The Physics of Energy Robert L. Jaffe , Washington Taylor Index More Information

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Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-01665-1 — The Physics of Energy Robert L. Jaffe , Washington Taylor Index More Information

Index

1st law efficiency, see efficiency, 1st law aeolipile, 246 anhydrite, 662 2nd law efficiency, see efficiency, 2nd law aerosols, 699 anode, 784 air conditioner, see also heat extraction Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC), ablation, 369, 719 device, 199 526, 616 absolute zero, 71 analysis of, 243ff Antarctica, 733 absorbed dose, 381 air mass A spectrum, 441 anthracite, 648 absorption, 438 air resistance, 19ff anthropic principle, 417 coefficient, 380, 438, 689 air standard analysis, 206 anti-knock additive, 209, 211 absorption refrigerator, 744 airfoil, 572 anticline, 661 427 absorptivity, 99, ALARA, see as low as reasonably anticyclone, 535 515 abyss, achievable antilinear, 838 AC, see current, alternating albedo, 682 antineutrino, 271 AC power, 50 feedback, 705 antiparticle, 8, 271 ACC, see Antarctic Circumpolar Current alkanes, see paraffins aphelion, 434 acceleration, 13 alkenes, see olefins API gravity, 660 centripetal, 23, 517 alkynes, see acetylenes apparent thermal conductivity, 95 acceptance angle, 455 α-amylase, 506 aqueous solution, 784 acceptor state, 480 α-decay, 313ff Arctic climate, 730 acetylenes, 209 α-particle, 277, 313, 373 Arctic sea ice, 725 acid mine drainage, 653 AM1.5, see air mass A spectrum arenes, see aromatic hydrocarbons acidification (of ocean), 735 americium argon, 75, 102 acidity, 735 241Am, 399 armature, 50, 807 acoustic impedance, 651 ammonia, 673 aromatic hydrocarbons, 209 actinide, 324 ampere (unit, A), 35 as fuel additive, 211 action at a distance, 30 Ampere’s law, 42 Arrhenius clock, 659, 660 activation barrier, 158 Ampere–Maxwell law, 53 Arrhenius equation, 660 activation energy, 660 amplitude, 58 ARS, see acute radiation syndrome active safety system, 353 amylopectin, 497 as low as reasonably achievable activity, 381 amylose, 497 (ALARA), 389 actuator disk, 578 anaerobic digester, 503 ash content, 649 acute radiation syndrome (ARS), 384 anaerobic digestion, 503 asphalt, 658, 660 adaptation to climate change, 736 Anderson–Flory–Schulz distribution, 675 asthenosphere, 622 adiabat, 189, 190 anemometer, 544 Atkinson cycle, 214 adiabatic expansion, 189 angle of attack, 572, 584 atmosphere (Earth), 685ff of air, 191 critical, 573 constituents of, 687 adiabatic index, 80, 190 angle of incidence (of sunlight), 434 global mean (1D) model, 689 adiabatic process, 189 angular frequency, 16 infrared absorption in, 688 adjoint, 838 angular induction factor, 581 atmosphere (unit, atm), 6 advanced gas-cooled reactor (AGR), 360 angular momentum, 23 atmospheric boundary layer, see also advanced recovery methods, 663 angular velocity, 22 planetary boundary layer, 539

858 Index

atmospheric circulation, 523 β+-decay, 277 Bragg peak, 377, 378 primary, 533 β-particle, see also electron, 373 Brayton cycle, 255 secondary, 533 Bethe radiation formula, 375 breakdown voltage, 34 tertiary, 538 Betz limit, 544, 545, 613, 743 breakeven, 365 atomic (mass) number, 273, 301 actuator disk derivation of, 580 breeder reactor, 356 atomic binding, 171ff ballistic derivation of, 545 fast, 331, 357 atomic mass unit (unit, u), 302 big bang, 416 sodium cooled, 357 ATP, 496 big bang theory, 412 breeding nuclear fuel, 291, 295, 331, 355ff synthase, 496 binary cycle, 632 bremsstrahlung, 364, 377 attenuation coefficient, 374, 380 binding energy, 300, 301 Brillouin zone, 470 attenuation length, 380 of hydrogen atom, 133, 171 in 3D, 477 automobile, see car per nucleon, 308 BTX, 666 available work, 639, 742, 748 biobutanol, 511 bulk modulus, 651 Avogadro’s number, 71 biodiesel, 217, 509 buoyancy, see force, buoyancy axial compressor, 243 biofuel, 504 burner reactor, 356 axial induction factor, 579 first-generation, 508 bus(bar), 814 axial-momentum theory, 578 second-generation, 508 butanol, 511 503 BWR, see boiling water reactor back-EMF, 48 biogas, biomarker, 659 backwork, 255 CO2 abatement, 757 biomass, 502 bagasse, 505 C3 plant, 498 biosphere, 681 balancing region, 824 C4 plant, 498 band, 467 in GCM, 703 cadmium, 491 quantum origin, 468ff bit, 119, 138 cadmium telluride (CdTe), 477, 491 band gap, 473 bitumen, 658, 660 CAES, see compressed air energy storage direct, 477, 490 bituminization, 648 calcination, 173, 176 indirect, 477 bituminous sands, see tar sands, 664 calcium carbonate, 173, 722 barn (unit, b), 325 black body, see also radiation, blackbody, calcium oxide, 173 barrage, see tidal barrage 99, 425 Calorie (unit, Cal), 8 barrel (unit, b), 660 radiative equilibrium of, 447 Calvin–Benson–Bassham (CBB) cycle, barrel of oil equivalent (BOE), 660 black carbon, 700 498 barrier penetration, 283 black hole, 416 camber, 572 barrier penetration factor, 285, 315 black light, 373 camshaft, 205 baryon, 173, 273 black soot, 701 CANDU reactor, 357 baryon number, see also atomic number, blade-element theory, 583 capacitance, 33 301 blowdown, 212 capacitive load, 809 conservation of, 273 BOE, see barrel of oil equivalent capacitor, 33ff baryonic matter, 416 Bohr radius, 133 energy storage in, 794 basalt, 622 boiler, 249 parallel plate, 33 basis vector, 837 boiling, 221, see also phase transition, capacitor bank, 817 bathymetry, 610 vaporization, 223 capacity factor, 461 battery, 784 boiling water reactor (BWR), 357 car alkaline, 785 Boltzmann constant, 73 electric, 788 efficiency of, 787 Boltzmann distribution, 150ff, 151, 473, flywheel in, 795 lead-acid, 786 686 carbohydrate, 497 lithium-ion, 786 Boltzmann factor, 151, 481 carbon nickel-cadmium (NiCd), 786 Bordeaux wines, 395 14C, 393 nickel-metal hydride (NiMH), 786 borehole logging, 650, 662 14C Baumann rule, 639 boron in paleoclimatology, 714 BDC, see bottom-dead-center 10B, 343 carbon capture and sequestration, 736 becquerel (unit, Bq), 381 boson, 155, 270, 289 carbon cycle, 696 Bénard cell, 98 bottom quark, 271, 274 carbon dioxide (CO2), 4, 440 benthic ecosystem, 716 bottom-dead-center (BDC), 205 absorption factor, 698 benzene, 209, 666 bottoming cycle, 256 anthropogenic, 697 Bernoulli’s equation, 238, 558, 561 boundary condition, 105 atmospheric time scale of, 726 β-decay, 271, 275, 302, 316, 326, 377 boundary layer, 95, 221, 564, 565 concentration of, 697

Index 859

emissions of, 697 choked well, 639 coal power plant, 654ff ocean and land sinks, 698 chondrite meteorite, 624 emissions, 655 carbon sink chord (length), 572 fixed-bed, 654 land, 725 chord line, 572 fluidized bed, 654 ocean, 725 CHP, see combined heat and power IGCC, 655 Carboniferous period, 649 chromodynamic force, see force, stoker, 654 Carnot cycle, 191 chromodynamic ultra-supercritical (USC), 654 Carnot engine, 191ff CI, see compression ignition coalification, 648 Carnot heat extraction cycle, 200 CIGS, 491 coefficient Carnot limit, 149, 192 circuit drag, 12, 20, 573 catagenesis, 658 primary, 52 drawdown, 636 catalytic cracking, 665 secondary, 52 lift, 573 catalytic reforming, 665 circulation, 563 coefficient of performance (CoP), 199,742 cathode, 784 classical physics, 72 coefficient of void cathode ray, 271 from quantum physics, 131, 408 negative, 353 cathode ray tube (CRT), 395 classically forbidden zone, 282 positive, 353 causal time evolution, 137 clathrate, 671 cogeneration, 246, 257 causally connected events, 410 clay mineral, 722 cogeneration efficiency, 258 CCR, see critical compression ratio climate, 681 coherent waves, 68 CCS, see carbon capture and sequestration past, 710 coke, 653 CdTe, see cadmium telluride predictions, 724 cold air standard analysis, 206 cell climate change collection efficiency, 474 primary, 785 anthropogenic, 714 collective effective dose, 384 secondary, 785 effects of, 729 color charge, 273 cell voltage, 784 time scale of, 725ff combined cycle gas turbine, 254ff, 256 cellulase, 508 climate feedbacks, 701ff combined heat and power (CHP), 258 cellulose, 507 climate sensitivity parameter, 702 combustion, 175 cement, 173 closed surface, 39, 836 of hydrocarbons, 209 center-of-mass frame, 25 closed system, 405 committed effective dose, 383 centrifugal compressor, 243 closed-cycle engine, 183 compact linear Fresnel reflector (CLFR), centrifugation, 398 clouds, 692, 693 461 cetane number, 217 feedback, 705 complex carbohydrate, 497 CFC, see chlorofluorocarbon in GCM, 704 complex conjugate, 837 CFD, see computational fluid dynamics clumping (of nuclear fuel), 343 complex number, 836 chain reaction, 292 CMB, see cosmic microwave background compound nucleus, 328 chalcopyrite, 178, 491 radiation, see core–mantle boundary compound parabolic concentrator (CPC), chaotic system, 704 CNG, see compressed natural gas 457 charge CNO cycle, 424 compressed air energy storage (CAES), conservation of, 38 CO2, see carbon dioxide 778ff density, 31 CO2 intensity, 178 adiabatic, 780 electric, 29 coal, 647ff advanced-adiabatic, 780 magnetic, 41, 42 bituminous, 648 diabatic, 780 absence in nature, 42 black, 648 isothermal, 779 charged lepton, 270, 272 brown, 648 compressed natural gas (CNG), 672 charm quark, 271, 274 proven reserves, 647, 657 compressibility chemical feedstock, 666 quality of, 649 isothermal, 86 chemical weathering, 722 sub-bituminous, 648 compression ignition (CI), 215 chemotroph, 495 type of, 649 compression ignition engine, 204 Chernobyl, 293, 355, 395 coal bed methane, 670 compression ratio, 205 Chinook wind, 539 coal extraction methods, 650 compression space, 195 chlorella algae, 510 longwall mine, 652 compressor, 238, 238 chlorofluorocarbon (CFC), 239 opencast mine, 652 types of, 242 and ozone destruction, 239 room and pillar mine, 652 computation chlorophyll, 495 strip mine, 652 energy loss in, 745 choked flow, 639 coal gas, 675 computational fluid dynamics (CFD), 569

860 Index

concentrated solar power, see also solar CPC, see compound parabolic cycle life, 776 thermal electricity, 459 concentrator cyclic process, 148 concentration (fractional abundance), 145 CR, see conversion ratio cycling reserves, see spinning reserves concentration factor, see effective cracking, 658 cyclone, 535 concentration crankshaft, 205 cycloparaffins, 208, 658 concentrator, see solar concentrator Cretaceous period, 649 cyclotron frequency, 522 condenser, 237, 240, 241, 250 Cretaceous superchron, 626 cylindrical coordinates, 834 88 critical (nuclear reactor), 343 conduction (of heat), , 89ff d-orbital, 133 critical compression ratio (CCR), 211 analogy with electrical conduction, 91ff DAC, see direct air capture critical mass, 398 conduction band, 467, 472 dalton (unit, u), see atomic mass unit critical point, 84, 225 conductivity Daniell cell, 784 critical temperature, 796 apparent thermal, 95 darcy (unit, D), 636 cross product, 23, see vector cross product electric, 38 Darcy’s law, 636 cross section, 325, 344 thermal, 90 dark energy, 412, 413 absorption, 689 table of, 91 dark matter, 415 macroscopic, 344 conductor, 33 dark reactions, 496 659 conjugate momentum, 406 crude oil, Darrieus turbine, 584 connecting rod, 205 heavy, 660 DDGS, see dried distillers grains with conservation, see energy conservation light, 660 solubles conservation of energy, 3, 404ff sour, 660 de Broglie wavelength, 113 conserved quantity, 128 sweet, 660 dead state, 749 crust, 621 and symmetry, 407 Debye model, 166 continental, 622 containment structure, 358 Debye temperature, 166 oceanic, 622 continuity equation, 559 decay, 280 cryocooler, 197 continuous tracking, 459 decay chain, 318 cryosphere, 681 238 continuum assumption, 557 U, 319 in GCM, 703 control rod, 292, 343 declination, 435 crypto-continent, 627 control volume, 237, 561 deep time, 721 crypto-ocean, 627 energy balance in, 238 degenerate quantum gas, 155 crystalline solid, 466 convection, 88 degenerate spectrum, 119 CSP, see solar thermal electricity 776 forced, 89, 96, 221 degradation rate, CT scan, 390, 394 degrees of freedom, 73 free, 89,98 cumulative function, 546 freezing, 73, 153, 154, 165 convective adjustment, 690 cuprate compound, 796 of simple molecules, 74 convergent plate margin, 628 curie (unit, Ci), 381 thawing, 79, 170 conversion ratio (CR), 356 curl, 834 delta configuration, 819 coolant, 293, 344 curl operator, 33 M management, 821 CoP, see coefficient of performance current dendroclimatology, 711 core (Earth), 621 alternating (AC), 40 density log, 650 core–mantle boundary (CMB), 622 density, 37 depletion region, 481 Coriolis force, 535 electric, 35ff descendant nuclide, 319 see also 500 corn, maize, excitation, 808 detailed balance, 484 cosh, see hyperbolic functions in phase with voltage, 805 deterministic effects (of radiation), 384 cosmic microwave background radiation inertial, 521 deterministic physical system, 110, 124 (CMB), 415 lagging voltage, 805 deuterium cosmic radiation, 391ff leading voltage, 805 in nuclear fusion, 338 cosmic string, 418 leakage, 54 deuteron, 268, 294, 311 cosmological constant, 412 rotor, 808 dew point, 224 cosmology, 414 surface, 519 diabatic compression, 780 coulomb (unit, C), 29 curvature (of space-time), 411 diagenesis, 658 Coulomb barrier, 335 cut-in speed, 587 diamond crystal structure, 466 Coulomb energy (nuclear), 305 cut-out speed, 587 diatom, 510 Coulomb repulsion, 305 cutoff ratio, 217 dielectric, 33 Coulomb’s law, 29ff cyanobacteria, 501 breakdown, 35 covering (of solar collector), 450 cyclanes, see cycloparaffins constant, 33

Index 861

material, 33 dose and dose rate effectiveness factor Ekman layer, 540 Diesel cycle, 204 (DDREF), 388 depth, 522 diesel engine, 204 dose fractionation, 385 Ekman mass transport, 523 diesel fuel, 217 dot product, 16, 833 Ekman spiral, 522 differential forms, 836 double slit experiment, 111ff El Niño Southern Oscillation, 712 differential operator, 128, 840 quantum interpretation, 114 elastic modulus, 651 diffraction, 66 double-layer capacitance, 795 electric grid, 800, 801ff electron, 113 down quark, 271, 274 electrochemical cell, 784 diffraction pattern, 66, 112 drag, 20 electrolysis, 790 diffusion current, 481 drag machine, 578, 583 electrolyte, 784 diffusion equation, 103 drainage flow, 539 electromagnetic energy, 7, 27ff diffusivity dried distillers grains with solubles generation, 27 507 thermal, 103 (DDGS), storage, 28 drift current, 481 table of, 91 transmission, 28, 39ff dry air, 223 dimensional analysis, 6,20 electromagnetic shower, 377 dry cell dimensionality (of energy sources), 766 electromagnetic waves, see waves, zinc-carbon, 785 diode, 482 electromagnetic dry gas, 658 dipole moment electron, 271 dry steam, 230 electric, 44, 440 as radiation, 374 dual cycle, 217 magnetic, 44 capture, 277 Dulong and Petit, law of, 74 neutrino, 271 of Earth, 626 dynamic equilibrium, 143 number, 272 direct air capture, 736 dynamical adjustment (of solar collector), electron volt (unit, eV), 8 dirty bomb, 398 458 electronic excitation, 439, 466 disaccharides, 497 dynamical variable, 406 electrostatic precipitator, 656 dislocation, 473 dynamo, 626 electrostatics, 29ff dispatchable reserves, 815 element, 301 dispersion, 57, 66, 601 Early Eocene climatic optimum, 723 elementary particles, 269ff dispersion relation, 66, 601 ebb tide, 612 table, 269 displacement, 205 eccentricity, 434 ellipse, 434 dissipation, 66 as climate driver, 718 433 elliptical orbit, 434 dissociation (of molecules), 169ff ecliptic plane, ecosystem emergency cooling, 354 distillate fuel oil, 665 climate impact on, 734 EMF, see force, electromotive distillation, 301, 504 effective area, 21 emission line, 439 distinguishable particles, 155 effective concentration, 454 emissivity, 99, 425 distributed generation (DG), 826 effective dose, 382 encoding (of information), 139 distribution (mathematical), 840 effective radiative forcing (ERF), 691 endothermic reaction, 158 distribution network, 801, 820 efficiency energy, 404 European, 820 1st law, 742ff and frequency, 163 US, 820 in space heating, 747ff and refining of metals, 178 distribution system, 814 of heat engine, 149 and temperature, 164 primary, 814 2nd law, 639, 746ff carrier, 790 814 secondary, efficiency limit chemical, 8 diurnal fluctuation, 543 thermodynamic, 136, 148ff conservation of (physical principle), see divergence, 32, 834 EGS, see enhanced geothermal system conservation of energy operator, 32 Einstein temperature, 155 density theorem, 32, 836 Einstein, Albert, 3 effective, 776 divergent plate margin, 628 equations of general relativity, 412 density, 776 Dobson Unit (unit, DU), 444 general theory of relativity, 411 difference, 9 domain, 838 mass-energy relation, 3, 8 efficiency, 741 donor state, 480 model of specific heats, 155 electromagnetic, see electromagnetic doping, 479 special theory of relativity, 41, 49, 128, energy Doppler broadening, 353, 441 408 geothermal, 620ff Doppler effect, 441 relation of energy and momentum, sources, 623 Doppler shift, 439 128 gravimetric density, see specific energy

862 Index

hydrothermal, 634ff of formation, 175 farad (unit, F), 34 in transport, 11ff, 758 table of, 175 Faraday constant, 784 internal, 70, 164ff of fusion, 85 Faraday’s law, 49 in chemical reactions, 173ff of fusion (melting), 166 fast fission factor, 344, 345 kinetic, 7, 12 table of, 167 fatty acid ester, 509 mass, 8 of reaction, 173 FBC, see fluidized bed combustion mechanical, 11ff of vaporization, 85, 166 FCC, see face-centered cubic lattice nuclear binding, 8 table of, 164 feed lot, 501 per capita use of, 5 entropy, 136ff feedback, see climate feedbacks potential, 7, 13ff information, 138ff, 140 feldspar, 721 electrostatic, 30 of a single bit, 142 fermentation, 504 gravitational, 13, 18 of mixing, 145 Fermi energy, 472 primary, 3 of reaction, 173 Fermi level, 472 scales, 9 thermodynamic, 142 Fermi–Dirac distribution, 473 solar, see solar energy EPICA ice core, 718 fermion, 155, 270, 289 thermal, see thermal energy equation of state, 76, 558 Ferrell cell, 523 types of, 6 equilibrium fertile nucleus, 329 units of, 5ff thermal, see thermal equilibrium fertilizer, 673 useful quantities, 9 thermodynamic, see thermodynamic fetch, 604 volumetric density, see volumetric equilibrium field energy density equilibrium climate sensitivity, 705 dipole, 44 wave, 595ff equilibrium state, 72 electric, 30 zero point, 9, 412 equinox, 434 energy stored in, 34 energy amplifier, 360 equipartition theorem, 73, 155 from charge distribution, 31 energy basis states, 118, 405 equipotential, 33 from point charge, 30 energy confinement time, 364 equivalent dose, 382 monopole, 44 energy conservation, 741 ERF, see effective radiative forcing electromagnetic, 271 in home heating, 759 ergodic hypothesis, 143 magnetic, 41 energy consumption, see exergy ergodic system, 143 around a wire, 43 destruction ethanol, 177, 504 circulation, 42 Energy Efficiency Ratio, 202 cellulosic, 507 dipole, 44,44 energy eigenstates, see energy basis states from corn, 506 energy stored in, 51 energy loss in matter from sugarcane, 505 of a solenoid, 44 by energetic electrons, 374, 377ff ethyl alcohol, see ethanol of Earth, 626 by energetic photons, 374, 379ff ethylene, 209 poloidal, 368 559 by heavy charged particles, 374, 375ff Eulerian approach, toroidal, 367 452 by neutrons, 374, 380 evacuated-tube collector, field component, 807 223 overview, 374 evaporation, field current, 481 evaporator, 237, 240, 241 energy magnitude, 630 field lines, 30 evapotranspiration, 688 energy savings, 756 field strength tensor, 411 event, 409 energy–momentum relation, 469 fill factor, 484 exergy, 639, 749ff, 753 energy–momentum tensor, 412 film boiling, 221 and quality of energy, 755 energy/time uncertainty relation, 131 first law of thermodynamics, see destruction, 755 engineering gain factor, 365 thermodynamics, first law loss in combustion, 752, 754 enhanced geothermal system (EGS), 633, first law efficiency, see efficiency, 1st law exhaust, 204, 206, 212 641 Fischer Tropsch process, 503 exinite, 658 enriched uranium, 343 Fischer–Tropsch process, 511, 675 exothermic reaction, 158 enrichment factor, 344 fissile nucleus, 292, 327 expanding universe, 412 ensemble, 140 fission, see nuclear fission expansion space, 195 average, 152 fission fragment, 324, 331 extensive variable, 144 canonical, 152 fission poison, 332, 351 external combustion engine, 196 microcanonical, 152 fissionable nucleus, 327 thermodynamic, 141 f -orbital, 133 fit parameter, see also parameterization, entanglement (quantum), 125 face-centered cubic (FCC) lattice, 476 268 enthalpy, 81 faculae, 712 fixed stars, 517

Index 863

fixed-angle mounting, 452, 459 effective gravitational, 518 fusion, see phase transition, fusion; fizzle, 399 electromagnetic, 266 nuclear fusion flash horizon, 637 electromotive, 36, 48 fusion gain factor, 364 flashing, 230, 637 fictitious, 517 GaAs, see gallium arsenide flavor (of quark), 274 gravitational, 265 gallium, 490 flex fuel, 505 interatomic, 168 gallium arsenide (GaAs), 490 flood tide, 612 Lorentz, 42 gallon (unit), 11 Florida Straits, 616 magnetic, 35, 41ff Gamma function, 548, 841 flow rate, 592 between wires, 45 gamma ray log, 650 flow tube, 560, 579 non-conservative, 17 γ -ray, 320, 373, 379 flow work, 237 slab pull, 629 Gamow distribution, 337 flowing fluids strong nuclear, see strong nuclear Gamow window, 337 thermodynamics with, 236 interactions gap, 467 fluid, 557 weak nuclear, see weak interactions gas cap, 670 barotropic, 564 force carrier, 265 gas constant, 73 formation reaction, 175 compressible, 560 gas diffusion layer (GDL), 790 557 incompressible, , 560, 596 table of, 175 gas hydrate, 671 482 local properties of, 557 forward bias, gas to liquid (GTL), 675 fluid catalytic cracking, 665 four forces of nature, 263 gas turbine engine, 204 344 fluid flow four-factor formula, ff gas-cooled reactor, 360 inviscid, 560 four-stroke cycle, 204 gasification irrotational, 564 four-vector, 409 of biomass, 503 laminar, 565 Fourier series, 59 gasoline, 208 steady, 559 Fourier series expansion, 839 gauss (unit, G), 46 turbulent, 559 Fourier transform, 60, 542, 840 Gauss’s law, 31,42 fluid mechanics, 21, 556ff Fourier’s law (of heat conduction), 90,92 Gaussian distribution, 547 fluidized bed combustion (FBC), 654 Fourier’s theorem, 839 GCM, see general circulation model fluorohydrocarbon, 239 free atmosphere, 539 GDL, see gas diffusion layer fluoroscopy, 394 free energy, 152, 159 Geiger counter, 124 fluorosis, 657 of formation, 175 Geiger–Nuttall law, 315 flux, 32, 39 table of, 175 general circulation model (GCM), 703 electric, 39 of reaction, 173, 176, 783 feedback estimates from, 705 heat, 90 see also Gibbs free energy, generalized coordinate, 406 integrated, 39 Helmholtzfree energy generation (of particles), 271 total, 39 free expansion, 137 Generation IV nuclear reactor designs, fly ash, 655 increase in entropy from, 144, 148 360ff flywheel, 23, 792 free radical, 385 generator, 48ff in automobile, 793 freezing out (degrees of freedom), see asynchronous, see generator, induction focal point, 455 degrees of freedom, freezing baseload, 814 focus (of ellipse), 434 Freon, see chlorofluorocarbon induction, 808, 811 Foehn wind, 539 frequency, 16 intermediate, 814 fog, 229, 230 in quantum physics, 116 peaking, 814 food frequency decomposition, 62 single-phase, 808 animals as, 501 friction, 21 synchronous, 808 energy in, 499 Friedman equations, 413 control of, 815 global production, 499ff fuel assembly, 358 permanent magnet (PMG), 825 foraminifera, 658, 716 fuel bundle, 358 geoengineering, 738 force, 6, 13 fuel cell, 511, 787 geometric optics, 453 buoyancy, 86,98 hydrogen, 791 geopressured resource, 633 centrifugal, 98, 518 PEM, 790 germanium, 489 chromodynamic, 267 solid oxide (SOFC), 790 geyser, 635 conservative, 17 fuel oil, 665 Gibbs condition, 173, 748 Coriolis, 98, 518ff Fukushima Daiichi, 292, 354 Gibbs factor, 155 dissipative, 20 fully developed sea, 602 Gibbs free energy, 159, 173 drag, 20 fumarole, 635 .gif encoding, 139

864 Index

giromill, 584 gypsum, 656 hemicellulose, 507 glacier, 719 gyre, 525 henry (unit, H), 51 mountain, 734 gyroscopic effect, 795 hereditary effects (of radiation), 384 global mean surface temperature, see Hermitian operator, 405 Haber–Bosch process, 502, 673 surface temperature Hertz (unit, Hz), 16 Hadley cell, 523 glucan, 497 Hess’s law, 176 hadron, 267, 273 glucose, 497 heterojunction, 490 half-life, 280, 282 glueball, 275 HHC, see higher heating value half-reaction, 784 gluon, 267 HHV, see higher heating value half-value layer, 380 self-interaction, 274 hiatus, 715 Hamiltonian glycerol, 509 hidden variable theories, 124, 125 classical, 406 glycosidic bond, 497 Higgs particle, 265, 269, 275 quantum, 126, 128 Gondwana, 722 high tide, 610 time-dependent, 405 Gorlov vertical-axis turbine, 615 high-pressure turbine, 251 Hamiltonian formalism, 406 gradient, 17, 834 high-temperature superconductor, 796 Hamiltonian matrix, 126 grain alcohol, see ethanol hard core, 304 high-voltage direct current (HVDC), 802, 823 grand unified theory, 273 harmonic oscillator, 15,16 622 176 granite, , 625 energy spectrum, 132 higher heating value (HHV), , 210, 645 648 graphite, Hartley band, 440, 688 compared to lower heating value, 177 energy storage in, 782 HAWT, see horizontal-axis wind turbine Hiroshima, 398 473 graphitization, 648 heat, 70ff, 70 hole, gravitational lensing, 415 not a state function, 77 Hooke’s law, 15 gravitational radiation, 372 heat capacity, 78 Hoover Dam, 592 graviton, 271 at constant pressure, 80 horizon, 413 gravity, 266 at constant volume, 78 horizontal-axis wind turbine (HAWT), 578 gray (unit, Gy), 381 molar, 81 blade number, 588 gray body, 427 of water vapor, 170 horizontal-axis windmill, 577 green diesel, 510 specific, 80 horse latitudes, 533 greenhouse effect, 448ff, 684 table of, 80 hot dry rock, 641 greenhouse gases, 448, 683ff volumetric, 81 hotspot, 627 well-mixed, 699 heat engine, 148, 183 Hubble parameter, 413 greenhouse–icehouse transition, 724 basic components, 184 human population, see population Greenland, 734 heat equation, 102ff huminite, 649 gross calorific value, see higher heating heat exchanger, 100, 195 hurricane, 536 value heat extraction device, 183, 198 as a Carnot engine, 538 gross conversion efficiency, 460, 499 history, 238ff HVDC, see high-voltage direct current gross solar conversion efficiency, 443 heat of reaction, see enthalpy, of reaction HVO, see hydrotreated vegetable oil ground source heat pump, 632, 633 heat pipe, 233 hydraulic head, 592, 593 closed-loop, 634 heat pump, see also heat extraction device hydrocarbon, 208, 675ff direct exchange, 634 37, 199 carbon backbone of, 211 open system, 634 heat transfer coefficient, 97, 221 hydrocarbon molecules ground state (quantum), 129 local, 97 combustion of, 645 ground state band, 471 heat trapping, see greenhouse effect hydrocracking, 665 ground temperature heating, 747ff, 759 hydrofracturing, 641 seasonal variation of, 104 degree days, 760 hydrogen ground voltage, 31 season, 760 produced from natural gas, 673 group (in periodic table), 466 heavy charged particle, 374 hydrogen atom, 120, 132 group velocity, 600, 601 heavy water, 335, 343 orbitals, 132 GTL, see gas to liquid heavy water reactor, 359 hydrogen economy, 790ff Gulf Stream, 526, 616 Heisenberg uncertainty relation, 131 hydrogenation, 676 gun-type nuclear weapon, 398 energy/time, 280 hydrolysis, 503 Gutenberg discontinuity, 622 heliostat, 460 hydropower, 592 Gutenberg–Richter law, 630 helium, 669 global potential, 594 GWe, 236 internal energy and entropy of, 158 hydrosphere, 681 GWth, 236 Helmholtz free energy, 152 hydrostatic equilibrium, 535, 685

Index 865

hydrothermal power plant insulator, 33 Joule heating, 36 binary cycle, 640 integrated gasification combined cycle Joule’s law, 36 double-flash, 639 (IGCC), 257, 655 Jurassic period, 649 dry-steam, 640 intensive agriculture, 501 K -capture, see electron capture single-flash, 638 inter-tropical convergence zone, 523 k-factor, see neutron multiplication factor hydrothermal reservoir, 637 interconnect, 802 Kalina cycle, 640 hydrothermal resource, 632 intercooler, 780 Kelvin’s circulation theorem, 564, 572 hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO), 510 interference Kepler’s laws of planetary motion, 433 hyperbolic functions, 840 constructive, 64 kerogen, 658 hyperfine splitting, 120 destructive, 64 types I–IV, 658 quantum, 116 ice age, 710 kerosene, 665 interference pattern, 112 ice core, 718 kilocalorie (unit, kcal), 8 interglacial period, 716 ice sheet, 733 6 internal combustion engine, 183, 196, kilogram (unit, kg), icehouse, 722 6 203ff kilowatt-hour (unit, kWh), ICF, see inertial confinement fusion 557 internal variability, 716, 728 kinetic energy density, ideal fluid, 560, 596 International Atomic Energy Agency, 294 Kirchhoff’s law (thermal radiation), 99, ideal gas, 72, 560 International Thermonuclear Experimental 427, 484, 689 monatomic, 72 820 Reactor (ITER), 365 Kirchhoff’s laws (circuits), thermodynamics of, 157 invariant interval, 410 knock, 210 ideal gas law, 76, 185 inversion, 687, 691 Kronecker delta, 837 IGCC, see integrated gasification inverter, 826 Kuroshio current, 526 combined cycle ionization, 171 Kutta condition, 573 igneous rock, 622 ˘ ionization energy, 135, 171 Kutta–Zhukovskii theorem, 568 ignition, 365 ionizing radiation, 171, 373ff proof of, 570 imaginary part, 836 IPCC4 2007 climate report, 691 impedance, 804 Lagrangian approach, 558, 596 IPCC5 2013 climate report, 682, 691 effective, 804 -particle, 278 iron seeding of ocean (geoengineering), implosion device, 399 Lambert–Beer law, 374, 380, 438,515 737 impurity, 473, 479 land breeze, 538 irradiance, 432 interstitial, 479 Laplacian, 834 irreversibility, 753 substitutional, 479 Laplacian operator, 57 isentropic index, 80 incoherent waves, 68 lapse rate, 686 isentropic process, 189 indistinguishable particles, 155 adiabatic, 686 islanding, 820 indium, 490 dry, 686 iso-octane, 208 indium gallium phosphide, 490 moist, 687 iso-paraffins, 208 inductance, 50 feedback, 705 isobar, 301 mutual, 52 Large Hadron Collider (LHC), 269 isobaric heating, 191 induction, 48ff, 49 Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave isobaric process, 80 inductive load, 809 Observatory (LIGO), 598 isometric heating, 190 inductor, 51 latent heat, see also enthalpy, of isometric process, 78 inefficiency, 755 fusion/vaporization, 85 isotherm, 188, 225 inertial confinement fusion (ICF), 369 latent heat flux, 516 isothermal compression, 189 inertial frame, 14, 49, 517 latitude, 435 isothermal expansion, 188, 190 inertial observer, 408 latitude tilt, 452 of air, 190 inertinite, 649 lattice, 466, 476 isotope, 301 infiltration, 100 lattice momentum, 470 stability, 317 inflation, 413 Laurasia, 722 isotropic response, 486 cosmological, 418 law of Dulong and Petit, 155 ITER, see International Thermonuclear eternal, 417 law of large numbers, 146, 824 Experimental Reactor injection well, 635 law of specular reflection, 453, 455 inner product, 837 jet stream, 534 Lawson criterion, 366 insolation, 424, 432 Joint European Torus (JET), 365 leading edge, 572 variation of, 434 JONSWAP (Joint North Sea Wave lean mixture, 210 instantaneous power, 776 Project), 603 Lennard–Jones potential, 180 insulation, 100 joule (unit, J), 6 Lenz’s law, 49

866 Index

lepton, 270, 272ff longevity, 776 Maxwell’s equations, 31, 53,61 lepton number, 272 longitude, 435 MCF, see magnetic confinement fusion LET, see linear energy transfer longwall shearer, 652 McIntosh CAES plant, 781 lethal dose, 385 loop flow, 820 mean camber line, 572 LHC, see Large Hadron Collider Lorentz force law, see force, Lorentz mean field, 306 LHV, see lower heating value Lorenz number, 92 mean flow, 541 lid, 622 lossless line, 816 mean free path, 375 Life Span Study (LSS), 386 low tide, 610 measurement, see quantum measurement lifetime, 280 low-enriched uranium, 358 mechanical equilibrium, 146 lift, 567 low-enthalpy geothermal resource, 632 mechanics, 11ff light low-pressure turbine, 252 fluid, see fluid mechanics extreme ultraviolet, 373 lower heating value (LHV), 176 rotational, 22ff from laser, 743 LPG, see liquid petroleum gas Medieval Climatic Optimum, 711 infrared, 62 LRC circuit (series), 804 melting, see phase transition, fusion near-ultraviolet, 372 phases and energy transfer in, 805 melting ice (in climate), 732 quantization of, 425 LSS, see Life Span Study mercury, 656 ultraviolet, 62, 372 LTO, see light tight oil meridional circulation (mean), 523 visible, 62 LWR, see light-water reactor meridional direction, 523 496 light reactions, maceral, 649 meridional overturning circulation (MOC), 664 514 light tight oil (LTO), , 667 macroscopic system, 71 , 527 light-harvesting complex, 496 magma, 633 mesh network, 819 light-water reactor (LWR), 293, 357 magnet, 44 meson, 273 lighting (electric), 29 permanent, 44 mesophilic bacteria, 503 lignin, 507 magnetic confinement fusion (MCF), 363, metagenesis, 659 lignite, 648 366 metallurgy, 178 lignocellulose, 507 magnetic dipole, 44,47 metamorphic rock, 622 limestone, see calcium carbonate energy in magnetic field, 47 meteoric water, 632 line capacitance, 816 magnetic monopole, see charge, magnetic meter (unit, m), 6 line inductance, 816 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 293 methane line integral, 16, 834 magnetism, 41ff as greenhouse gas, 699 line losses, 39ff magnetohydrodynamic equations, 626 heating value of, 177 line width, 441 Magnox, 360 methane hydrates/clathrates, 670 linear circuit element, 805 maize, 500 methanogen, 503 linear combination, 116 major actinide, 324 methanol, 509 linear energy transfer (LET), 374 majority carrier, 480 methyl group, 208 linear no-threshold (LNT) model, 388, 389 managed storage (of SNF), 400 metric, 411 linear superposition, see superposition mantle, 621 metric system, 5 linear transformation, 838 upper, 622 metric tensor, 409 liptinite, 649 mantle plume, 627 in three dimensions, 409 liquefaction, 676 many-particle systems, 154 of general relativity, 412 liquefied natural gas (LNG), 671 Mariana trench, 629 of special relativity, 410 liquid drop model, 304 marine current energy, 616 MeV (unit), 8 liquid petroleum gas (LPG), 660 Mars Curiosity rover, 186 micro-earthquake, 642 lithium mass attenuation coefficient, 402 micro-PMU, 822 in tritium production, 338 mass defect, 302 microalgae, 510 lithosphere, 622 mass excess, 302ff microhydro, 594 Little Ice Age, 711 mass stopping power, 374, 376 microstate, 137 LNG, see liquefied natural gas Massachusetts Institute of Technology Milankovitch theory, see orbital theory of LNT, see linear no-threshold model (MIT), 11, 549 climate change load (in circuit), 40 matrix, 838 mile (unit, mi), 11 local physical laws, 30 special orthogonal, 838 miles per gallon (unit, mpg), 11 logarithmic energy decrement, 334 unitary, 838 miles per hour (unit, mph), 12 logistic distribution, 668 matrix mechanics, 114, 126 mined geologic repository, 401 logistic function, 668 maturity, 658 mini-OTEC, 528 lognormal distribution, 668 Maunder Minimum, 713 minor actinide, 324

Index 867

minority carrier, 480 naphthenes, see cycloparaffins boiling points, 84 Mistral wind, 539 National Nuclear Data Center (NNDC), node (in wavefunction), 129 MIT, see Massachusetts Institute of 303 non-associated gas resources, 670 Technology natural convection, see convection, free non-deterministic physical system, see mitigation (of climate change), 736 natural gas, 669ff quantum non-determinism mixed layer (oceanic), 515 dry, 671 non-spinning reserves, 815 mixed phase (of fluids), 229 proven reserves, 673 nonlinear climate effects, 735 mixing property, 143 sour, 671 norm (complex number), 836 mixing time, 144, 704 thermogenic, 669 norm (vector), 833 MOC, see meridional overturning wet, 671 normal modes, 59 circulation natural gas liquid, 671 normal octane, see n-octane mode analysis, 59ff natural line width, 441 normal paraffins, see n-paraffins model spread, 728 natural reactor, 349 Normal Temperature and Pressure (NTP), moderator, 292, 334, 343 Navier–Stokes equations, 569 79 Moho, see Mohoroviciˇ c´ discontinuity neap tide, 610 North Pole, 434 Mohoroviciˇ c´ discontinuity (Moho), 622 NEB, see net energy balance Norway, 674 molar mass, 71 negative feedback, 701 NOx , see nitrogen oxides mole (unit, mol), 71 negative marginal cost, 756 NTP, see Normal Temperature and molecule negative temperature coefficient of Pressure, 784 diatomic, 73, 168ff, 170, 175, 440, 501 reactivity, 353 nuclear binding, 172 polyatomic, 74, 170 Nernst equation, 787 nuclear binding energy, see binding energy triatomic, 74, 169 net calorific value, see lower heating value nuclear decay, 312ff molten salt, 781 net energy balance (NEB), 505 α-emission, 313ff moment (of distribution), 546 net metering, 827 β-decay and related processes, 316 moment magnitude, 629 neutral lepton, 270, 272 particle emission, 313 scale, 629 neutrino, 265, 272, 276 nuclear fission, 8, 172, 291ff, 310,325ff moment of inertia, 23 neutrino oscillation, 272 fast-neutron-induced, 327, 331 momentum, 17 neutron, 271, 274 history, 293 conservation of, 407 and radiation, 374 instantaneous, 311 on a lattice, 469 delayed, 332, 351 slow-neutron-induced, 327, 328 monoculture, 502 fast, 292, 327, 344, 357 spontaneous, 327 monomer, 497 prompt, 332, 351 nuclear fusion, 8, 118, 172, 294, 310, 335ff monopole, 418 scattering of, 330 deuterium–tritium, 339, 363 monosaccharide, 497 slow, 292, 327 in the Sun, 337, 423 monsoon, 535 thermal, 327 potential fuels, 338 168 Morse potential, neutron flux, 344 nuclear fusion reactor motor neutron multiplication factor, 343, 344 power balance in, 363 electric, 28, 45ff newton (unit, N), 6 nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), 662 811 induction, Newton’s constant, 17 nuclear medicine, 395 MOX, 401 Newton, Isaac, 11 nuclear proliferation, 293, 352, 398ff MRI, see magnetic resonance imaging law of cooling, 89, 97, 221 nuclear reactor, see also light-water MTBE, 505 laws of motion, 11, 14 reactor, breeder reactor, etc., 342ff mud logging, 662 second law of motion, 13 generation IV designs, see Generation multiverse, 417 in three dimensions, 15 IV nuclear reactor designs municipal solid waste, 502 rotational formulation, 24 generations I–IV, 357 muon, 271, 272, 373 nitrogen homogeneous, 344, 347 in cosmic ray showers, 392 fixing, 501 time scales, 350 MWe, 236 in atmosphere, 687 types of, 357 MWth, 236 in fertilizer, 501 nuclear stability, 307ff n-octane, 208 nitrogen cycle, 501 limits, 311 n-paraffins, 208, 665 nitrogen oxides, 217, 656 nuclear waste, 293, 352, 395ff n-type doping, 479 NMR, see nuclear magnetic resonance high-level, 396 NADPH, 496 no-load condition, 812 nucleate boiling, 221 Nagasaki, 399 no-slip condition, 564 nucleon, 267 naphtha, 665 noble gas, 83 nuclide, 301

