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The Routledge Handbook of Balkan and Southeast European History

John R. Lampe, Ulf Brunnbauer

Ottoman and , and , sixteenth–eighteenth centuries

Publication details https://test.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9780429464799-4 Oliver Jens Schmitt Published online on: 20 Oct 2020

How to cite :- Oliver Jens Schmitt. 20 Oct 2020, Ottoman Albania and Kosovo, