Natural Territory, Urban Growth and Climate Change in the Parana River Delta and Rio De La Plata Estuarine System: an Overview

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Natural territory, urban growth and climate change in the Parana River Delta and Rio de la Plata estuarine system: an overview.

Author: This overview aims to show the ecological significance of the Parana Delta and the Rio de Verónica Zagare la Plata system, the main drivers of change and the possible consequences of urban PhD candidate growth and climate events. It also addresses the vulnerabilities and potentials of the Faculty of Architecture, Delft system and the interrelationships that take place on it. The recognition of the present University of Technology. situation and future natural and human-caused effects remains of vital importance for Email: v.m.e.zagare @tudelft.nl the development of planning adaptation strategies. The methodology of this document is [email protected] clearly descriptive, trying to give an impression of the reality of the region and to introduce this case study to the international debate. Previous investigations on the area often considered Parana Delta’s islands and the coasts of Parana Delta and Rio de la Plata estuary as separate units in terms of their landscape, ecology or geography. Nevertheless, they are geomorphologically related and they suffer the effects of the same natural and urban processes, so they can be considered parts of a larger system. Besides natural evolutionary changes, urban growth has also expanded throughout the entire region establishing a complex net of economic relationships. During the latest decades, the urban development of the Metropolitan Area of Buenos Aires, the larger conurbation of the Argentina, has expanded North-West towards the Parana Delta. Simultaneously, the front of the Delta has advanced due to natural processes of sediment accumulation, displacing towards South-East. Both processes are taking place at the same time, converging in a context where the lack of resources, infrastructures and urban planning is an obstacle for the implementation of sustainable actions and adaptation strategies to face climate changes. In the need of theories and planning strategies, this paper aims to introduce the present scenario in order to understand the dynamics coexisting within the system and to present some possible planning strategies for the area from a regional and local perspective.

Keywords: Urbanizing Deltas, Urbanism, Sustainability, Drivers of change, Parana Delta.

(Rinaldi, Abril, and Clariá 2006) located INTRODUCTION between the coasts of Argentina and Uruguay, and has a vital relevance not only for the A complex coexistence of natural region -a high populated area with more than environment, urban patterns and climate 22 million inhabitants- but also for the changes takes place in estuarine delta systems hydrology of South American continent. (Morris, Meyer, and Waggoner 2008). The According to the Intergovernmental Panel on resulted landscape differs from one region to Climate Change (Bates et al. 2008), the Rio de another depending on ecological, political, la Plata, the Amazon and the Orinoco carry economical and technological frameworks. into the Atlantic Ocean more than 30% of the The Cuenca del Plata (La Plata Basin) is the renewable freshwater of the world. second major hydrographical basin of South In spite of having a great biodiversity and America. It covers 3.1 million km2 distributed natural resources, Latin America is threatened in five countries (Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, by stress on water quality, unequal distribution Uruguay and Paraguay) and drains to the of the resource, lack of infrastructures and Atlantic Ocean through the Parana Delta and strong climate changes. The studied case is Rio de la Plata estuarine system. (Figure 1). representative of the Latin American situation, This complex system constitutes a geologic- where the impact of non planned urban hydrologic sedimentary dynamic entity growing processes together with political, economical, institutional and technological

Natural territory, urban growth and climate change in the Parana River Delta and Rio de la Plata estuarine system.

limitations lead into an unsustainable use of similar flow –Parana River’s flow is 17000 the land. m3/s and Mississippi’s 16000 m3/s-, and is Four issues will be presented on this paper: the twice as long as the Rhine, but it has eight natural processes that take place on the times its flow. The Parana River is the unique estuarine system, the dynamics of economic river in the world that flows into another river development and urban expansion, climatic (Consejo Federal de Inversiones, 1962) and it trends and the possible future effects that the is the most important river of La Plata basin interaction of the three previous factors may (Paraná sub-basin represents 48% of the total have on the region. Finally, a set of planning surface of the basin). In the river mouth, the adaptation strategies will be suggested from a Parana joins the Uruguay River forming the regional and local perspective in order to 250 km-long Rio de la Plata, a wide estuary search for a sustainable balance between which presents a maximum width of 230 km. natural systems and urban growing processes The funnel-shaped transition between the within the uncertainty of climatic variations. Parana River and the Rio de la Plata is the Parana Delta, one of the largest coastal OVERVIEW OF THE SYSTEM wetlands systems of Argentina, which covers a 2 surface of 22.587 km (Secretaría de Ambiente The Parana Delta and Rio de la Plata are y Desarrollo Sustentable de la Nación 2008). related from a geomorphological point of The subaerial Delta presents a variable width, view. They formed during the Pliocene, from 18 km to 100 km, and according to Pleistocene and Holocene Epochs, due to landscape parameters it can be divided into transgressive-regressive events related to three zones: Upper, Middle and Lower Delta, glacier and inter-glacier periods characterized where can also be found other landscape sub- by rapid increases and decreases of sea level units. The Parana Delta is a young area with a (Cavallotto and Violante 2005). Although each balance between erosion and sedimentation river has its own geographic characteristics, processes, influenced by freshwater tides and they are linked by water currents, they share South Eastern winds. This complex territory is sediments and are exposed to the same located near the most populated region of climatic forces. For studying purposes, the Argentina and faces spatial pressures of three Parana Delta and the Rio de la Plata estuary important metropolitan regions: the are going to be analyzed as a unique system in Metropolitan Area of Buenos Aires –the order to address both regional and local largest conurbation of the country, with a specific issues related to natural and human population of around 12 million inhabitants-, drivers of change. Gran Rosario Metropolitan Area –the third The Parana River is the third largest river in urbanized area of the nation, with more than the American Continent after the Mississippi 1.2 million inhabitants-, Santa Fe –with almost in the United States and the Amazonas in 0.5 million inhabitants-, and outside of the Brazil. Located in South America, it runs delta area but along the coasts of the Rio de la through Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina, Plata, La Plata city, capital of the Province of where it flows into the Rio de la Plata. Its Buenos Aires -0.7 million inhabitants- (Figure length is 2570 km and its basin surface is 1.5 2). million km2. The two initial tributaries are Two water sources influence the delta: local located in Brazil –Paranaiba River and Grande precipitations and large rivers –Parana, River-, but the most important tributary is the Gualeguay, Uruguay and Rio de la Plata- Paraguay River, located in the homonymous (Malvarez 2007). The surface of the delta is country. Compared to other rivers, the Parana increasing due to sediment accumulation – is half the length of the Mississippi but it has Parana River transports 160 million tons of sediments per year- which also produces a