868 Index

Nusselt number, 98 pairing energy (nuclear), 307, 317 first-order, 83 paleoclimatology, 710ff fusion (melting), 83, 166 obliquity, 433 paleomagnetism, 722 vaporization, 83, 166 as climate driver, 718 panemone, 577, 583 phase velocity, 57, 597, 601 ocean Pangaea, 722 phasor, 822 in GCM, 703 parabola, 455 phasor measurement unit (PMU), 822 ocean carbon pumping, 720 parabolic concentrator, 454 phenomenological parameter, 12 ocean circulation, 525 parabolic dish, 454, 460 phonon, 478 ocean energy transport parabolic trough, 454, 460 photodiode, 482 and climate, 725 paraffin wax, 666 photon, 120, 265, 271, 275, 426 ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC), paraffins, 208, 658 energetic, 374 527 boiling points, 84 photon recycling, 490 oceanic heat budget, 516 partial differential equations, 57 photorespiration, 498 octane number (ON), 211 numerical solution of, 105 photosynthesis, 495, 498 ohm (unit, ), 36 partial pressure, 224 in C and C plants, 498 Ohm’s law, 36 3 4 partition function, 151 photosystem I, 496 local formulation, 38 pascal (unit, Pa), 6 photosystem II, 496 oil recovery (primary), 663 passive safety system, 353 photovoltaic cell oil sands, see tar sands, 664 Pauli exclusion principle, 133, 155, 287, multi-junction, 453 oil shale, 664 305, 466 photovoltaic power oil window, 658, 669 PBL, see planetary boundary layer electrical output from, 826 Oklo natural reactor, 349 peak oil, 666 photovoltaic solar cell, 443, 465ff olefins, 209 peaking generator, 776 amorphous silicon, 491 olivine, 622 peat, 648 CdTe, 491 ON, see octane number pebble bed reactor, 360 CIGS, 491 opaque object, 99, 427 Pelamis wave capture device, 608 crystalline silicon, 487 open-circuit voltage, 483 PEM, 789 multi-junction, 476, 489 open-cycle engine, 183 PEMFC, see fuel cell, PEM thin film, 490 open-cycle system, 255 per mil, 716 third generation, 488 optical depth, 438, 689 perfect emitter, 99 phytoplankton, 510 optically thick, 438 perihelion, 434 Pierson–Moskovitz model, 602 optically thin, 438 period, 16 pigment molecule, 495 orbital dynamics, 433 periodic boundary conditions, 839 pion, 268 orbital theory of climate change, 718 permeability, 43, 636 pitch, 58 ORC, see Rankine cycle, organic of the vacuum, 42 pitch-regulated control, 588 order of magnitude, 19 Permian period, 649 Planck feedback parameter, 693, 702 orthonormal basis, 837 permittivity, 33 Planck length, 414 oscillating water column (OWC), 609 of the vacuum, 29 Planck mass, 419 OTEC, see ocean thermal energy perovskite, 492 Planck radiation law, 426 conversion petrol, see gasoline Planck satellite, 415 Otto cycle, 206, 209 petroleum, 657ff Planck’s constant, 111 overspeed condition, 812 pH, 735 plane wave, 58 overtopping device, 608 phase, 16, 836 planetary boundary layer (PBL), 539 OWC, see oscillating water column in/out of, 64 plasma, 33, 164, 294, 363 oxidation, 784 phase change, see also phase transition plutonium, 295 oxygen advantages in energy conversion, 220ff 239Pu, 295, 323, 355, 398 in atmosphere, 687 energy storage using, 220 240Pu, 399 vibrational mode of, 154 phase diagram, 84 and nuclear weapons, 399 18O/16O ratio, 716 of carbon dioxide, 84 grades of, 400 ozone, 239, 440, 688 of iron, 86 in SNF, 397 p-n junction, 481 of water, 84, 223ff PMU, see phasor measurement unit as a photodiode, 482ff three dimensional, 227 poise (unit, P), 565 p-orbital, 133 phase differences, 806 Poiseuille’s law, 565, 566 p-type doping, 479 phase separation, 230 Poisson bracket, 406 P-wave (seismic), 622, 651 phase transition, 82ff Poisson distribution, 280, 281

Index 869

Polar cell, 523 probability, 140 quasi-bound state, 331 polar easterlies, 533 distribution, 140 quasi-equilibrium process, 147, 185 polar jet, 534 probability density (quantum), 114 qubit, 119 polarization (of light), 61 process heat, 257 quicklime, see calcium oxide polytropic process, 197 process heating, 447 R-134a, 222, 239 population, 5 producer gas, 675 R-value, 94,95 porosity, 662 production well, 634 table of, 96 positive definite, 837 progeny (radioactive decay), 391 Rabl bound, 456 positive displacement machine, 243 prompt critical, 351 rad (unit, rad), 381 positive feedback, 701 proton, 271, 274 radial network, 820 positron, 271 proton beam therapy, 378 radiation, see also light, ionizing radiation, positron emission, 277 proton–proton fusion, 338 α-radiation, etc., 372ff positron emission tomography (PET), 395 in the Sun, 424 biological effects, 384ff potassium proxy measurement, 710 blackbody, 99, 425ff 40K, 393, 624 pseudocapacitance, 796 derivation of, 428ff pT-plane potential cosmic rays, 391 31 phase diagram in, 224 electrostatic, damage to DNA, 386 pump, 238, 248 periodic, 469ff dangerous versus harmless, 372 6 15 types of, 248 power, , exposure in medical procedures, 393ff pumped cryogenic electricity storage angle, 821 in the human environment, 389ff (PCES), 782 apparent, 806 thermal, 89, 426, 682 pumped heat electricity storage (PHES), factor, 806 frequency distribution of, 426 782 reactive, 805 radiation hormesis, 389 pumping loss, 213 real, 805 radiation poisoning, see acute radiation pure substance, 223 power coefficient, 580 syndrome PV, see photovoltaic solar cell power conversion system, 825 radiation pressure, 63 pV-plane, 187 power density, 544, 776 radiation weighting factor, 382 phase diagram in, 225 power flow analysis, 822 radiative balance, 447 PWR, see pressurized water reactor power plant radiative capture, 330 pyrolysis, 503 hydrothermal, 230 radiative equilibrium, 99, 447, 682 power series expansion, 840 Q-value, 302 radiative forcing, 691ff power tower, 460 quad (unit), 9 anthropogenic, 698ff Poynting vector, 62, 425 quality radiative recombination, 484 PPI chain, 424 of energy, 755 radiative–convective equilibrium, 690 Prandtl layer, see surface layer quality (in mixed phase), 229 radioactive nuclide precession quantization, 110 ingestion of, 387 of quantum spin, 127 of energy, 110 radioisotope thermoelectric generator, 186 of the equinoxes, 718 quantum bit, see qubit radius of convergence, 840 Preliminary Reference Earth Model quantum computer, 119 radon, 391 (PREM), 622 quantum electrodynamics, 375 222Rn, 391 pressure, 6, 74ff quantum field theory, 264, 265, 288 Ragone plot, 776 dynamic, 561 quantum gravity, 414 ramp (in power supply), 824, 826 static, 558 quantum measurement, 122ff Rance tidal plant, 614 pressure broadening, 441 quantum mechanics, 109ff randomness, 140 pressurized heavy water reactor (PHWR), axioms of, 122 range (of charged particle), 376 359 quantum non-determinism, 110, 122ff range (of force), 265 pressurized water reactor (PWR), 357, 640 and radioactive decay, 124 rank (coal), 648 primary energy sources, 764ff quantum number, 114 rank (tensor), 838 high energy density, 768 quantum transition, 120, 279 Rankine cycle, 246ff, 246 large-scale non-fossil, 765 quantum tunneling, 118, 283 Carnot-like, 246 transformations, 770 quantum wavefunction, 113, 114ff example of, 250 prime meridian, 435 normalization, 114, 128 ideal, 247 prime mover, 807 probabilistic interpretation, 114 low-temperature, 254 primordial nucleosynthesis, 419 quark, 172, 267, 269 organic (ORC), 254 principle of inertia, 517 quartz, 721 supercritical, 248, 252

