Iranian Journal of Veterinary Science and Technology Vol. 2, No. 2, 2010, 61-76 IJVST

Ovine and Caprine Toxoplasmosis ()

Mohamad A. Abu-Dalbou, Mustafa M. Ababneh, Nektarios D. Giadinis and Shawkat Q. Lafi*

Department of Epidemiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Jordan

Received: October 7, 2010 Accepted: December 11, 2010

 Abstract Toxoplasmosis, caused by Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii), is an economically important disease of livestock, especially sheep and goats, where it can cause early embryonic death and resorption, fetal death and mummification, abortion, stillbirth, and neonatal death. Cats are the main reservoir for the toxoplasmosis which can contaminate the environments of other animal and human beings by their faeces that contain sporulated oocysts. Toxoplasmosis is diagnosed mainly by direct smear, Immunohistochemistry, serology testing and PCR. Preventive measures include education of the farmers, reduce environmental contamination by oocysts, reducing the number of cats capable of shedding oocysts, limiting the breeding of cats to maintain healthy adults, control of future breeding and adequate continuous control programs of stray cats. Feeding cats with commercial diets or with food processed either by cooking or freezing can reduce the risk of disease transmission. A live vaccine (Toxovax®) is commercially marketed in some countries for reducing losses to the sheep industry from congenital toxoplasmosis. History, Life cycle, Clinical signs, Diagnosis, Mode of transmission, Epidemiology, Treatment, Control, Prevention and Vaccination against T. gondii infection in small animals have been reviewed in this article. Keywords: ToxoplasmaArchive gondii, sheep, goat, abortion, of diagnosis, SID control

*Corresponding author: Shawkat Q. Lafi Email: [email protected] Tel: +96 279 559 2343 Fax: +96 227 20081

Iranian Journal of Veterinary Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No. 2

www.SID.ir 62 Abu-Dalbou M. A., et al.

Introduction a new environmentaly stable form of the Toxoplasmosis is an important zoonotic parasite in their faeces (Hutchison, 1965), led disease caused by the intracellular protozoan to the recognition of the cats as the definitive parasite Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii). hosts of the parasite (Frenkel et al., 1970) and Mammals are intermediate hosts while wild the oocysts as major source of infection for and domestic felids are the definitive hosts. animals and humans (Dubey 2004). The The main clinical sign of the disease in sheep, discovery of T. gondii occysts helped to goats and humans is abortion (Dubey, 2009). explain transmission of infection to herbivores The life cycle of the parasite consists of and therefore, how the disease spread within asexual reproductive stage in mammalian and between flocks of grazing animals (Dubey intermediate hosts and a sexual reproductive and Beattie, 1988). stage in the intestinal mucosa of feline definitive hosts (Garcia, 2001). Infection with Etiology and life cycle T. gondii is widely prevalent in humans and T. gondii belongs to phylum, animals worldwide and can occur pre- or post- Sprozoa class, Eucoccida order, Emmerinae natally (Dubey and Beattie, 1988). suborder and family (James, It has been found that nearly one-third of 1992). Toxoplasma has several strains; more the human population worldwide is infected than 95% of them are grouped into three (Dubey and Beattie, 1988). Toxoplasmosis genetic types (I, II and III). Type I is highly causes heavy economic losses to sheep and virulent in mice, type II is the most common goat industry and is considered as one of the type in persistently infected animals (sheep main causes of infectious ovine and caprine and goats) and type III is defined as no abortion (Buxton et al., 2007). Seroprevalence virulent strain. Clinical human infections are of T. gondii in sheep varied from 92% in more often associated with type II strains France (Cabannes et al., 1997) to 3 % in (Sibley, 2003). Pakistan (Zaki, 1995), while in goats varied T. gondii life cycle includes definitive and from 69% in Austria (Edelhofer and Aspock, intermediate hosts. The sexual and asexual 1996) to 4% in Senegal (Deconinck et al., cycle of the parasite can take place in the 1996). intestinal epithelial cell of the cat (definitive host), but in the intermediate host only asexual Historical background cycle takes place (Dubey 2008; Frenkel et al., T. gondii was found for the first time by 1970; Dubey, 2004). In the cat, following a Nicholls and Bandeaux in 1908 in the liver of primary infection, oocysts are produced and the African rodent Ctenodactylus gondii shed in the feces. Oocysts require 1-5 days in (Dubey and Beattie, 1988; Dubey, 2008). adequate temperature and moisture to Later, it became an important pathogen in speculate, before they become infective to livestock species, as reports from New birds and mammals (Gajadhar et al., 2004; Zealand described the existence of T. gondii in Dubey et al., 1998a). When an intermediate placental tissue Archive from aborting sheep and ofhost (sheep) SID gets infected by ingestion of within aborted ovine fetuses (Hartley and contaminated feed or grazes on land with Marshall, 1957), but the route of transmission sporulated oocysts, the parasite (porosities) was not clear on that time. After it was found will release and become able to actively that this organism can infect sheep, as an invade and multiply within the gut cells. The herbivore animal species, trials were tachyzoite stage of the parasite multiplies conducted to explore the routes of asexually by a process of endodyogeny within transmission other than eating grasses. The a parasitophorous vacuole and then the discovery in the late 1960’s that cats can shed parasites eventually release from the ruptured

Iranian Journal of Veterinary Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No. 2

www.SID.ir Ovine and Caprine Toxoplasmosis 63 cell and invade further cells (Lingelbach and to 13 million T. gondii oocysts were present Joiner, 1998). By day four following infection, per gram of cat feces (Schares et al., 2008). It tachyzoites may be found in the mesenteric has been reported that at any given time, lymph nodes (Dubey, 1984; Dubey, 2004) and approximately 1% of cats are expected to shed the parasites are also found in the circulation oocysts, based on the observation that most where they can spread throughout the host cats shed oocysts for about 1 week in their life (Wastling et al., 1993). (Dubey, 1995; Dubey, 2004). Cats shed In pregnant animals, the tachyzoites invade millions of oocysts in their faeces that can and multiply within the caruncular septa in the survive for 12-18 months in the environment, placentome and then go on and invade the depending on climactic conditions, and are a adjacent foetal trophoblast cells where they important sources of infection for grazing can spread to the rest of the fetus (Buxton and animals (Tenter et al., 2000, Innes 2009, Innes Finlayson, 1986). Tissue cysts may develop in et al., 2009). Shedding of oocysts tend to be visceral organs, including lungs, liver, and more extensive amongst younger (neonatal kidneys. They are more prevalent in muscular cats) rather than older cats (Jackson and and neural tissues, including the brain, eye, Hutchison, 1989; Buxton and Rodger, 2008). skeletal, and cardiac muscle. Intact tissue cysts are probably harmless and can persist for the Toxoplasmosis in cats whole life of the host (Dubey et al., 1998a). Cats are the definitive hosts of T. gondii; in When cats consume infected meat, the wall fact they are the only animals that pass oocysts of the cyst is digested by the proteolytic in their feces (Dubey and Beattie, 1988) for enzymes in the stomach and small intestine of only 2 to 3 weeks following primary infection. cats and bradyzoites are released in the Mature cats are less likely to shed Toxoplasma gastrointestinal tract. Some of the bradyzoites if they have been previously infected (Dubey penetrate the lamina propria of the intestine and Beattie, 1988). The two main transmission and multiply. Within a few hours, T. gondii mechanisms of T. gondii infection are through may disseminate to extra-intestinal tissues. ingestion of either oocysts shed into the Other bradyzoites penetrate epithelial cells of environment from the faeces of cats or viable the small intestine and initiate development of tissue cysts found in raw or undercooked meat numerous generations asexually (Dubey and of intermediate hosts (Dubey and Jones, 2008; Frenkel, 1972). Oocysts of T. gondii are Innes et al., 2009). Cats can suffer from formed only in cats, including both domestic clinical toxoplasmosis (Dubey and Jones, and wild felids. Cats shed oocysts after 2008). Most infected cats are asymptomatic, ingesting tachyzoites, bradzyoites, or but early symptoms include lethargy, sporosities (Dubey, 2004). About three to ten persistent fever and anorexia. Dyspnea and days after infection, infected cats start to shed other signs of pneumonia are seen in many oocysts for two to three weeks (Dubey and cats. Infections with severe respiratory signs Beattie, 1988). are often fatal (Neufled and Brandt, 1974). Each infected cat may shed millions of oocysts to the Archive environment (Dubey and of SID Beattie, 1988), and as few as 200 sporulated Toxoplasmosis in sheep oocysts can cause congenital disease in naive Sheep are important in many countries sheep (McColgan et al., 1988). Under economics, as their products are a source of laboratory conditions, cats can shed as many food or other benefits for humans. Sheep are as 500 million oocysts after ingesting one T. commonly infected with T. gondii. Clinical gondii-infected mouse (Dubey and Frenkel, symptoms in sheep include early embryonic 1972). Millions of oocysts were shed by cats death and resorption, mummification, fed even a few bradyzoites (Dubey, 2001). Up stillbirths, neonatal death or birth of alive but