continuous advance of the delta front. One of saturated with water during long periods the two subfronts of the River, called Parana (Mitsch and Gosselink 2007). The water de Las Palmas sub-front, presents an important usually comes from different sources such as advance –from 50 to 100 m/year- parallel to sea, rivers, rains or groundwater, and the the coast of Buenos Aires city. A study of the hydrological regime is diverse (Kandus and INA (Instituto Nacional del Agua) revealed Malvares 2002). that in the last 200 years the delta´s surface The Parana Delta is an important key for flood increased in 200 km2 and that the delta front control: 0.4 hectares of wetland can store 6000 will reach the coast of Buenos Aires city in m3 of floodwater without needing engineer 110 years (Pittau, Sarubbi, and Menéndez structures (Davis 1993). It is also vital for 2004). This phenomenon would produce a big groundwater replenishment, because under La transformation of the coastline (see Figure 3). Plata Basin there are important underground reserves of fresh water for agricultural, NATURAL ENVIRONMENT industrial and domestic uses, such as the Puelches, Pampeano, Parana, or the Guarani 2 Argentina has an immense territory but hydric aquifer which spreads over 1.2 million km resources are unbalanced: La Plata Basin through Brazil, Uruguay, Paraguay and 3 covers 30% of the national territory and is Argentina storing approximately 45000 km of estimated to have 85% of the total available water. According to Ramsar Convention on superficial water of the country World Bank, Wetlands (Davis 1993) although freshwater 2000).The ecological functions of the system ecosystems cover 1% of the earth’s surface, are highly relevant not only for the national they are home for 40% of the world’s species and regional economic development but also and are responsible of 52% of the total amount for the environmental stability. For addressing of services provided by all the ecosystems of the ecological relevance of the Parana Delta - the world (Costanza et al. 1997). The Rio de la Plata system it is necessary to biodiversity held in wetlands helps retaining understand the dynamics that take place on it, nutrients and sediments, purifying water by related to the conditions of being a delta, a removing nitrogen, phosphorous and other wetland and an estuary. chemicals and retaining carbon dioxide. They also contribute with shoreline stabilization The system as a delta: according to (Wright protecting the land from storms surges, winds, 1978), deltas are coastal accumulations shaped waves and other climatic events. The Parana by interacting fluvial and marine forces. Their Delta protects lands from the strong South- morphological characteristics and their Eastern winds during the so called development are a consequence of a conflict ―Sudestadas‖, which usually have severe relation between coastal and fluvial processes. consequences causing floods due to the The main question is about the regime of the increase of the Rio de la Plata water level. At river that transports sediments, the coastal the present, Parana Delta is focus for national processes that take place in the river mouth and international conservation actions: there and climate factors (Morgan 1970). The are several protected areas, a National Park 2 formation of deltas is related to the capacity of and a Biosphere Reserve of 886 km located in the rivers to deposit sediments faster than they San Fernando, declared under UNESCO’s can be removed by the receptor’s quiet waters Man and Biosphere program. regimes (Kandus and Malvares 2002). The system as an estuary: an estuary is The system as a wetland: wetlands are coastal water partially confined that presents a permanently flooded systems or soils that are free connection with open sea, being the sea water diluted by fresh water. Parker and

Marcolini (1992) consider that it is possible to most important are located in the Departments restrict the term estuary to the study of the of San Nicolas, Ramallo, Zarate and Campana. dynamics between both types of water. Most of the commercialized products are Estuary’s dynamics are related to the effects of wood, woodwork, metalwork, aluminium the tide according to the magnitude of the frames, electrical goods, motor parts, paper, swell and the river. corn and other grains, oil, alcohol, iron, concrete and fuel. ECONOMIC AND URBAN DYNAMICS URBAN EXPANSION The Parana Delta and Rio de la Plata’s coasts are located on the most populated area of The urban sprawl of the Metropolitan Area of Argentina and in the middle of Sao Paulo- Buenos Aires has grown since the middle of Santiago de Chile commercial corridor. It is the twentieth century changing considerably also strategically located as a key axis of the from 1990s, when the urbanization process the corridor of the Mercosur (economic extended reaching the Lower Parana Delta agreement between Brazil, Paraguay, (Fig. 4). In the Metropolitan Area of Buenos Uruguay, Venezuela, Bolivia and Argentina) Aires lives the 31% of the national population where the terrestrial network of and participates in 53% of the GDP (Gross communications and the international ship Domestic Product) covering less of 0.15% of channel Parana-Paraguay waterway play a the country’s surface (Gobierno de la Ciudad vital role. de Buenos Aires 2010). Even though agricultural activities are relevant, the According to the SAGPyA (Secretaría de importance of the region is also linked to Agricultura, Pesca y Alimentos de la industrial activities and services encouraged República Argentina), most productive units by the proximity to Buenos Aires city and to located on the delta’s islands are small. In fact, the ports of Parana River and Rio de la Plata. 92% of the units have less than 200 ha, 6% The economic evolution was possible due to have from 200 to 1000 ha and the rest 2% are the national industrialization process that took large production units of more than 1000 ha. place since the middle of the twentieth The delta is suitable for forestry, especially for century, but the recurrent changes in the the plantation of softwoods such as willow and economic situation and in politic frameworks poplar, and for stockbreeding, which has led to a disperse and unarticulated territorial increased five times from 2003 to 2008. On conformation (Gobierno de la Ciudad de the contrary, fishing has decreased due to the Buenos Aires 2010). The process of intensive practice for commercial purposes technological innovation, transport facilities and changes in the species habitat caused by and economic uncertainty encouraged the infrastructure works (constructions of dikes, formation of agglomeration economies, so ports and bridges). Intensive agriculture is companies share diverse resources within the practiced too, being important the cultivation region and face the economic instability with of soya, maize and wheat. Thus, tourism and lower adaptation. In spite of the national leisure activities are relevant for the Delta, economic recession, the Metropolitan Area of mainly in the Lower area. Visitors can Buenos Aires has maintained its primacy over navigate down the river, practice water sports, any other conurbation of the country and has fish and rest in luxury lodges, representing an expanded its boundaries together with the important income for the community. Along demographic growth and the appearance of the Parana Delta there are several industrial new centralities. The new centres appeared poles strategically located, close to ports. The along corridors of ―wealth and modernity‖

(Pírez 2001), mostly oriented to North and from the city centre, establishing a complex West. The advance of the urban expansion network and creating new spatial relations along the Northern corridor reached the Lower along highways. The urban sprawl grew Parana Delta, which is now part of the considerably in what Ciccolella (2002) calls a metropolitan area. ―Transition of the Urbanization Process‖, a The urbanization process on delta’s islands process that generates new territorial differed from the continental area. formations as a result of the alteration of the Historically, before the colonization, the delta spatial and temporal conditions of production, was inhabited by aboriginal communities. circulation and consumes. The political and After the Spanish arrival, the islands were economic context of 1990´s promoted the occupied by foreign travellers who cultivated development of private urbanizations for fruits and practiced forest logging (Galafassi medium and high classes, most of them 1996; Sierra 1967). The unplanned settlements located in the North area of the province, even were precarious, disperse and the access to the reaching the Parana Delta coastline. The lands was difficult due to the lack of scenario was characterized by a deep Reform infrastructure. The goods that they produced of the Estate, new urban laws, a decrease of were sold in Buenos Aires city and they were the inflation rate, an increase of External not used for exportation purposes. The Direct Inversions due to the decrease of the possession and distribution of the lands was international rates of interest, the construction not regulated by the Estate and at first, they of transport infrastructure and the absence of a were considered a non productive natural coordination role of the Estate (Ciccolella beauty. In 1856, a decree granted lands to the 2002). This situation encouraged private Municipalities of Tigre (originally called ―Las brokers to appropriate lands near the River, Conchas‖), San Fernando and others to exploit especially of the Lower part of the Delta. The and cultivate them. In 1888 was sanctioned the islands of the medium and upper area were Law N° 2072 –Ley de Islas-, the first focused forgotten, a lot of people moved to urban areas on the measurement and distribution of Parana and the population that remained on the Delta lands. The law established ways for islands ended up immersed in poverty. transferring plots to the occupants by selling Besides, due to the exodus of the medium and them. Thanks to it, 55% of the lands were high classes who emigrated to live in private transferred to private domain (Galafassi 1996). urbanizations, Buenos Aires city stabilized its After that, without having a planning strategy, population and the Metropolitan Area of in 1934 the Law N° 4207 allowed the sell of Buenos Aires tripled it. The number of private coastal lands with access to navigable urbanizations or gated communities increased waterways to private investors who shaped the from 100 to 350 in the period 1995-2000 and delta and privatized the access to some areas today it is more than 400. According to of the coast. Ciccolella (2002) and Cohen (2007), the surface occupied by private urbanizations is On the other hand, the metropolitan space of 500 km2 (larger than Buenos Aires city). In Buenos Aires grew from the centre of the city spite of the growth of the highest classes, in to the periphery along the railways. Since the period 2001-2006, 60% of the new 1940s, due to the industrialization process, inhabitants settled on informal precarious new centralities appeared offering commercial settlements –called villas and asentamientos-, spaces, banks, and health and education forced by the economic crisis (Cravino, del services, relatively close to the city centre – Rio, and Duarte 2009). The result was a from 5 to 20 Km- (Ciccolella 2002). During polarised scenario full of social inequities: the 1990s, economic liberalization led to the sumptuous gated communities and informal expansion of new centralities further away

settlements located next to each other, on which needs regional authorities and policies lands sensitive to flooding (Fig. 5). is not yet in the short-term political agenda (Pírez 2001). On the contrary, each URBAN PATTERNS municipality has to manage local pressures, small budgets and social needs. In a context of The Metropolitan Area of Buenos Aires and lack of resources and organization, regional the Parana Delta are defined by different urban matters and adaptation to climate are not patterns according to land uses and socio- considered urgent issues so they are not economic parameters: a traditional urban space priority. characterized by the regularity of the Spanish first settlements -city of Buenos Aires and CLIMATIC TRENDS urban centres of provincial departments-; private urbanizations or gated communities - According to the Intergovernmental Panel on new artificial landscapes-; slums or informal Climate Change (IPCC), Latin America is the settlements; agricultural lands; industrial most urbanised region in the developing world poles; disperse housing –on the islands-. These with 75% of urban population (Magrin et al. urban patterns have different impacts on the 2007). Although it covers 20 million km2 full territory and are also affected by climate of natural resources and biodiversity, it is very change and shaped by socio-economic sensitive to climate variations and urban dynamics (Fig. 6). All the patterns coexist on a dynamics. This vulnerability is related to weak polarised space without following any regional political, economical and infrastructural urban law which rules the relations between frameworks together with income inequality, them. The only national rule is the Law N° high poverty levels and population growth. In 8912 of 1977 which establishes minimum the Parana Delta - Rio de la Plata system, parameters for settlements, division of unplanned urban growth and socio-economic habitable plots, uses and infrastructures and polarisation intensify the vulnerability of gives to each department the responsibility of people living on coastal lands, naturally local urban planning. This law introduced the sensitive to climate variations. In the last concept of ―country club‖, or so called gated decades, regional climatic trends had shown community, which plans has to be approved strong changes in short periods of time, by the local municipality. coinciding with global change. The new When local authorities are responsible for their climate conditions of the region are a own urban development and planning policies, consequence of the increase of temperatures in they can act accurately according to people´s the Antarctica, the ENSO (El Niño Southern needs because they are aware of local Oscillation) events and the displacement of the problems. On the other hand, jurisdictional anticyclone of the South Atlantic Ocean, boundaries prevent the recognition of regional caused by the increase of Greenhouse Gasses dynamics so the cooperation between local emissions -GHG- (Barros and Bejarán 2005). authorities is needed, because usually, The conjunction of climate change and urban environmental and socio-economic processes growing processes generates big do not coincide with political divisions. When transformations which must be taken into local governments act alone, they are not account to design sustainable strategies to strong enough to deal with real estate guarantee the permanence of natural resources developers and social pressures, being difficult permitting economic development. to find a balance between each group´s needs. Studies elaborated by the IPCC (Magrin et al. In this area, the process of recognizing the 2007) show that temperature in Latin America metropolitan expansion as a regional issue will increase from 0.4°C to 1.8°C by 2020 and

from 1.0°C to 7.5°C by 2080. Temperature called La Niña. ENSO is the main source of rising can cause acceleration in glacier retreat variability in South America and in spite of affecting water availability and hydropower not always being followed by precipitations, it generation in some parts of South America. It has a great influence on them (Berbery, Doyle, can also influence evaporation rates, which are and Barros 2006). In the Parana Delta - Rio de necessary to be balanced with the precipitation la Plata system, precipitation variability is level to pre-empt floods and guarantee mostly influenced by ENSO during the aquifers refill. In South-Eastern South warming phase El Niño and during neutral America –SESA-, precipitations are usually periods –phases between El Niño and La Niña caused by mesoscale convective systems – (Berbery, Doyle, and Barros 2006). MCS- (Berbery, Doyle, and Barros 2006) which are very destructive as they cause heavy In 1983 a dramatic flood caused the Parana rainfalls in large territories during short Delta to lose its buffer condition leaving periods of time. This is a distinctive issue almost 40000 km2 under the water (―Gestión considering that SESA has shown the largest de Recursos Hídricos. Elementos de Política trend in precipitation of the world during last Para Su Desarrollo Sustentable En El Siglo century (Giorgi 2002). The increase in XXI‖ 2000). The flood was associated with El rainfalls is related to higher river discharges: Niño and repeated in 1998 (Berbery, Doyle, for every one percent change in precipitation and Barros 2006). with a similar result: 45000 there is a two percent change in streamflow km2 of flooded lands (Barros and Bejarán (Berbery, Doyle, and Barros 2006). In La Plata 2005). Some years later, in 2003, a part of Basin, precipitations increased 16% comparing Santa Fe city –a city located on the Parana´s the periods of 1951–1970 and 1980–1999, and coastline- got under the water because of the streamflows increased 36% (Barros and sudden growth of the Parana´s tributary, the Bejarán 2005). The isohyets suffered a change Salado River, also caused by precipitations. too, displacing towards west more than 200 These three events occurred in a short time- km in some parts of the Argentina, increasing frame among other floods that are taking place the cultivable surface in around 100000 km2. since 1970. The trends set for this area show The variability in precipitations caused by that the amount of rainfall and the number of climate change phenomenon must be extreme events is increasing so the scenario is considered for the planning of new settlements not stable but changing rapidly. and the administration of water resources. The perception of risk is composed by a social Nevertheless, the uncertainty in climate environmental dimension –vulnerability- and a projections of precipitations prevents the hydrological dimension –natural threat- development of confidence scenarios (Chamorro 2006). Although floods are not as (Berbery, Doyle, and Barros 2006). striking as hurricanes or earthquakes, they cause lethal consequences in human EXTREME HYDROLOGICAL EVENTS (EHE): settlements and in terms of biodiversity. INFLUENCE OF ENSO (EL NIÑO According to the World Bank (2000), Argentina is among the 14 countries most SOUTHERN OSCILLATION), affected by floods, and has estimated looses of “SUDESTADAS” AND FLOODS. around 1.1% of its GDP. For instance, the 2003 Santa Fe´s flood showed a high social The ENSO is a cycle that takes place in the vulnerability, with a result of an unfinished tropical Eastern Pacific Ocean and is polder under the water, hundreds of evacuated characterized by a change of temperature and people and a millionaire loss. pressure of surface waters. The warming phase Strong South-Eastern winds also cause is called El Niño and the cooling phase is extreme floods due to the increase of water

level. This phenomenon is called Sudestada highest pollution potential. The 30% of the and affects low areas of Buenos Aires and total demand of water is satisfied by Parana Delta, blocking the natural drainage of underground aquifers, which have a great the waters, streams and channels (Coronel and extension and capacity, being exploited by all Menéndez 2006). Apart from the Sudestadas, the socioeconomic levels for all uses. The The Parana Delta suffers from periodic floods aquifers that contribute to the underwater due to extraordinary discharges of the Parana demand of the region are the Pampeano, River (Re and Menendez 2006). Puelches and Parana. The most wanted aquifer for domestic use is the Puelches because of its IMPACTS OF CHANGES quality, but over-exploitation has produced the salinisation and pollution of the water, so the Natural evolutionary changes, urban growing resource is being substituted by the Rio de la processes and climate variations are immersed Plata. On the other hand, after having closed in a cause-effect cycle, influencing each other. 500 wells that extracted underground water, This process, together with the vulnerabilities another effect was generated: the lack of use of the local context, has short and long term of the aquifer produced an increase of consequences on the natural resources and also underground water level in some parts of the on the built environment and society. Water province, causing basement and tunnel floods, resource is highly affected been altered in its and wells and septic tanks overflowing. quality and quantity. Furthermore, other impacts are being generated by human EFFECTS OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES activities resulting from economic development. These effects must be taken into i) Agriculture and Stockbreeding. consideration when designing adaptation Agriculture and agro industry are very strategies and planning policies, in order to important as they represent 62% of regulate the activities to lower the negative Argentina´s GDP (De Simone 2006) and thus impacts and reach a more sustainable are highly dependent on climate change. As it development. was described before, the increase of precipitations and the displacement of isohyets VULNERABILITY OF THE WATER cause changes in agricultural boundaries and RESOURCE types of crops. Since the agricultural activity has an annual cycle, it becomes easier for Water is highly sensitive to climate change, farmers to adjust to climate changes with the intensive agricultural practice –dependent of help of biotechnology development. agrochemicals-, deforestation, urban Nevertheless, when extreme events occur, the development, construction of dams and fluvial loss is dramatic mostly for small farmers who navigation. The resource is already under have to manage the problem without pressure and it constitutes a relevant factor for anticipation. Stockbreeding is one of the most the biologic diversity of the La Plata Basin affected activities, so when there is a flood, (Chamorro 2006). Any change produced in the cattle have to be moved to other lands to be area alters the resource’s quality and quantity, saved even from death. Stockbreeding and having irreversible effects. Even though the agriculture also impacts on the environment Parana Delta - Rio de la Plata system and needs to be practiced with limits to constitutes one of the most important sources prevent pollution of water and soil. Even of superficial water of the nation (World Bank, though cattle faeces can be used as fertilizer, 2000) it also has the major concentration of the excess has negative implications turning urban and economic activities, which have the the water cloudy and producing the extinction

