduated from the University of Guelph af- hear the buzz of town gossip, children’s laughter and ter studying Environmental Biology. Linnaea is continuing excited shouts as a fish is hooked, and to see so many to study the environment and Ulukhaktok while pursuing her community members sharing and enjoying the time Master’s Degree with the University of Guelph’s Geography spent with friends and family. This is when the char, Department. She grew up in Orangeville, Ontario and has or any meal for that matter, tastes best. travelled across Canada and to the Yukon, Europe, Brazil and a large portion of the United States. This, however, was her ◉◉◉ first trip to Canada’s Arctic.

Arctic char drying in the sun and becoming the treat known as ‘biffy’. Photo credit: Linnaea Jasiuk Photo credit:

Two young Ulukhaktomiut fishing at the shore. Photo credit: Linnaea Jasiuk Photo credit:

Learning to hunt by first learning to catch butterflies. FINLAND Photo credit: netjp (creative commons)

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“Elisapie Ootoova - Lighting of the Qulliq.” Photo by Julie Alivaktuk.