Iranian Journal of Veterinary Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No. 2

www.SID.ir 64 Abu-Dalbou M. A., et al. weak lambs (Buxton and Rodger, 2008). Up to small mummified foetus (Buxton and Rodger, 50% of sheep may develop fever, tremor, 2008). Although the basic aspect was that dyspnea and abortion in the last 4 weeks of toxoplasmosis can cause abortion only once in pregnancy. Within 3-4 days after birth, death infected animals, a series of recently published may occur with neonatal nervous sings papers from a group of researchers in England (Waldeland, 1976). Malformations in the fetus (Buxton et al., 2007; Morley et al., 2005; have also been reported (Woods and Morley et al,. 2008) have reported that Anderson, 1992). repeated transplacental transmission of T. Severity of infection is associated with the gondii in sheep may be more common than stage of pregnancy at which the ewe becomes previously believed. All evidences presented infected. Infection during the early stage of were based on the detection of T. gondii DNA gestation can result in fetal death, resorption by Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and abortion, while infection in the latter stage techniques. However, studies with different of gestation (fetal immunity is relatively well results also exist (Rodger et al., 2006). developed), may have no clinical effect and lambs are usually born normal but infected and Toxoplasmosis in goat immune (Dubey and Beattie, 1988; Buxton et Goats infected by T. gondii represent al., 2007). The main pathological changes in important sources of human infection due to infected animals are small white foci and consumption of meat and milk from infected necrosis on cotyledons and focal necrotic animals (Dubey, 2004). Such fact is extremely lesions in fetal brain, liver, and lungs (Buxton important concerning the disease control and and Finlayson, 1986). The meat of infected mainly for public health; since the sheep is a source of T. gondii infection for consumption of goat milk is increased (Chiari humans and carnivore animals (Dubey, 2009). and Neves, 1984; Chiari et al., 1987) T. gondii Infection in sheep can occur after consumption tachyzoites have been also isolated from of contaminated feedstuffs or grazing land vaginal mucosa, saliva, nasal secretion and with sporulated oocysts (Innes et al., 2009) urine of experimentally infected goats (Dubey, and transplacentally (Dubey, 1994; Esteban- 1980). The excretion of tachyzoites in the milk Redondo et al., 1995). Most infections in of naturally infected goats has also been sheep occur following birth (Waldeland, 1977; reported (Chiari and Neves, 1984). A Lunden et al., 1994; Innes et al., 2009). Some statistically significant correlation between recent data suggest that in some circumstances positive serology for T. gondii in humans and persistently infected sheep may transmit the consumption of goat milk has been found parasite to the fetus in subsequent pregnancies (Chiari et al., 1987). and abortions may occur (Morley et al., 2005). T. gondii can cause early embryonic death, Transmission of T. gondii tachyzoites in resorption, fetal death, mummification, unpasteurised sheep or goat milk (Tenter et al., abortion, stillbirth and neonatal death 2001) also may occur via tachyzoites depending on the stage of gestation (Dubey, contained in blood products, tissue transplants, 1991; John, 1999). The signs are more severe but are notArchive probably important of SID if the infection occurs in the first half, epidemiologically in animals (Tenter et al., compared to the second half of gestation 2001). (Dubey, 1991). Ovine toxoplasmosis occurs in temperate sheep rearing countries worldwide where the Toxoplasmosis in cattle climatic conditions favour oocyst survival (Buxton and Rodger, 2008). Infection Natural infection in cattle was first occurring at mid-gestation typically results in diagnosed in1953 (Sanger et al., 1953). stillborn or weak lambs accompanied by a Further observations showed that

Iranian Journal of Veterinary Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No. 2

www.SID.ir Ovine and Caprine Toxoplasmosis 65 toxoplasmosis is uncommon in cattle and does bradyzoites can ched millions of oocysts not appear to cause abortion (Dubey, 1986). (Dubey, 2001). Calves are more susceptible than adults Environmental resistance of oocysts: (Nematollahi and Moghddam, 2008). Clinical Sporulated oocysts can survive for long signs of orally affected calves include periods under moderate environmental diarrhea, anorexia, poor weight gain, conditions. For example, they can survive in depression, weakness, dyspnea and fever. In shaded and moist soil for months to years some cases just a modest lymphadenopathy (Dubey and Beattie, 1988; Frenkel et al., may occur. Congenitally infected calves show 1975). T. gondii oocysts are highly resistant to fever, dyspnoea, cough, sneezing and disinfectants, but are killed at temperatures neurological signs, while also stillbirths and above 60 °C (Dubey, 2004; Wainwright et al., neonatal deaths can be observed. If the disease 2007a). Under laboratory conditions, oocysts occurs in adults, symptoms may include fever, remained infective from 30 days (in uncovered dyspnoea, and nervous signs, followed by dishes at 37 °C) to 410 days or more, in lethargy (Dubey, 1986). covered and uncovered dishes at 4°C. Outdoors, infectivity varies from 46 days Epidemiology of toxoplasmosis (uncovered, exposed to direct sunlight, mean Role of cats: T. gondii oocysts are shed by air temperature is 20 °C) to 410 days or more domestic cats and other felids resulting in (covered in shade and air temperature is 19.5 widespread contamination of the environment °C). T. gondii oocysts may remain infective (Dubey and Beattie, 1988). Domestic cats are for a year in warm climates and even longer in the major source of contamination as they are cool climates or in air-conditioned buildings common reservoir of infection and excrete (Yilmaz and Hopkins, 1972). Inactivation of T. large numbers of oocysts (Dubey and Frenkel, gondii oocysts occurred with exposure to 1972; Dubey, 2001), while only a few cats pulsed and continuous UV radiation at doses 2 may shed T. gondii oocysts at any given time. of > 500 mJ/cm (Wainwright et al., 2007b). Latently infected cats can shed oocysts after Mode of transmission: Ingestion of being challenged by infection (Dubey, 1995), contaminated water, food or unpasteurized while congenitally infected kittens can also milk with fecal oocysts shed by cat or oocysts excrete oocysts (Dubey and Carpenter, 1993b). from contaminated hands, utensils or surface Infection rates in cats are largely (indirect transmission) is the most common determined by the rate of infection in the local mode of transmission (Dubey and Beattie, avian and rodent populations, which serve as a 1988; Dubey, 2008). Most sheep acquire T. food source (Ruiz and Frenkel, 1980a). For gondii infection after birth. Although exact example, T. gondii oocysts were found in data are not available, it is thought that < 2% 23.2% of cats in Costa Rica where infection in of sheep become congenitally-infected with T. local rodents and birds was much higher (Ruiz gondii, and less than 4% of persistently and Frenkel, 1980a). For epidemiologic infected sheep transmit it to the next surveys seroprevalence data for cats are more generation (Buxton et al., 2007; Dubey, 2009; Archive ofHiga et al.SID, 2010). However, transplacental useful than results of fecal examination because cats with antibodies have probably transmission from mother to fetus through already shed oocysts and are indicators of infected placenta has been reported (Dubey environmental contamination (Dubey and and Sharma, 1980; Moura et al., 2007; Dubey, Frenkel, 1972). 2008; Dubey and Jones, 2008; Lopes et al., Under laboratory conditions, cats can shed 2009; Scarpelli et al., 2009). Also, T. gondii as many as 500 million oocysts after ingesting has been isolated from the semen of one T. gondii infected mouse (Dubey and experimentally infected rams (Lopes et al., Frenkel, 1972). Cats fed even a few 2009), bucks (Dubey and Sharma, 1980),

Iranian Journal of Veterinary Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No. 2

www.SID.ir 66 Abu-Dalbou M. A., et al. swine (Moura et al., 2007), bulls and male common method for diagnosis of dogs (Scarpelli et al., 2009; Arantes et al., toxoplasmosis which includes sabin Feldman 2009). dye test, indirect heamagglutination test (IHT), The main source for human infection is indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT), ingestion of uncooked meat containing viable complement fixation test (CFT) and intra tissue cysts or by ingesting food or water dermal test (IDT) (Jacobs et al., 1960; Dubey, contaminated with oocysts from the feces of 2008). Sabin–Feldman dye test was developed infected cats (Dubey, 2004), as well as in 1948 by Albert Sabin and Harry Feldman unpasteurized milk (Higa et al., 2010). (Dubey, 2008). The dye test is highly sensitive Water-borne transmission of T. gondii was and specific with no evidence for false results considered uncommon but a large human in humans. The ability to identify T. gondii outbreak linked to contamination of a infections based on a simple serological test municipal water reservoir in Canada by wild opened the field for extensive epidemiological felids and the widespread infection by marine studies on the incidence of infection (Dubey, mammals has been detected (Dubey, 2004; 2008; Dubey, 2009), however it is very Dubey, 2008). Furthermore, oocysts can be expensive, time consuming and not without spread mechanically in the environment by hazard as it requires alive tachyzoites as flies, cockroaches, dung beetles and antigen (Buxton, 1998). earthworms (Kniel et al., 2002; Dubey, 2004). The IHT is a simple, fast and inexpensive test using nonliving antigen; it’s very practical Diagnosis and useful in veterinary and small diagnostic Histopathology: In abortion cases, laboratories. This test measures antibodies that multifocal necrosis and calcification might be appear after two weeks or more after primary seen in the placenta. The placental cotyledons infection which mean no value for the test can be bright to dark red (Dubey and Beattie, immediate infection but have less sensitivity 1988; Buxton, 1998). Parasites can be detected than sabin Feldman dye test or IFAT (Jacobs in the placenta and in the fetal heart, brain, et al., 1960). IFAT requires intact tachyzoites lung or liver (Dubey, 2008). Microscopically, and is more sensitive and specific compared to necroses might be found in the white matter of IHA and Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent the fetal cerebellum and cerebrum. Focal Assay (ELISA) that is used in the diagnosis of lymphoid-cell proliferations and micro ovine toxoplasmosis (Jacobs et al., 1960; necroses might be presented in fetal kidneys, Piergili, 2004). adrenals, lymph nodes or brain (Buxton, 1998; The ELISA for T. gondii antibodies has Dubey, 2008; Dubey and Jones, 2008). been adapted for use in most domestic animals Immunohistochemistry: Immunohistoche- including sheep and goat (Dubey, 2008; mical techniques allow visualization of both Dubey, 2009). There is specific ELISA assays intact T. gondii and antigenic debris in tissue for both IgM and IgG subtypes. These ELISA sections of aborted materials; they are assays are ideally suited to screen large convenient, sensitive methods and have the numbers of samples and looking at the Archive ofIgM/IgG ratio.SID The IgM/IgG ratio can be used advantage, when compared with attempts at isolation, of detecting toxoplasma antigen even to distinguish between the acute and chronic in decomposed tissues (Buxton, 1998; Dubey infections (Denmark and Chessum, 1978). and Jones, 2008). Prenatal diagnosis of congenital toxoplasmosis Direct smears: Direct smear from affected may be made by detecting specific anti- tissue proved rapid and easy diagnostic toxoplasma IgM antibodies in fetal blood method (Terpsidis et al., 2009). (Markell et al., 1992), but congenital Serological test: Serological test is used as infections may be difficult to diagnose serologically, as maternal IgG crosses the

Iranian Journal of Veterinary Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No. 2

www.SID.ir Ovine and Caprine Toxoplasmosis 67 placental barrier and will appear and persist bp PCR assay even in a faster protocol for several months in the circulation of the compared to B1 gene was reported (Edvinsson newborn. Since IgM antibodies do not cross et al., 2006; Kasper et al., 2009). It has been the placenta, demonstration of anti-toxoplasma postulated that an increased analytical IgM at birth or up to several months of age is sensitivity is achieved when a repeated DNA presumptive evidence of congenital element is amplified, although some studies toxoplasmosis (Brown and Neva, 1987). suggested no difference in analytical The presence of specific antibodies in performance depending on the number of serum or tissue fluid from stillborn lambs or repeats (Wastling et al., 1993; Edvinsson et kids or in precolostral serum from live al., 2006). offspring indicates uterine infection (Buxton, 1998). Serological analysis using IFAT and Risk factors ELISA has been widely employed in order to Age: It has been reported that age can be detect herds contaminated by toxoplasma, associated with the seroprevalence of including swine and sheep flocks (Van der toxoplasmosis, as older sheep and goats had a Puije et al., 2000). higher prevalence of toxoplasmosis infection Molecular diagnosis: Burg et al. (1989) compared to younger sheep (Cavalcante et al., detected T. gondii DNA from a single 2008; Ramzan et al., 2009; Kamani et al., tachyzoite using the B1 gene by PCR method 2009). for the first time. Several subsequent PCR tests Gender: It has been shown that female have been developed using different gene sheep and goats are more susceptible than targets. In general, this technique has been males to toxoplasma infections (Ramzan et al., proven as a useful method in diagnosis of 2009). Although there are other reports did not clinical toxoplasmosis (Dubey, 2008). show significant correlation between The B1 gene referred to as B1 repeat, is a toxoplasma infection and the gender of the 2214 base pair (bp) sequence with unknown animals (Caballero-Ortega et al., 2008; function that is repeated 35 time in the genome Cavalcante et al., 2008). of T. gondii (Jalal et al., 2004; Edvinsson et Animal presence: The high seroprevalence al., 2006). The PCR assay targeting the B1 of T. gondii antibodies in sheep may be gene has been used extensively (Jalal et al., associated with the presence of cats in almost 2004). Recently, B1-PCR has been shown as every farm sampled. Newborn kittens are more the most sensitive protocol to detect T. gondii dangerous than old cats (Dubey, 1994; Buxton (Mason et al., 2010). and Rodger, 2008). Infected cats excrete Although some previous studies have toxoplasma oocysts which, after sporulation, reported the higher sensitivity of PCR become infectious to man and animals and targeting AF146527 over that of B1 gene remain infectious for a long period of time which is usually used for diagnosis of (Dubey and Jones, 2008). Also, multivariate toxoplasmosis, some recent studies suggests analysis showed that the probability of that the AF146527 element was absent in 4.8% infection was higher in herds where more than of human T. gondiiArchive-positive samples, which of10 cats wereSID present. This might be related to may prove the B1 PCR technique as the choice greater environmental contamination by one (Wahab et al., 2010; Menotti et al., 2010). oocysts defecated in cat feces (Cavalcante et More recently, a 200-300-fold repeated al., 2008). (that exists in 200-300 copies/genome) 529 bp Climate: Higher prevalence rates of element of unknown function has been toxoplasmosis in warm and moist areas described in the genome of T. gondii compared to those which are cold and dry is (Edvinsson et al., 2006; Kasper et al., 2009). attributed to the longer viability of T. gondii The higher sensitivity and accuracy of the 529- oocysts in moist or humid environments (Van

Iranian Journal of Veterinary Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No. 2

www.SID.ir 68 Abu-Dalbou M. A., et al. der Puije et al., 2000). A new study conducted Prevention and control in Mexico (Caballero-Ortega et al., 2008) Cats are born free of toxoplasma infection revealed that altitude and farm size, affects and start to excrete oocysts following a infection rate, as prevalence was higher at low primary infection (Dubey and Jones, 2008). altitudes and on large farms. Cat faeces can create a large, potent, long- Management system: In extensive lasting source of infection for sheep. Oocyst management systems, cats can be attracted to contamination of farm foods and bedding, as pen where animals are herded. It will also well as pasture, is a threat to susceptible, happen in free roaming pastures during the pregnant sheep and goats, related to the day. This may increase the chance of number and distribution of cats (Dubey, 2008; environment, food and water contamination Dubey and Jones, 2008) in the environment. (Cavalcante et al., 2008). It is estimated that at any time given, about Seroprevalence in intensively managed 1% of cats shed oocysts (Dubey and Beattie, sheep was lower than in semi-intensively 1988). Persistently infected mice, voles, managed (Ragozo et al., 2008). A recent study shrews, rats, rabbits and small birds are the (Neto et al., 2008) showed that both most important sources of cat infections extensive/semi-intensive management systems (Jackson and Hutchison, 1989). Cats are were identified as risk factors associated with considered as the main source of infection for toxoplasmosis in goats. Use of wooden sheep and goats (Dubey and Beattie 1988; feeding troughs was also associated with goat Dubey and Jones, 2008). Ingestion of toxoplasmosis. This might be due to fact that contaminated food and pasture is the most oocysts survive longer in moisture. The lack of common source of small animal’s infection feeding troughs also increased the probability (Dubey, 2004; Dubey and Jones, 2008). Water of infection from pasture or water can be a real threat not only to animals but also contaminated with sporulated oocysts to humans (Bowie et al., 1997). Fields treated (Cavalcante et al., 2008). with manure and bedding from farm buildings where cats live can transmit oocysts and cause Pharmaceuticals infection (Faull et al., 1986). Cats defecating To reduce economic losses due to in farm feeds, such as hay and stored grain, toxoplasmosis, chemotherapeutic treatment of will pose a risk for animals (Plant et al., 1974). infected animals is essential in unvaccinated A single defecation may contain millions of sheep flocks. Several drugs were used with oocysts (Lopes et al., 2008). Further good results such as decoquinate (Buxton et processing of the food disperse these oocysts al., 1996), combination of pyrimethamine and evenly throughout the grain which can infect sulfadimidine, vaquilopruim and sulfadimidine many sheep in flocks (McColgan et al., 1988). or trimethoprim and sulfadimidine (Buxton et During pregnancy in which the majority of al., 1993b). Injecting sulfadimidine in dose 33 herds are seronegative to T. gondii, all food mg/Kg/48 h, 4 injections in total, seems to be and water should be kept away from cat’s very effective in controlling toxoplasmic faeces and contaminated environment (Dubey, Archive of1991; Hye-Youn SID Kim et al., 2009). abortions in sheep flocks (Giadinis et al., 2009). Moreover, monensin, given in the food Other measures to reduce environmental during pregnancy, significantly reduced contamination by oocysts should be aimed to toxoplasma infection in sheep (Buxton et al., minimize the number of cats capable of 1988). Furthermore, clindamycin, spiramycin, shedding oocysts (Dubey and Jones, 2008). atavaquone, arithromycin, clarithromycin and These would include limiting the breeding of dapsone have been used with various results in cats, maintaining healthy adults and attempts non-ruminant species and humans (Giadinis et to control future breeding, adequate and al., 2009). continuous control programs of stray cats to

Iranian Journal of Veterinary Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No. 2

www.SID.ir Ovine and Caprine Toxoplasmosis 69 reduce the risk of transmission of T. gondii 1995). This vaccine was initially developed in and not allowing animals to live or stay New Zealand (Wilkins et al., 1988). outdoors, which will prevent them from The vaccine consists of a modified strain hunting. Feeding cats with commercial diets or (S48) of T. gondii, which were originally with food processed either by cooking or isolated by mouse injection from a case of freezing can reduce the risk of disease ovine abortion in New Zealand. After around transmission. Maintenance of a small healthy 3000 passes twice weekly in laboratory population of mature cats will reduce oocysts mice, it was shown to lose its ability to excretion, besides controlling the rodents develop bradyzoites in tissue cysts. The population (Buxton and Rodge,r 2008; Lopes commercial vaccine consists of live cell et al., 2008; Hye-Youn Kim et al., 2009). culture-grown tachyzoites that have a shelf life In the case of ovine toxoplasmosis, of 10 days. It is recommended to be given 3 educating farmers to the principle infection weeks before mating. One subcutaneous root which is contamination of the injection of this 2 ml suspension induces environment with Toxoplasma oocysts via cat protective immunity for at least 18 months faeces and also measures that reduce the (Buxton and Innes, 1995). Abortions were incidence of clinical disease, including good reduced and lambing percentages significantly management of food and water, as well as improved, compared to unvaccinated sheep in vaccination with the live vaccine (Toxovax; the same flocks (Spence et al., 1992). After Intervet B.V.) will reduce the disease subcutaneous inoculation, S48 tachyzoites occurrence (Buxton et al., 2007). But further multiply locally, producing parasitemia and studies are needed to explore whether some fever. Tachyzoites are controlled by the host sheep breeds have a particular genetic immune response as soon as 10 days post susceptibility to T. gondii (Buxton et al., infection and are not detectable by bioassays at 2007). 6 month post infection (Buxton et al., 1993b). Vaccination: Natural infection with T. Vaccinated sheep develop humoral and gondii stimulates protective immunity in both cellular immunity involving CD4, CD8 T sheep and goats (McColgan et al., 1988) but cells, and IFN-y (Wastling et al., 1993; inactivated toxoplasma tachyzoites, either Wastling et al., 1994). The mechanism of this alone (Beverley et al., 1971) or in Freund’s persistent immunity in the absence of incomplete adjuvant (Wilkins et al., 1987) do detectable live T. gondii is most intriguing and not protect pregnant sheep against needs further research. It must be handled with experimental challenge with the parasite. The care strictly according to the manufacturer’s failure of these killed preparations in sheep recommendations. As with sheep, the majority may be partly because, in natural infections, of goats previously exposed to infection with persistence of the parasite in tissues T. gondii develop a protective immunity to the continually stimulates immunity, as suggested parasite so that they are protected against in human toxoplasmosis (McHugh et al., subsequent challenge during pregnancy 1997). However experiments in which mice (Obendorf et al., 1990). and hamsters wereArchive infected with a live ofThe searchSID for a non-infectious vaccine temperature-sensitive mutant of T. gondii, should continue because of the existing short which does not persist in the host, showed that comings of the live vaccine, its short shelf life it cannot form bradyzoites and cannot and safety margins (Stanley et al., 2004). therefore form tissue cysts (Buxton, 1998). A live vaccine (Toxovax) is commercially References marketed in the UK, France and New Zealand for reducing losses to the sheep industry from Arantes, T., Lopes, W., Ferreira, R., Pinto congenital toxoplasmosis (Buxton and Innes, Pieroni, J., Pinto, M., Sakamoto, C. and

Iranian Journal of Veterinary Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No. 2

www.SID.ir 70 Abu-Dalbou M. A., et al.

da Costa, A. (2009) Toxoplasma Buxton, D., Maley, S., Wright, S., Rodger, S., gondii: Evidence for the transmission Bartley, P. and Innes, E. (2007) by semen in dogs. Experimental Toxoplasma gondii and ovine Parasitology 123, 190-194. toxoplasmosis: new aspects of an old story. Veterinary Parasitology 149, 25- Beverley, J., Archer, J., Watson, W. and 28. Fawcett, A. (1971) Trial of a killed vaccine in the prevention of ovine Buxton, D. and Rodger, S. (2008) abortion due to toxoplasmosis. British Toxoplasmosis and neosporosis. In: Veterinary Journal 127, 529-535. Diseases of sheep, 4th (Aitken, ID.) edn., Wiley-Blackwell, Hoboken. Bowie, W., King, A., Werker, D., Isaac- Renton, J., Bell, A., Eng, S. and Buxton, D., Thomson, K. and Maley, S. (1993) Marion, S. (1997) Outbreak of Treatment of ovine toxoplasmosis with toxoplasmosis associated with a combination of sulphamezathine and municipal drinking water. The BC pyrimethamine. Veterinary Record Toxoplasma Investigation Team. 132, 409-411. Lancet 350, 173-177. Caballero-Ortega, H., Palma, J., García- Brown, H. and Neva, F. (1987) Basic Clinical Márquez, L., Gildo-Cárdenas, A. and Parasitology, 5th edn., Appleton- Correa, D. (2008) Frequency and risk Century- Crofts, USA. factors for toxoplasmosis in ovines of various regions of the State of Colima, Buxton, D. (1998) Protozoan infections Mexico. Parasitology 135, 1385-1389. (Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum and Sarcocystis spp.) in sheep Cabannes, A., Lucchese, F. and Hernandez, J. and goats: recent advances. Veterinary (1997) Enquete seroepide-miologique Research 29, 289-310. sur Toxoplasma gondii chez les ovins, bovines et felins dans le department de Buxton, D., Blewett, D., Trees, A., McColgan, le Gironde. Bulletin de la Societe de C. and Finlayson, J. (1988) Further France Parasitologigue 15, 11-22. studies in the use of monensin in the control of experimental ovine Cavalcante, A., Carneiro, M., Gouveia, A., toxoplasmosis. Journal of Comparative Pinheiro, R. and Vitor, R. (2008) Risk Pathology 98, 225-236. factors for infection by Toxoplasma gondii in herds of goats in Ceará, Buxton, D., Brebner, J., Wright, S., Maley, S., Brazil. Arquivo Brasileiro de Medicina Thomson, K. and Millard, K. (1996) Veterinária e Zootecnia 60, 36-41. Decoquinate and the control of experimental ovine toxoplasmosis. Chiari, C., Lima, W., Antunes, C. and Lima, J. Veterinary Record 138, 434-436. (1987) Soro-epidemiologia da toxoplasmose caprina em Minas Buxton, D. and Finlayson, J. (1986) Gerais, Brasil. Arquivo Brasileiro de ExperimentalArchive infection of pregnant ofMedicina SID Veterinária e Zootecnia 39, sheep with Toxoplasma gondii: 587-609. pathological and immunological observations on the placenta and Chiari, C. and Neves, D. (1984) Toxoplasmose foetus. Journal of Comparative humana adquirida através da ingestão Pathology 96, 319-333. de leite de cabra. Memorial Institute of Oswaldo Cruz 79, 337-340. Buxton, D. and Innes, E. (1995) A commercial vaccine for ovine toxoplasmosis. Deconinck, P., Pangui, L. and Akakpo, J. Parasitology 110, S11-16. (1996) Prevalence de la toxoplasmose

Iranian Journal of Veterinary Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No. 2

www.SID.ir Ovine and Caprine Toxoplasmosis 71 chez les petits ruminants en Afrique Dubey, J. (2008) The history of Toxoplasma tropicale: resultats d’une enquete sero- gondii-the first 100 years. Journal of epidemiologique sur 1042 animaux. Eukaryotic Microbiology 55, 467-475. Revue de Médecine Vétérinaire 147, 377-378. Dubey, J. (2009) Toxoplasmosis in sheep-The last 20 years. Veterinary Parasitology Denmark, I. and Chessum, B. (1978) 163, 1-14. Standardization of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and the Dubey, J. and Beattie, C. (1988) detection of Toxoplasma antibody. Toxoplasmosis of animals and man, Medical Laboratory Science 35, 227- CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, USA. 232. Dubey, J. and Carpenter, J. (1993) Neonatal Dubey, J. (1980) Persistence of encysted toxoplasmosis in littermate cats. Toxoplasma gondii in caprice levers Journal of American Veterinary and public health significance of Medical Association 203, 1546-1549. toxoplasmosis in goats. Journal of American Veterinary Medical Dubey, J., Dorough, K., Jenkins, M., Liddell, Association 177, 1203-1207. S., Speer, C., Kwok, O. and Shen, S. (1998) Canine neosporosis: clinical Dubey, J. (1984) Experimental toxoplasmosis signs, diagnosis, treatment and in sheep fed Toxoplasma gondii isolation of Neospora caninum in mice oocysts. International Goat and Sheep and cell culture. International Journal Research 2, 93-104. of Parasitology 28, 1293-1304.

Dubey, J. (1986) A review of toxoplasmosis in Dubey, J. and Frenkel, J. (1972) Cyst-induced cattle. Journal of Veterinary toxoplasmosis in cats. Journal of Parasitology 22, 177-202. Protozoology 19, v.

Dubey, J. (1991) Toxoplasmosis--an overview. Dubey, J. and Jones, J. (2008) Toxoplasma Journal of tropical medicine and gondii infection in humans and animals public health 22, 88-92. in the United States. International Journal of Parasitology 38, 1257-1278. Dubey, J. (1994) Toxoplasmosis. Journal of American Veterinary Medical Dubey, J. and Sharma, S. (1980) Parasitemia Association 205, 1593-1598. and tissue infection in sheep fed Toxoplasma gondii oocysts. Journal of Dubey, J. (1995) Duration of immunity to Parasitology 66, 111-114. shedding of Toxoplasma gondii oocysts by cats. Jounal of Parasitology Edelhofer, R. and Aspock, H. (1996) 81, 410-415. Infektionsquellen und infektionswege aus der Sicht des Toxoplasmose- Dubey, J. (2001) Oocyst shedding by cats fed Screenings der Schwangeren in isolated bradyzoitesArchive and comparison of ofOsterreich. SID Mitt Osterr Ges Tropenmed infectivity of bradyzoites of the VEG Parasitol 18, 59-70. strain Toxoplasma gondii to cats and mice. Journal of Parasitology 87, 215- Edvinsson, B., Lappalainen, M., Evengå rd, B. 219. and Toxoplasmosis, E.S.G.f. (2006) Real-time PCR targeting a 529-bp Dubey, J. (2004) Toxoplasmosis-a waterborne repeat element for diagnosis of zoonosis. Veterinary Parasitology 126, toxoplasmosis. clinical microbiology 57-72. infection 12, 131-136.