870 Index

rare earth element, 324 proven, 296 run of the river (ROR) hydro plant, 617, Rayleigh distribution, 547 reservoir (rock), 659 815 Rayleigh–Jeans law, 426 reservoir management, 663 s-orbital, 132 Rayleigh–Taylor instability, 369 residual fuel oil, 665 s-wave, 132 RBE, see relative biological effectiveness resistance, 36 S-wave (seismic), 651 RBMK reactor, 353, 355, 360 leakage, 54 saccharification, 507 RCP, see Representative Concentration thermal, 94 Sackur–Tetrode equation, 157 Pathway effective, 760 Saha–Langmuir equation, 171 reactance, 804 of windows, 95 Salter’s (nodding) duck, 608 reaction center, 496 resistive heating, see Joule heating San Andreas fault, 629 reaction quotient, 787 resistive losses, see line losses Santa Ana wind, 539 reaction rate factor, 336 resistivity (electric), 38 saturated liquid, 226, 230 reactive power, 808 table of, 38 saturated vapor, 226, 230 reactivity, 343, 347 resistor, 36 saturation curve, see saturation dome reactor core, 344 in parallel, 54 saturation dome, 226 358 54 reactor vessel, in series, Savonius rotor, 583 330 real axis, 837 resonance, scalar, 39 836 346 real part, resonance escape probability, 344, scalar particle, 271 243 296 reciprocating compressor, resources (mineral), scale height, 686 204 296 reciprocating engine, demonstrated, scale parameter, 547 reciprocating piston, 183 economic, 296 scanning tunneling microscope, 287 recombination, 419, 474, 484 identified, 295, 296 Schrödinger equation Red Book, 295 inferred, 296 time-independent, 129 red giant, 424 marginally economic, 296 Schrödinger wave equation, 114ff reduction, 784 reasonably assured (RAR), 295 harmonic oscillator solution, 129ff, 282 reduction potential, 784 subeconomic, 296 plane wave solution, 115, 128ff, 283 reference frame, 408 undiscovered, 296 solution in a box, 116, 128 refining (of petroleum), 665 reverse saturation current, 482 solution inside a barrier, 284 reflection, 65 reversible computing, 745 time-dependent, 114,126, 405 reflective film, 102 reversible heat transfer, 220 time-independent, 129 reflectivity, 99, 427 reversible process, 147, 185 Schwarzschild equation, 689 refraction, 65, 605 reversible time evolution, 137 screw-type compressor, 243 refrigeration cycle Reynolds number, 564, 565 scroll compressor, 243 absorption, 245 RF, see radiative forcing sea breeze, 538 gas, 245 rich mixture, 210 sea level rise, 732 vapor-compression, 238ff Richter scale, 629 seawater refrigerator, see also heat extraction right-hand rule, 41, 42, 833, 836 density of, 732 device, 199 roaring ’40s, 534, 606 SeaGen turbine, 615 regeneration (in Rankine cycle), 252 roll-to-roll production, 490 seam (of coal), 649 regenerative brakes, 24 roller cone bit, 663 seasonal adjustment, 459 regenerator, 195 rolling resistance, 21 second (unit, s), 6 reheat cycle, 251 root mean cube, 544 second law efficiency, see efficiency, 2nd relative biological effectiveness (RBE), root mean square, 40 law 381 Rossby wave, 534 secondary cooling loop, 358 relative humidity, 224 rotating reference frame, 517ff secondary recovery methods, 663 relativity, see Einstein, Albert rotational excitation, 440 Seebeck coefficient, 186 relic, 418 rotational invariance Seebeck effect, 186 rem (unit, rem), 382 of quantum systems, 133 seismic activity, 628 renewable energy resources rotational mode seismic event, 629 incorporation into grid, 823 of water molecule, 170 seismic survey, 650 Representative Concentration Pathway, rotational transition (molecular), 170, 440 3D, 661 726 rotor, 47, 250, 807, 824 reflection, 661 reproduction factor (neutron), 344, 345 four-pole, 813 seismic tomography, 627 reserve base, 296 two-pole, 813 selective catalytic reduction (SCR), 656 reserves, 296 roughness length, 541 SEMF, see semi-empirical mass formula

Index 871

semi-empirical mass formula (SEMF), solar concentrator, 453ff composition, 396 303, 307, 308 3D, 454 time evolution, 397 semi-major axis, 434 and PV, 486 spherical coordinates, 834 semi-minor axis, 434 linear (2D), 454, 462 spherical harmonics, 703 semiclassical approximation, 285ff solar constant, 432 spin, 44, 119, 288 semiconductor, 473 solar conversion efficiency up/down, 119 sensible heat flux, 516 Carnot limit on, 475 spinning reserves, 815 separation plant, 670 Solar Cycle 24, 715 spontaneous emission, 438 separator, see steam separator solar day, 517 spontaneous processes set point, 193 solar energy and free energy, 158ff shaft work, 237 extent of resource, 443 Sporer sunspot minimum, 713 shale gas, 670 nuclear source of, 423 spreading center, 628 shale oil, see light tight oil solar flare, 712 spreading rate hypothesis, 722 Shannon source coding theorem, 141 solar luminosity, 423ff spring tide, 610 shape parameter, 547 variability, 712ff squirrel cage, 811 shear modulus, 651 solar noon, 435 ST-plane, 187 shear stress, 557, 564 solar power output, 433 phase diagram in, 227 shell model (nuclear), 306 solar radiation stable equilibrium shell model (of atom), 133 as blackbody radiation, 425 in electrical network, 821 shell structure, 306 atmospheric absorption of, 440 stagnant condition, 450 Shockley diode equation, 482 on Earth, 432ff stagnation point, 571 Shockley–Queisser bound, 475, 483ff, 485 spectrum of, 427, 475 stall, 573 short-circuit current, 483 solar thermal electricity (STE), 443, 459ff stall-regulated control, 588 short ton, 650 solar thermal energy, 446ff standard conditions, 784 shroud (wind turbine), 580 storage, 781 Standard Model of particle physics, 264 SI, see Système International solenoid, 44 Standard Model “lite”, 271 sidereal day, 517 solid-state physics, 466ff Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP), sievert (unit, Sv), 382 solstice, 434 79 significant wave height, 600 somatic effects (of radiation), 384 standing wave, 61 silicate compound, 622 sonde, 650 star network, see radial network silicon sound wave, 597 starch, 497 amorphous, 491 source rock, 658, 659 starch liquefaction, 506 band gap, 121, 467 space-time, 409 state crystalline, 477 spark ignition engine, 204 classical, 118 monocrystalline, 487 real, 212ff entangled, 125 polycrystalline, 487 specific energy, 28 quantum, 114 simple harmonic oscillator effective, 776 thermodynamic, 72, 137 thermodynamics of, 153 specific enthalpy state function, 72, 137 simple sugar, see also monosaccharide, in a control volume, 237 state space 497 specific entropy, 227 quantum, 114 sine wave, 57 specific heat, see heat capacity, specific state variable, 72, 141, 185 sinh, see hyperbolic functions specific power, 776 static VAR compensator (SVC), 817 skin effect, 823 specific volume, 225 stator, 47, 250, 807 slip (ratio)„ 812 spectral density, 430 STE, see solar thermal electricity slip speed, 812 spectral gap steady state smart grid, 777, 822 in wind fluctuations, 543 heat flow, 94 SMES, see superconducting magnetic spectral line, 121, 439 steam, see also water vapor, 83, 230 energy storage spectroscopy, 439 drum, 250 Snell’s law, 68 spectrum engine, 183 SNF, see spent nuclear fuel of a wave, 61 table, 231, 232 snowball earth hypothesis, 721 quantum energy, 119, 130 steam reforming, 655 solar collector, 451ff specular reflection, law of, 68 steam separator, 359, 638 flat plate, 451 speed of light, 61 steam vent, 635 intermediate temperature, 452 spent nuclear fuel (SNF), 396ff Stefan–Boltzmann law, 89, 99, 425,447 low-temperature, 451 and nuclear proliferation, 398 steradian, 834