of some species. Pesticides and agrochemicals fire. Among all the damages, fires produce used in intensive agriculture pollute soil and loss of animal biodiversity and of certain water producing alterations in the cycle of seeds, soil degradation –or even total loss-, nutrients and adding substances that can be exposition of roots and rhizomes, changes in dangerous or even lethal for humans –in case vegetation structure, soil erosion due to of domestic water consumption- and other changes in water and temperature increase, species. carbon liberation and GHG emission. This Apart from stockbreeding, the cultivation of practice is harmful not only for the ecosystem some crops such as soya gained importance but also for the people, and it is not regulated during the past three decades, motivated by the by any kind of legislation (Kandus 2009). increase of international prices, the simplicity Fires are difficult to be controlled and they can of the process and the profitability of the crop. expand rapidly burning large territories; they Since 1970s, the cultivation of soya has grown produce noxious fumes that cause breathing considerably, reaching 41% of the total deceases; they generate smoke and ashes that national exportations (De Simone 2004). This covers cities and roads -producing traffic crop can be planted on degraded surfaces accidents- and fall into the water and soil. In without needing much fertilizing and, as some 2008, the fires were difficult to control due to types of transgenic soya are very strong, a period of drought and lack of rains, causing farmers kill useless weeds by using glyphosate the burn out of 12% of the wetland and –a very contaminant herbicide-. Although soya spreading ashes up to 250 km away (Fig. 8). is possible to be combined with other crops such as wheat or corn, which makes the crop iii) Deforestation very cost-effective and ecologic, it is not The change from forest to crop or pasture can always cultivated in that way. In fact, it is influence not only evaporation rates, planted alone, as a unique crop, producing soil vegetation types, roughness or air circulation, degradation and underground water pollution. but also precipitations and temperature (Da Silva Diaz 2006). Studies developed in the ii) Biomass burning. Amazonas show that deforestation can cause a Delta´s wetland is an area of rich pasture decrease in precipitation of around 20%, and subject of periodic fires caused by natural an increase in temperature of around 2-3°C. forces (droughts and high temperatures) and Latin America produces 4.3% of global GHG by farmers who want to make the land suitable emissions and deforestation and land use for forestry by cleaning it of certain dry grass changes are responsible of 48.3% of this and rodents. The first consequence of fires is percentage (Bates et al. 2008). Deforestation is the removal of vegetal biomass and the expected to be one of the most serious subsequent change of surface albedo – environmental disasters of the region, related coefficient of reflection of solar radiation-: the to intensive agriculture and urbanization ground acts like a black surface absorbing processes. If the increase in agricultural lands more solar radiation during the day and losing due to economic advantages of some crops is more energy during the night. Although not controlled, it will produce a great impact biomass burning presents some advantages on environment. Urbanization process also such as the stimulation of the development of produces changes that impact on global and new vegetation species, nutrient recycling and local climate. The concentration of population, liberation of seeds for new germination buildings and urban infrastructures can (Kandus 2009), it has also a lot of generate Urban Heat Island effect (UHI), disadvantages which vary depending on the increasing local temperature up to 5°C (Wilby moment of the year and the intensity of the 2007). Although Buenos Aires city -and

specially the Metropolitan Area of Buenos and economic changes and they need to Aires- is constantly growing, studies show that interact together with the other types of UHI effect is not representative up to this housing patterns, as a part of the urban fabric. moment (Barrucand, Camillioni, and Another type of urban pattern is the informal Rusticucci 2009); as the city is expected to settlement. They are located on residual spaces grow, new studies will have to be developed. between private urbanizations, next to the Urbanization leads to a decrease in wind urban core of the departments, on the coasts or speed, evapotranspiration and absorbing even on the islands. The major problem of surfaces. It also generates more energy and these settlements is the lack of infrastructures introduces new sources of heat such as and sanity conditions, and the high transports, air conditioners, industrial vulnerability to climatic events. The absence machines, artificial heating, etc. (Wilby 2007). of water and a formal sewer system encourage These characteristics cooperate to GHG people to extract water from wells and to make emissions increase and to EHE and water informal septic tanks. This is a source for related risks vulnerability. water and soil pollution and can be very harmful for health, favouring the spreading of iv) Land use changes deceases.- The case of private urbanizations that are Industrial poles also impact on territory being developed in the Metropolitan Area of generating heat, GHG emissions and waste. It Buenos Aires, and especially on Parana Delta is necessary to regulate the location of the is important to be studied. The number of industries to balance the environmental private gated communities quadrupled in less damage and monitoring the pollutants caused than ten years (Ciccolella 2002) offering new by them. services and functions. In a context of lack of regional planning and land use legislation, this v) Coasts and hydrological erosion. type of developments needs to be regulated. Erosion implies the washing away of soil by The pressure of real estate developers is so the action of water, which carries sediments strong that they manage to shape the space and contaminants. Although most part of the according to satisfy their own benefits. The coastal erosion existing on Parana Delta is result is a privatized coast and a landscape full caused by natural processes –water currents- it of mixed spots of wealth and poverty. The is also induced by stockbreeding, intensive impact that these private inversions generate agriculture and navigation. Ships can increase on the territory is worrying: they change the the erosion by generating strong currents as topography by creating new artificial they pass parallel to the coasts. The landscapes conformed by lagoons, bridges and consequences of extreme erosion are the marinas, they introduce new animal and change of sedimentation rates, the loss of the vegetal species, alter natural ecosystem and capacity to regulate the hydrologic regime and generate waste. They also need infrastructure – flooding. According to a study made in the because they mostly settle on floodplains INTA (Instituto Nacional de Tecnología without services- so they depend from great Agraria ) based on the use of Wischmeier and inversions that include real estate developers, Smith's Universal Soil Loss Equation -USLE- services companies and government. In spite (Roose 1996), the Delta has a low-medium of generating negative externalities, these risk with an expected loss of 30 to 60 ton/ha developments also produce positive effects on per year (Orúe, Laterra, and Cabria 2007). labour market creating new jobs and improving economy. Outside any value judgement, they are an expression of the social