Iranian Journal of Veterinary Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No. 2

www.SID.ir 72 Abu-Dalbou M. A., et al.

Esteban-Redondo, I., Maley, S., Thomson, K., positive pregnant women in southern Nicoll, S., Wright, S., Buxton, D. and Brazil: a health alert. Transactions of Innes, E. (1995) Detection of T. gondii the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine in tissues of sheep and cattle following and Hygiene 104, 400-405. oral infection. Veterinary Parasitology 86, 155-171. Hutchison, W. (1965) Experimental transmission of Toxoplasma gondii. Faull, W., Clarkson, M. and Winter, A. (1986) Nature 206, 961-962. Toxoplasmosis in a flock of sheep: some investigations into its source and Hye-Youn, K., Yun-Ah, K., Ho Sa, L., Ho control. Veterinary Record 119, 491- Gun, R., Shin-Hyeong, C., Jae-Ran, Y. 493. and Sang-Eun, L. (2009) Genotype of Toxoplasma gondii from Blood of Frenkel, J., Dubey, J. and Miller, N. (1970) Stray Cats in Gyeonggi-do, Korea. Toxoplasma gondii in cats: fecal stages Korean Journal of Parasitology 47, identified as coccidian oocysts. Science 413-415. 167, 893-896. Innes, E. (2009) A brief history and overview Frenkel, J., Ruiz, A. and Chinchilla, M. (1975) of Toxoplasma gondii. Zoonoses Soil survival of Toxoplasma oocysts in Public Health 57, 1-7. Kansas and Costa Rica. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Jackson, M. and Hutchison, W. (1989) The Hygiene 24, 439-443. prevalence and source of Toxoplasma infection in the environment. Advances Gajadhar, A., Meaasures, L., Forbes, L., in Parasitology 28, 55-105. Kapel, C. and Dubey, J. (2004) Experimental Toxoplasma gondii Jacobs, L., Remington, J. and Melton, M. infection in grey seals Halichoerus (1960) The resistance of the encysted grypus. Jounal of Parasitology 90, form of toxoplasma gondii. Jounal of 255-259. Parasitology 46, 11-21.

Garcia, L. (2001) Tissue protozoa. In: Jalal, S., Nord, C., Lappalainen, M., Evengå rd, Diagnostic Medical Parasitology, 4th B. and CMID Study Group on edn., ASM Press, California, USA. pp Toxoplasmosis (2004) Rapid and 132-158. sensitive diagnosis of toxoplasma gondii infections by PCR. Clinical Giadinis, N., Terpsidis, K., Diakou, A., Microbiology and Infection 10, 937- Siarkou, V., Karatzias, H. and 939. Papazahariadou, M. (2009) Treatment of sheep toxoplasmosis with James, L. (1992) Toxoplasmosis. sulfadimidine. In: Proceedings of the Encyclopedia of Microbiology 4, 255- World Sheep Veterinary Congress, 264. Stavanger, Norway. Archive ofKamani, J.,SID Mani, A. and Egwu, G. (2009) Hartley, W. and Marshall, S. (1957) Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii Toxoplasmosis as a cause of ovine infection in domestic sheep and goats perinatal mortality. New Zealand in Borno state, Nigeria. Tropical Veterinary Journal 5, 119-124. Animal Health and Production 21, 134-137. Higa, L., Araú jo, S., Tsuneto, L., Castilho- Pelloso, M., Garcia, J., Santana, R. and Kasper, D., Sadeghi, K., Prusa, A., Reischer, Falavigna-Guilherme, A. (2010) A G., Kratochwill, K., Fö rster-Waldl, E., prospective study of Toxoplasma- Gerstl, N., Hayde, M., Pollak, A. and

Iranian Journal of Veterinary Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No. 2

www.SID.ir Ovine and Caprine Toxoplasmosis 73 Herkner, K. (2009) Quantitative real- oocysts in non-pregnant sheep and the time polymerase chain reaction for the effects of subsequent challenge during accurate detection of Toxoplasma pregnancy. Veterinary Record 123, gondii in amniotic fluid. Diagnostic 467-470. Microbiology and Infectious Disease 63, 10-15. McHugh, T., Bathgate, T., Mangan, J., Johnson, J., Holliman, R. and Butcher, Kniel, K., Lindsay, D., Sumner, S., Hackney, P. (1997) Recognition of tissue cyst- C., Pierson, M. and Dubey, J. (2002) specific antigens in reactivating Examination of attachment and toxoplasmosis. Journal of Medical survival of Toxoplasma gondii oocysts Microbiology 46, 587-595. on raspberries and blueberries. Jounal of Parasitology 88, 790-793. Menotti, J., Garin, Y., Thulliez, P., Sérugue, M., Stanislawiak, J., Ribaud, P., de Lingelbach, K. and Joiner, K. (1998) The Castro, N., Houzé, S. and Derouin, F. parasitophorous vacuole membrane (2010) Evaluation of a new 5'-nuclease surrounding Plasmodium and real-time PCR assay targeting the Toxoplasma: an unusual compartment Toxoplasma gondii AF146527 in infected cells. Journal of Cell genomic repeat. Clinical Microbiology Science 111, 1467-1475. and Infection 16, 363-368.

Lopes, A., Cardoso, L. and Rodrigues, M. Morley, E., Williams, R., Hughes, J., Terry, R. (2008) Serological survey of and Duncanson, P. (2005) Significant Toxoplasma gondii infection in familial differences in the frequency of domestic cats from northeastern abortion and Toxoplasma gondii Portugal. Veterinary Parasitology 155, infection within a flock of Charollais 184-189. sheep. Parasitology 131, 181-185.

Lopes, W., da Costa, A., Santana, L., dos Morley, E., Williams, R., Hughes, J., Santos, R., Rossanese, W., Lopes, W., Thomasson, D., Terry, R., Duncanson, Costa, G., Sakamoto, C. and dos P., Smith, J. and Hide, G. (2008) Santos, T. (2009) Aspects of Evidence that primary infection of Toxoplasma Infection on the Charollais sheep with Toxoplasma Reproductive System of gondii may not prevent foetal infection Experimentally Infected Rams (Ovis and abortion in subsequent lambings. Aries). Jounal of Parasitology Parasitology 135, 169-173. Research 1155, 1-6. Moura, A., Costa, A., Filho, J., Paim, B., Markell, E., Voge, M. and John, D. (1992) Pinto, F. and Di Mauro, D. (2007) Medical Parasitology, 7th edn., W.B. Toxoplasma gondii in semen of Saunders Company England. p 116. experimentally infected swine. Pesquisa Veterinária Brasileira 27, Mason, S., Quinnell, R. and Smith, J. (2010) 430-434. Detection Archive of Toxoplasma gondii in of SID lambs via PCR screening and Nematollahi, A. and Moghddam, G. (2008) serological follow-up. Veterinary Survey on Seroprevalence of Anti- Parasitology 169, 258-263. Toxoplasma Gondii Antibodies in Cattle in Tabriz (Iran) by IFAT. Matthews, J. (1999) Diseases of goat, 2nd American Journal of Animal and edn., Blackwell Science. pp 26 -28. Veterinary Sciences 3, 40-42.

McColgan, C., Buxton, D. and Blewett, D. Neto, J., Azevedo, S., Gennari, S., Funada, M., (1988) Titration of Toxoplasma gondii Pena, H., Araú jo, A., Batista, C., Silva,

Iranian Journal of Veterinary Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No. 2

www.SID.ir 74 Abu-Dalbou M. A., et al.

M., Gomes, A., Piatti, R. and Alves, C. of endogenous transmission. (2008) Prevalence and risk factors for Veterinary Record 159, 768-772. anti-Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in goats of the Seridó Oriental Ruiz, A. and Frenkel, J. (1980) Intermediate microregion, Rio Grande do Norte and transport hosts of Toxoplasma state, Northeast region of Brazil. gondii in Costa Rica. American Veterinary Parasitology 156, 329–332. Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 29, 1161-1166. Neufled, J. and Brandt, R. (1974) Cholangiohepatitis in a cat associated Sanger, V., Chamberlani, K., Cole, C. and with a coccidia like organism. Farrell, R. (1953) Toxoplasmosis Canadian Veterinary Journal 12, 156- isolation of Toxoplasma gondii from 159. cattle. Journal of American Veterinary Medical Association 123, 87-91. Obendorf, D., Statham, P. and Munday, B. (1990) Resistance to Toxoplasma Scarpelli, L., Lopes, W., Migani, M., abortion in female goats previously Bresciani, K. and Costa, A. (2009) exposed to Toxoplasmn infection. Toxoplasma gondii in experimentally Australian Veterinary Journal 67, 233- infected Bos taurus and Bos indicus 234. semen and tissues. Pesquisa Veterinária Brasileira 29, 59-64. Piergili Fioretti, D. (2004) Problems and limitations of conventional and Schares, G., Vrhovec, M., Pantchev, N., innovative methods for the diagnosis of Herrmann, D. and Conraths, F. (2008) Toxoplasmosis in humans and animals. Occurrence of Toxoplasma gondii and Parassitologia 46, 177-181. hammondi oocysts in the faeces of cats from Germany and other Plant, J., Richardson, N. and Moyle, G. (1974) European countries. Veterinary Toxoplasma infection and abortion in Parasitology 152, 34-45. sheep associated with feeding of grain contaminated with cat faeces. Sibley, D. (2003) Recent origins among Australian Veterinary Journal 50, 19- ancient parasites. Veterinary 21. Parasitology 115, 185-198.

Ragozo, A., Yai LEO, Oliveira, L., Dias, R., Spence, J., Mitchell, G., McNally, J., Blewett, Dubey, J. and Gennari, S. (2008) D. and Wright, F. (1992) The vaccinal Seroprevalence and isolation of efficacy of the S48 strain“Toxovax” of Toxoplasma gondii from sheep from Toxoplasma gondii against natural Sa˜o Paulo State. Braziliann Journal of field outbreaks of ovine toxoplasmosis. Parasitology 94, 1259-1263. In: VIth European Multicolloquium of Parasitology, The Hague. p 103. Ramzan, M., Akhtar, M., Muhammad, F., Hussain, I., Hiszczyńska-Sawicka, E., Stanley, A., Buxton, D., Innes, E. and Huntley, Haq, A., Mahmood,Archive M. and Hafeez, M. ofJ. SID (2004) Intranasal imunisation with (2009) Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoite antigen gondii in sheep and goats in Rahim Yar encapsulated into PLG microspheres Khan (Punjab), Pakistan. Tropical induces humoral and cell-mediated Animal Health and Production 41, immunity in sheep. Vaccine 22, 3929- 1225-1229. 3941.

Rodger, S., Maley, S., Wright, S., Mackellar, Tenter, A., Heckeroth, A. and Weiss, L. (2000) A., Wesley, F., Sales, J. and Buxton, D. Toxoplasma gondii: from animals to (2006) Ovine toxoplasmosis; the role humans. International Jounal of

Iranian Journal of Veterinary Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No. 2

www.SID.ir Ovine and Caprine Toxoplasmosis 75 Parasitology 30, 1217-1258. Influence of various factors on the antibody contents. Acta Veterinaria Tenter, A., Heckeroth, A. and Weiss, L. (2001) Scandinavica 18, 237-247. Toxoplasma gondii: from animals to humans. International Jounal of Wastling, J., Harkins, D. and Buxton, D. Parasitology 31, 217-220. (1994) Western blot analysis of the IgG response of sheep vaccinated with S48 Terpsidis, K., Papazahariadou, M., Taitzoglou, Toxoplasma gondii (Toxovax). I., Papaioannou, N., Georgiadis, M. Research in Veterinary Science 57, and Theodoridis, I. (2009) Toxoplasma 384-386. gondii: reproductive parameters in experimentally infected male rats. Wastling, J., Nicoll, S. and Buxton, D. (1993) Experimental Parasitology 121, 238- Comparison of two gene amplification 241. methods for the detection of Toxoplasma gondii in experimentally Van der Puije, W., Bosompem, K., Canacoo, infected sheep. Journal of Medical E., Wastling, J. and Akanmori, B. Microbiology 38, 360-365. (2000) The prevalence of anti- Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in Wilkins, M., O’Connell, E. and Te Punga, W. Ghanaian sheep and goats. Acta (1987) Toxoplasmosis in sheep. I. Tropica 76, 21-26. Effect of a killed vaccine on lamb losses caused by experimental Wahab, T., Edvinsson, B., Palm, D. and Lindh, challenge with Toxoplasma gondii. J. (2010) Comparison of the AF146527 New Zealand Veterinary Journal 35, and B1 repeated elements, two real- 31-34. time PCR targets used for detection of Toxoplasma gondii. Jounal of Clinical Wilkins, M., O’Connell, E. and Te Punga, W. Microbiology 48, 591-602. (1988) Toxoplasmosis in sheep III. Further evaluation of the ability of a Wainwright, K., Lagunas-Solar, M., Miller, live Toxoplasma gondii vaccine to M., Barr, B., Gardner, I., Pina, C., prevent lamb losses and reduce Melli, A., Packham, A., Zeng, N., congenital infection following Truong, T. and Conrad, P. (2007a) experimental oral challenge. New Physical inacativation of Toxoplasma Zealand Veterinary Journal 36, 86-89. gondii oocysts in water. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 73, 5663– Woods, L. and Anderson, M. (1992) Scoliosis 5666. and hydrocephalus in an ovine fetus infected with Toxoplasma gondii. Wainwright, K., Miller, M., Barr, B., Gardner, Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic I., Melli, A., Essert, T., Packham, A., Investigation 4, 220-222. Truong, T., Lagunas-Solar, M. and Conrad, P. (2007b) Chemical Yilmaz, S. and Hopkins, S. (1972) Effects of inactivation of Toxoplasma gondii different conditions on duration of oocysts Archivein Water. Jounal of ofinfectivity SID of Toxoplasma gondii Parasitology 93, 925–931. oocysts. Jounal of Parasitology 58, 938-939. Waldeland, H. (1976) The prevalence of Toxoplasma antibodies in lambs and Zaki, M. (1995) Seroprevalence of mature sheep from different parts of Toxoplasma gondii in domestic Norway. Acta Veterinaria animals in Pakistan. Journal of the Scandinavica 17, 412-432. Pakistan Medical Association 45, 4-5.

Waldeland, H. (1977) Toxoplasmosis in sheep.

Iranian Journal of Veterinary Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No. 2

www.SID.ir Iranian Journal of Veterinary Science and Technology Vol. 2, No. 2, 2010, 61-76 IJVST

ﺗﻮﮐﺴﻮﭘﻼﺳﻤﻮز در ﮔﻮﺳﻔﻨﺪ و ﺑﺰ

ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﺑﻮدﻟﺒﻮ، ﻣﺼﻄﻔﯽ اﺑﺎﺑﻨﻪ، ﻧﮑﺘﺎرﯾﻮس ﺟﯿﺎدﯾﻨﯿﺲ، ﺷﻮﮐﺖ ﻻﻓﯽ

ﮔﺮوه اﭘﯿﺪﻣﯿﻮﻟﻮژي، داﻧﺸﮑﺪه داﻣﭙﺰﺷﮑﯽ، داﻧﺸﮕﺎه ﻋﻠﻮم و ﺗﮑﻨﻮﻟﻮژي اردن، اردن

درﯾﺎﻓﺖ ﻣﻘﺎﻟﻪ: 16 /7/ 89 ﭘﺬﯾﺮش ﻧﻬﺎﯾ ﯽ: 22 /9/ 89

ﭼﮑﯿﺪه ﺑﯿﻤﺎري ﺗﻮﮐﺴﻮﭘﻼﺳﻤﻮز ﮐﻪ ﺑﻮﺳﯿﻠﻪ ﺗﮏ ﯾﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﺗﻮﮐﺴﻮﭘﻼﺳﻤﺎ ﮔﻮﻧﺪي (T. gondii) اﯾﺠﺎد ﻣﯽﺷﻮد، ﺑـﺪﻟﯿﻞ اﯾﺠـﺎد ﻣـﺮگ زودرس ﺟﻨـﯿﻦ، ﻣﻮﻣﯿﺎﯾﯽ ﺷﺪن، ﺳﻘﻂ، ﻣﺮده زاﯾﯽ و ﻣﺮگ و ﻣﯿﺮ ﻧﻮزادان، از اﻫﻤﯿﺖ اﻗﺘﺼﺎدي زﯾﺎدي در داﻣﻬﺎي اﻫﻠﯽ و ﺑـﻮﯾﮋه در ﮔﻮﺳـﻔﻨﺪ و ﺑـﺰ ﺑﺮﺧـﻮردار اﺳﺖ. ﮔ ﺮﺑﻪﻫﺎ اﺻﻠﯽ ﺗﺮﯾﻦ ﻣﺨﺎزن ﺗﻮﮐﺴﻮﭘﻼﺳﻤﻮز ﺑﻮده، ﻣﯽﺗﻮاﻧﻨﺪ ﻣﺤﯿﻂ ﺳﺎﯾﺮ ﺟﺎﻧﻮران و اﻧﺴﺎنﻫﺎ را از ﻃﺮﯾﻖ ﻣﺪﻓﻮع ﺣـﺎوي اووﺳﯿﺴـ ﺖﻫـﺎي اﺳﭙﻮروﻟﻪ آﻟﻮده ﮐﻨﻨﺪ . . ﺗﻮﮐﺴﻮﭘﻼﺳﻤﻮر ﺑﯿﺸﺘﺮ ﺑﻮﺳﯿﻠﻪ ﻣﺸﺎﻫﺪه ﮔﺴﺘﺮش ﻣﺴﺘﻘﯿﻢ، اﯾﻤﻮﻧﻮﻫﯿﺴﺘﻮﺷﯿﻤﯽ، آزﻣﺎﯾﺶ ﻫﺎي ﺳﺮوﻟﻮژي و PCR ﺗﺸﺨﯿﺺ داده ﻣﯽﺷﻮد. اﻗﺪاﻣﺎت ﭘﯿﺸﮕﯿﺮاﻧﻪ ﻣﺸﺘﻤﻞ ﻫﺴﺘﻨﺪ ﺑﺮ: آﻣﻮزش داﻣﺪاران، ﮐﺎﻫﺶ آﻟﻮدﮔﯽ ﻣﺤﯿﻂ ﺑﻮﺳﯿﻠﻪ اووﺳﯿﺴﺖﻫﺎ، ﮐﺎﻫﺶ ﺟﻤﻌﯿـﺖ ﮔﺮﺑـﻪ ﻫـﺎﯾﯽ ﮐـﻪ ﻗﺎدر ﺑﻪ ﭘﺨﺶ اووﺳﯿﺴﺖ ﻫﺴﺘﻨﺪ، ﮐﺎﻫﺶ ﺗﻮﻟﯿﺪ ﻣﺜﻞ ﮔﺮﺑﻪﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻨﻈﺮ ﺑﺎﻗﯽ ﮔﺬاﺷﺎﺗﻦ ﮔﺮﺑﻪ ﻫﺎي ﺑﺎﻟﻎ ﻏﯿﺮ آﻟﻮده، ﮐﻨﺘﺮل ﺗﻮﻟﯿﺪ ﻣﺜﻞﻫﺎي آﯾﻨـﺪه و ﺑﺮﻧﺎﻣﻪﻫﺎي ﮐﻨﺘﺮﻟﯽ ﻣﻨﻈﻢ و ﭘﯿﻮﺳﺘﻪ ﻋﻘﯿﻢ ﺳﺎزي ﮔﺮﺑﻪﻫﺎ. ﺗﻐﺬﯾﻪ ﮔﺮﺑﻪﻫﺎ ﺑﺎ ﻏﺬاﻫﺎي ﺗﺠﺎري آﻣﺎده و و ﯾﺎ ﺑﺎ ﻏﺬاﻫﺎﯾﯽ ﮐﻪ ﺑﻮﺳـﯿﻠﻪ ﭘﺨـﺘﻦ ﯾـﺎ اﻧﺠﻤﺎد ﻓﺮآوري ﺷﺪهاﻧﺪ ﻣﯽ ﺗﻮاﻧﺪ ﻧﻘﺶ ﺑﺴﺰاﯾﯽ در ﮐﺎﻫﺶ اﺣﺘﻤﺎل اﻧﺘﻘﺎل آﻟﻮدﮔﯽ داﺷﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ. اﻣﺮوزه واﮐﺴﻦ زﻧﺪه (®Toxovax) در ﺑـﺎزار ﺑﺮﺧﯽ ﮐﺸﻮرﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻨﻈﻮر ﮐﺎﻫﺶ ﺧﺴﺎرات ﺑﻪ ﺻﻨﻌﺖ ﭘﺮورش ﮔﻮﺳﻔﻨﺪ ﺑﻮﺳﯿﻠﻪ ﺗﻮﮐﺴﻮﭘﻼﺳﻤﻮز ﻣﺎدرزادي اراﯾﻪ ﺷﺪه اﺳﺖ. در ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﻪ ﺣﺎﺿﺮ، ﺗﺎرﯾﺨﭽﻪ، ﭼﺮﺧﻪ زﻧﺪﮔﯽ، ﻋﻼﯾﻢ ﺑـﺎﻟﯿﻨﯽ، ﺗﺸـﺨﯿﺺ، روﺷـﻬﺎي اﻧﺘﻘـﺎل، اﭘﯿـﺪﻣﯿﻮﻟﻮژي، درﻣـﺎن، ﮐﻨﺘـﺮل، ﭘﯿﺸـﮕﯿﺮي و واﮐﺴﯿﻨﺎﺳﯿﻮن ﺑﺮ ﻋﻠﯿﻪ آﻟﻮدﮔﯽ ﺗﻮﮐﺴﻮﭘﻼﺳﻤﺎ ﮔﻮﻧﺪي در داﻣﻬﺎي ﮐﻮﭼﮏ ﺑﺮرﺳﯽ ﻣﯽ ﺷﻮد.

واژﮔﺎن ﮐﻠﯿﺪي: ﺗﻮﮐﺴﻮﭘﻼﺳﻤﺎ ﮔﻮﻧﺪي، ﮔﻮﺳﻔﻨﺪ، SIDﺑﺰ، ﺳﻘﻂ، ofﺗﺸﺨﯿﺺ، ﮐﻨﺘﺮلArchive

Iranian Journal of Veterinary Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No. 2

www.SID.ir