872 Index

Stern–Gerlach experiment, 119 superheated steam, see superheated vapor in Earth’s crust, 624 stimulated emission, 438 superheated vapor, 230 thermal contact, 146 Stirling cycle, 194 Superphénix reactor, 357 thermal distribution, 150 Stirling engine, 193ff superposition, 30 thermal energy, 7, 70, 165 Stirling’s approximation, 157 of solutions, 116 thermal equilibrium, 72, 99, 146 stochastic effects (of radiation), 384 of waves, 57 thermal expansion, 732 stoichiometric mixture, 210 quantum, 116, 120ff thermal mass, 760 Stokes’ theorem, 32, 836 supersymmetry, 414 thermal neutron utilization factor, 344, 346 stopping power, 374 surface energy (nuclear), 305 thermal reservoir, 150 storage surface integral, 31 thermal utilization factor, 346 distributed, 777 surface layer, 540 thermal wavelength, 164 electromagnetic energy, see surface temperature, 711 thermocline, 515 electromagnetic energy, storage historical record, 711 thermodynamic equilibrium, 71ff, 143 grid-scale, 776ff last 2000 years, 712 of an isolated system, 142ff hydrogen, 791 paleo record, 723 thermodynamic limit, see Carnot limit pumped hydro, 777 recent, 714 thermodynamic process, 185 thermal, 781 surface tension, 321, 598 in gas phase engine, 188 STP, see Standard Temperature and SVC, see static VAR compensator thermodynamics, 69ff Pressure Sverdrup (unit, Sv), 523 ﬁrst law of, 77 straight vegetable oil (SVO), 510 SVO, see straight vegetable oil second law of, 138 strain, 651 swell, 604 third law of, 156 tensor, 677 switch grass, 509 zeroth law of, 147 strange quark, 271, 274 symmetry, 407 thermoelectric energy conversion, 186 stratosphere, 687 and conserved quantities, 407 thermoelectric generator, 186, 753 streamline, 560 and invariance, 407 thermohaline current, 527 stress, 516 related to conserved quantities, 128 thermophilic bacteria, 503 stress–energy tensor, 412 translation, 469 thorium, 291 string theory, 265, 414, 417 symmetry energy (nuclear), 305 232Th, 295, 318, 329, 400, 624 strong nuclear interactions, 267, 303 synchronous grid, 802 and nuclear weapons, 400 structure formation, 419 syngas, 655 resources, 296 sub-cooled liquid, 230 biological, 503 Three Gorges Dam, 594 subcritical (nuclear reactor), 343 synoptic circulation, 533 Three Mile Island, 293, 354 subduction, 629 Système International (SI), 5 three-phase power, 809 sublimation, 84 tanh, see hyperbolic functions distribution of, 818 temperature, 225 tar sands, 664 throttle, 237, 237, 241, 242 substation, 817 tauon, 272 in car, 213 subtransmission, 814 Taylor series, 840 plate, 213 subtropical jet, 534 TCE, see tonne of coal equivalent thrust, 585 sucrose, 497 TDC, see top-dead-center tidal barrage, 612, 614 sulfate aerosols tectonic plate, 627 tidal power, 609ff as geoengineering, 739 margins, 628ff global potential, 615 sulfur dioxide, 656 tellurium, 491 tidal range, 613, 613 sulfur–iodine cycle, 791 temperature, 70, 73, 146 tidal stream, 613ff Sun of Earth in past, see surface temperature tight gas sands, 670 characteristics, 423 temperature change, 729 tight oil, 664 future evolution, 424 tensor, 838 tilt, 433, see also obliquity sunspot, 712 Tertiary period, 649 time dilation, 410 activity, 712 tertiary recovery methods, 663 time scale supercapacitor, 794 tesla (unit, T), 46 historical, 710 superconducting magnetic energy storage tetraethyl lead, 211 orbital, 710, 716 (SMES), 796 thawing (degrees of freedom), see degrees tectonic, 710, 721 superconductor, 36, 796 of freedom, thawing tin, 179 supercritical (nuclear reactor), 343 theory of elasticity, 678 tip vortices, 589 supercritical steam, 229 thermal broadening, 441 tip-speed ratio, 581 supercritical zone, 225, 228 thermal conductivity tissue weighting factor, 382

Index 873

toe, see tonne of oil equivalent, 660 turning point, 281 velocity field, 560 tokamak, 367 twist angle, 584 Venturi flow meter, 562 toluene, 666 two-phase flow, 637 VER, see variable energy resource ton of air conditioning, 180 two-stroke cycle, 204, 214 vertical-axis wind turbine (VAWT), 584 tonne of coal equivalent (TCE), 650 typhoon, 536 very high temperature reactor (VHTR), tonne of oil equivalent (toe), 660 354, 360, 791 U-factor, 96 tonne of TNT, 178 vibration–rotation band, 168 table of, 96 Tohoku¯ earthquake, 631 vibrational excitation, 439 ultracapacitor, 794, 797 top quark, 271, 274 vibrational modes, 168ff ultraviolet catastrophe, 426 top-dead-center (TDC), 205 of water molecule, 169, 170 unconventional oil resources, 664 torque, 24 vibrational transition (molecular), 168, underground pumped hydro (UPH), 777 on magnetic dipole, 45 181, 438 uniform temperature response, 693, 701 total derivative, 833 viscosity, 102, 560, 565 unit cell, 476 town gas, 675 viscous shear, 564 unit vector, 833 Toyota Camry, 11, 215 vitrinite, 649 units, 5ff trade wind, 524, 533 volatile content, 649 up quark, 271, 274 trailing edge, 572 volatiles, 648 UPH, see underground pumped hydro transesterification, 509 volcanic activity storage transform plate margin, 629 effect on climate, 712 uplift and weathering, 721 transformer, 52 from hotspots, 627 uranium, 291 step-down, 817 from plate tectonics, 629 233U, 323, 355, 400 step-up, 817 volcanism 235U, 291ff variable, 817 and plate spreading, 721 235U, 318, 323, 329, 333, 398, 624 transition, see quantum transition Volkswagen XL-1, 758 energy release in fission, 333 translation invariance, 469 volt (unit, V), 31 238U, 291ff transmission lines, 40 volt-ampere (VA), 806 238U, 318, 329, 624 transmission network, 28, 801, 814 volt-ampere-reactive (VAR), 806 enriched, 292 transmittance, 99, 427 voltage, 31 low-enriched, 396 transportation, 11 volume energy (nuclear), 305 resources, 295ff transportation systems, 203 volumetric energy density, 28 USC, see coal power plant, transpose, 838 vortex, 561 ultra-supercritical transuranic element, 324 starting, 572 trap (rock), 659 vacuum tube train, 758 wing tip, 574 563 tree rings (as climate proxy), 711 valence band, 467, 472 vorticity, triglyceride, 509 valley of stability, 309 Vostok ice core, 718 Trinity test, 399 vapor pressure, 222 W boson, 269, 275 triple point, 84, 224 vapor-compression cycle, 238ff, 239 wake rotation, 581 triple product, 366 Carnot, 240 water gas, 655, 675 tritium, 311, 323 for an air conditioner, 243 shift reaction, 655 in nuclear fusion, 338 ideal, 241 water splitting, 496 triton, 294, 311 vaporization, see phase transition, water vapor, 83 tropical cyclone, 536 vaporization as greenhouse gas, 440, 685 tropopause, 523, 534, 687, 690 VA R , see volt-ampere-reactive feedback, 705 troposphere, 687 variable energy resource (VER), 815, 823 watt (unit, W), 6 tunnel junction, 490 variable load, 823 wave, 56ff tunneling, see quantum tunneling variable source, 823 capillary, 598 tunneling lifetime, 285 VAWT, see vertical-axis wind turbine electromagnetic, 61ff turbine, 204, 238, 250 vector, 833 equation, 57 steam, 246, 250 vector boson, 270, 275 gravitational, 598 turbine blade vector cross product, 833 gravity (ocean), 598 design of, 586 vector field, 834 group, 601 forces on, 567ff, 585 vector space, 833 matter, 113 turbo-machine compressor, 243 complex, 838 number, 57 turbulence, 541 real, 837 on a string, 58ff in wind, 543 velocity, 13 packet, 131, 601

874 Index

seismic, 621, 651 Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe wings (in CO2 absorption factor), 698 shallow water, 604 (WMAP), 415 WKBJ approximation, see semiclassical standing, 598 wind, 531 approximation surface (ocean), 596ff atlas, 549 WMAP, see Wilkinson Microwave linearized analysis, 597 directional distribution, 548 Anisotropy Probe vector, 58 fluctuation spectrum of, 543 work, 15 wave development, 600ff frequency distribution of, 546 available, see exergy from pressure, 76 effect of nonlinearities, 603 geostrophic, 535 536 lost, 753 wave guide, 650 gradient, katabatic, 539 not a state function, 77 wave power, 606ff mountain/valley, 539 useful, 77, 753 global potential, 607 power class, 549 working fluid, 183 technologies, 607 rose, 548 wye configuration, 810, 819 wavefunction, see quantum wavefunction shadow, 551 wavelength, 57 X-ray, 373, 379 synoptic scale, 535 weak interactions, 269 radiation exposure from, 394 wind power xenon weakly interacting massive particle building-integrated, 554 135Xe, 332, 352, 355 (WIMP), 416 global potential, 552 xylene, 666 weather, 681 ramps in, 826 xylose, 507 changes in, 734 wind pump, 588 588 weber (unit, Wb), 46 wind turbine yaw, motor, 588 Weibull distribution, 547 fixed-speed, 587 Younger Dryas, 736 moments of, 548 spacing between, 551 Yukawa interaction, 265 wellbore, 636 variable-speed, 587 wellhead, 636 windmill, 588 Z boson, 269, 275 Wells turbine, 609 wine, Bordeaux, 395 zeolites, 505 wet steam, 230 wing zero-point energy, 429 white caps, 602 forces on, 567 zincblende crystal structure, 490 Wiedemann–Franz–Lorenz law, 92 nomenclature, 572 zonal-mean analysis, 523