vi) Energy Production. into 18 local governments (Municipalities or Lower Parana River and Rio de la Plata are Departments) under 3 sub national influenced by the activities that are developed jurisdictions (3 Provinces), and the National on the upper sections of the river, in Brazil and Government. This diversity of functional Paraguay. Along the Parana River there are authorities with huge territorial reach is a four hydroelectric power stations (Ilha Solteira context of complex institutional arrangements and Jupiá – Brazil-, Itaipú –Brazil and and conflicting visions on the area's role. The Paraguay-, and Yaciretá –Paraguay and result is a fragmentary, inadequate and Argentina-). Hydropower is the most unsuccessful design and implementation of important and renewable source of energy policies and measures, including water representing 19% of the world’s electricity management and land use strategies. production. It is expected that global climate In this context, it is necessary to design and change, hydrological erosion and apply measures for adapting to climate change sedimentation will cause water stress, and demographic dynamics in order to reach affecting hydropower generation and affecting sustainability and increase governance. The the whole Parana Delta - Rio de la Plata major challenge for developing and system. implementing adaptation strategies is dealing with the diversity of impact scales, actions and vii) Fluvial navigation. actors and the uncertainty of climate drivers Some years ago, the technologic advance and trends. The network of relations is so large made road transportation more profitable than that is not possible to plan unique unilateral fluvial transport. Nowadays the situation is top-down actions. Strategies for adaptation reversing due to the energetic crisis and must be designed and applied at different increase on fuel costs. Parana River is a scales by the diversity of actors, according to relevant fluvial route that can be navigated by their responsibility and involvement in the ships of different draughts, even overseas problem. shipping. It is connected with the Atlantic Ocean through artificial channels made under From a regional urban planning perspective, it the Rio de la Plata and with the Paraguay is necessary to first understand the territory River thanks to the Parana-Paraguay according to the natural, urban and economic Waterway project (currently under dynamics beyond the administrative divisions. development). In the future, this waterway Economic development and urban growth could be able to interact with Orinoco River – have overwhelmed jurisdictional borders, so Venezuela- and Amazon River –Brazil-. The they must be included in a regional agenda. major impact that navigation produces on the The questions here are: Does this agenda area is coastal erosion, and dredging and exist? How can regional programs be infrastructure construction causes alterations implemented? Is any institution capable of in the habitat of fish and other species. acting in a regional scale? Is it possible to create regional policies and programs without interfering with local existing ones? PLANNING STRATEGIES & ADAPTATION Regional planning needs for a structural

vision, as an outline to define how the policies The complexity of the Parana Delta - Rio de la or programs are going to be achieved, which Plata system is related to the diversity of the authorities will implement them and through drivers of change and also to the different which instruments. A regional strategic plan scales of the problems. A multiplicity of could be organized depending on the specific jurisdictional authorities and competences conditions of the area and the interrelations coexist on the area, which is already divided that take place in the system. According to the

overview presented in this document, it is institutions; cooperation of the involved actors possible to detect four axes of actions to (from organizations to individuals) is relevant develop strategies: Environmental quality, to achieve governance. The role played by the Safety, Life quality and Coordination of local institutions is crucial to detect specific actions. Some key measures to be developed problematic and future potentials and to within each axis involve: implement local programs to follow the regional guidelines. Environmental quality: conservation of the The advantages of a regional plan are wetland and its ecological functions and innumerable in terms of overcoming politic- development of analysis of the territory using administrative fragmentation of the space to GIS technology at different scales to detect the avoid polarisation of resources. Nevertheless, problems and the most vulnerable areas; the main problem here is that a political control of the activities developed on the delta intention to do that is needed and that this kind and the coasts through soil management and of plans have long term results and must resist control of the use of pesticides in intensive government changes. Thus, the large extension agriculture; improvement of crop cultivation – of the territory makes difficult to benefit all planning of planting dates and types of crops-; the inhabitants, which are living in unequal safe water provision, groundwater protection conditions and have different types of needs. and water recycling; aquifer management – In this complex scenario, the role of local control of extraction rhythm, amount of wells governments is crucial because they are closer and geographical distribution-; modification of to the people, they are aware of their needs industrial processes; reduction of energy and they have been elected by them, demand –sustainable buildings- and legitimizing the process of decision-making. optimization of water consumption. When working locally, the amount of drivers of change reduces so does the number of Safety: management of flooding risks through actors intervening in the conflicts. Besides, the development of defences in the necessary local governments are able to interact with cases in a sustainable way, taking into local communities to build a balanced relation consideration that this area needs to preserve between top-down and bottom-up actions and the pulses of floods and droughts. In that policies. sense, urban planning is essential to guarantee From this perspective, it is not possible to the safety of the cities encouraging the think regional without thinking local. Regional settlement on areas free of flooding, instead of plans must give a framework of actions and allowing the occupation of the flood plains. must guarantee the stability of the policies, coordinating the relations between Life quality: inclusion of the informal sectors stakeholders and reducing negative into the formal market through the externalities. On the other hand, local urbanization of the settlements and the authorities must understand their role within regulation of each private development to the system and provide concise tools to apply guarantee benefits and prevent negative regional intentions considering local needs, impacts; construction of infrastructures to through the involvement of citizens into the include all the sectors of the population in processes of policy-making. water, sewage, electricity and gas systems; Some experiences that could have positive development of a land uses plan according to results are being developed in Argentina, such the present situation. as the creation of regional authorities able to manage environmental problems overcoming Coordination of actors: coordination between jurisdictional obstacles -the COFEMA governmental and nongovernmental (Consejo Federal de Medio Ambiente)- .

Furthermore, from a local scope, examples of When there is lack of resources in a context of community programs are being developed by social instability, it seems difficult to make Universities and non profit organizations with governments include adaptation into the the objective of creating environmental agenda. Then, the role of planners and awareness and improving governance. designers is to participate actively in the process of decision making together with the CONCLUSION community through the different instances of participation that every democratic This overview introduces the drivers of change government offers. Local governments are the that coexist in the Parana Delta and Rio de la most important communication channel Plata estuary, in order to understand the between people and provincial or national complexity of the territory and outline some authorities and constitute a crucial start point strategic measures considering the changing for the designing of bottom-up policies. nature of the system. This kind of knowledge Nowadays, the international urban debate of the relations within a system is needed to focuses not only on the built environment but interpret the specificity of the situation and also on the intrinsic capacity of cities to adapt design accurate strategies avoiding a ´one fits to changing conditions, adding climate change all´ policy approach. as a variable to be considered in every cities’ It is possible to conclude that this case is a planning (Aerts and Dircke 2010). Although it good example of a complex delta system was shown in this document that the where the natural evolution of a rich Argentinean case is relevant in terms of environment collides with the unplanned changing environment, hydrology and urbanization and exploitation of the lands. In a resources availability, it is not globally well little over than 500 years of history, the lands known yet. The final objective of this review witnessed radical social and political changes is to present this Latin American case to and suffered the effects of a strong contribute to share and exchange experiences demographic growth and the consequent and knowledge between delta cities. exploitation of the natural resources. The vast extension of the territory, the great number of coexisting jurisdictions and the multiplicity of stakeholders contribute to turn the development and implementation of regional policies a difficult task. As a consequence, the increase of housing demand produced by population growth, immigration and social and economical changes shaped a polarised expansion of the metropolitan area towards the new sedimentary lands of the delta. This expansion is being developed without an integral land use plan and leads to an unsustainable occupation of the territory. Thus, in times of climate changes, extreme hydrologic events threaten the area striking a great part of the population living in highly vulnerable areas. All these matters should be taken into account when designing strategic measures addressing adaptation to changes.

Fig. 1. Location of the system.

Fig. 2. Metropolitan areas and departments.

Figure 3: Historic advance of the Delta front. Source: author´s elaboration from the basis of Pittau, Sarubbi, and Menéndez (2004).

Figure 4. Advance of the Urban Sprawl of the Metropolitan Area of Buenos Aires. Source: (Zagare 2014). 15

Figure 5: Location of gated communities. Expansion 1991-2001. Source: author´s elaboration from the basis of Torres (2001).

Figure 6: Urban patterns in the area (housing). Source: (Zagare 2012)

Figure 7: Fires produced by drought and biomass burning practice (2008). Burnt out of 12% of the delta. Image source: NASA.

Figure 8: Aerial view of the coast of the city of Buenos Aires. Zagare (2014).

Figure 9: Aerial view of the dichotomy of the islands of the Delta (left) and the continental area (right). Zagare (2014) 17

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