The Euphrates–Tigris Basin: A Case Study in Surface Water Conflict Resolution M. El-Fadel,* Y. El Sayegh, A. Abou Ibrahim, D. Jamali, and K. El-Fadl ABSTRACT rights (Haddad and Mizyed, 1996). This, coupled with drying oases and shrinking aquifers, is likely to cause water to replace Historically, the Euphrates and Tigris waters have been a oil as the traditional driver of conflict in the Middle East major source of freshwater conflict in the Middle East. Origi- nating in Turkey, both rivers flow southwestward through Syria (Mideast News, 1998). and Iraq, to discharge into the Persian Gulf. The irregularity in In the context presented above, the Euphrates–Tigris Basin their seasonal flow necessitates the development of efficient stor- represents one of the critical water conflict issues in the Mid- age and diversion systems to ensure adequate irrigation to the dle East. Turkey, Syria, and Iraq presently share the waters of area’s dominant agricultural sector. Consequently, water uti- this basin. There has been a history of disagreements among lization projects undertaken by upstream riparian countries these countries concerning the nature of these waters, their fair trigger confrontation, leading to hostilities and strained relations. and optimal distribution, and the rights of each nation to uti- These water development projects are best exemplified by the lize these water resources. Turkish GAP project, which provides Turkey extensive control While the conflict among the riparian countries is basically over the Euphrates water, through the construction of 22 dams posed in the context of water, it is inevitably linked with in- and 19 hydropower plants. Located upstream, Turkey regards ternational politics, the typical east–west rivalry, and the con- the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers as Turkish waters; the down- tinuous competition for leadership in the area. Turkey re- stream countries, Syria and Iraq, view them as international gards the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers as Turkish waters, rivers whose waters are to be mutually regulated. International whereas Syria and Iraq view them as international rivers politics, the typical East–West rivalry, and the continuous com- whose waters are to be shared. Turkey emphasizes the ratio- petition for leadership in the area further aggravates the conflict. nal utilization of the Euphrates waters and demands the in- This paper presents a decision case to be taken by an interna- clusion of the Orontes (Asi) river in the negotiations, a notion tional committee composed of UN representatives, nongovern- strictly opposed by Syria, due to the historical dispute over the mental organization (NGO) mediators, and ministers of the in- Hatay province (Arab Iskanderun). Turkey’s internal problem volved riparian states. The committee (i.e., the participants) with the Kurds is further accentuated by Syria’s continuous should set strategies for the resolution of the water conflict support to the Kurdish Workers’ Party (PKK). Such Syrian ac- through the harmonious utilization of the Euphrates–Tigris wa- ters. This case study targets a course of education at the gradu- tion antagonizes Iraq as well because Iraq has similar prob- ate or senior undergraduate level based on water resources is- lems with the Kurds. Furthermore, recent development pro- sues impacting stability in the Middle East. jects on the Euphrates have revived animosities dating back to World Wars I and II. This paper presents a case study that focuses on the Turkish–Syrian–Iraqi conflict over the shared ATER SCARCITY water resources of the Euphrates–Tigris Basin and considers is evident in the Middle East, where in- 1 Whabitants receive <1000 m3 of water precipitation per the decision to be taken by an international committee for the year, and where the entire region is water-short. Currently, 9 equitable distribution of these waters among the riparian out of 14 Middle Eastern countries experience water scarcity, states. The case can be used by graduate or senior under- with the others rapidly approaching this status, especially graduate students to play roles as opponents, supporters, with potential global climate change and increased desertifi- and/or mediators in a conflict resolution situation. cation (Samson and Charrier, 1997; Darwish, 1994). In the Middle East, water withdrawal as a percentage of renewable Historical Background water supplies falls within the highest in the world, although In the early 1900s, Turkey, then governing the Ottoman the renewal rate is rather low because the region is arid (Dar- Empire, controlled present day Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Iraq, wish, 1994). Lebanon, Syria, and Palestine. Although Turks and Arabs The incapability of current Middle Eastern water resources share the same Islamic religion, they are the descendents of to meet growing demand is expected to continue in the future two distinct ethnic groups, speaking different languages. Fol- due to increases in population and consumption (Turkish lowing the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Turkey aligned Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2001). Moreover, the sensitive itself with Germany against France and Britain. Meanwhile, water shortage issue is further complicated by the sharing of Syrian groups protested against their suppression by Ottoman water among several, generally water-deficient, riparian states, governors and demanded complete Arab independence. At the which instigates political pressure and tensions over water 1 Composed of top-level ministers, in coordination with the foreign min- M. El-Fadel, Y.El Sayegh, A. Abou Ibrahim, and K. El-Fadl, American Univ. isters of the three riparian countries (Turkey, Syria, and Iraq), United Nations’ of Beirut, Faculty of Environ. Eng. and Architecture, Bliss Street, P.O. Box (UN) representatives, and several NGO mediators. 11-0236, Beirut, Lebanon; and D. Jamali, American Univ. of Beirut, School of Business, Beirut, Lebanon. Received 19 June 2001. *Corresponding au- Abbreviations: NGO, nongovernmental organization; PKK, Kurdish Work- thor ([email protected]). ers’ Party; UN, United Nations; NATO, North Atlantic Treaty Organization; BCM, billion cubic meters; MCM, million cubic meters; GAP, Southeastern Published in J. Nat. Resour. Life Sci. Educ. 31:99–110 (2002). Anatolia Project; ECE, Economic Commission for Europe; ILA, International http://www.JNRLSE.org Law Association. J. Nat. Resour. Life Sci. Educ., Vol. 31, 2002 • 99 same time, Britain had early interests in limiting Russian in- In summary, there is a long historical conflict between fluence in northern Mesopotamia and in protecting its oil in- Turkey, Syria, and Iraq, starting with the Ottoman reign, and terests in the region (Library of Congress, 2001). including the Arab rebellion, Syrian resentment for what they In 1915, Britain sought control over the Middle East and perceived as the arbitrary transfer of the province of Alexan- resorted to the Arabs to weaken Ottoman control in the region dretta to Turkey by the French, and finally the unwelcome im- by instigating Arab revolts against the Turks, first in Palestine migration of Kurds to the neighboring Syrian state. and then Hijaz, while promising to support Arab independence (Thornton, 2000). At the time, the Arabs were not aware that Britain and France had agreed to subdivide Middle Eastern THE CASE states between them in the secret Sykes–Picot Agreement (16 The Euphrates–Tigris Basin, shared by Turkey, Syria and May 1916), whereby France was to control Lebanon and Iraq, represents a typical case of historical conflict related to Syria, and Britain was to control what became Iraq and Tran- water issues in the Middle East. At the root of the conflict lie sjordan (Library of Congress, 2001; Thornton, 2000). These the increasing population and the respective rising demand for events later triggered feelings of Arab betrayal among the water, accompanied by the desire for long-term food security Turks and left the Arabs with long-term feelings of resentment and self-sufficiency. Political and historical animosities be- for the West. tween the countries further amplify the problem. During the French Mandate, Syria was divided into five areas: Jabal ed Druze, Aleppo, Latakia, Damascus, and The Euphrates–Tigris Basin Alexandretta (Arab Iskenderun), in an attempt to weaken a burgeoning Arab nationalist movement. The latter district of The Euphrates River, at 2700 km, is the largest river in Alexandretta, located at the border between Syria and Turkey, western Asia. It originates in the Armenian Plateau in Turkey housed a Turkish minority and had a separate government. and flows southeastward entering Syria at Karkamis, down- During the Syrian–French treaty negotiations of 1936, Turkey stream from the Turkish town of Birecik, and southern Iraq demanded reconsideration of the Syrian province of Alexan- near Qusaybah, where it joins the Tigris River near Qurna in dretta based on the large Turkish minority residing there and Iraq to form the 193 km long Shatt al-’Arab, which eventu- its particular administrative system implemented under the ally discharges into the Persian Gulf (Fig. 1). Upon reaching Franco–Turkish agreement (Franklin–Bouillon Agreement) of the plains of Iraq, the Euphrates decreases in both volume and 1921. In 1939, France agreed to Turkish demands; Alexan- velocity (Chalabi and Majzoub, 1995; Britannica, 2001; Kaya, dretta has evolved since then into the long-disputed Hatay 1998). There is a clear imbalance in the supply of the river’s province between Syria and Turkey (Library of Congress, waters (Table 1). It is worth mentioning that Saudi Arabia is 2001). usually excluded from the riparian states since its Euphrates It is also worth mentioning that under French rule, Syria stretch generally dries out in the summer (Kaya, 1998). became a shelter for groups persecuted from neighboring The 1900 km long Tigris River, on the other hand, is a typ- countries, mainly Kurds, Armenians, and Assyrians. The ical mountain stream that rises from the Southeastern Taurus Kurds, who were promised a motherland in the 1920 Treaty Mountains and other tributaries, some of which originate in of Sevres, fled from Turkey (to Syria and Iraq) between 1924 Iran (Chalabi and Majzoub, 1995).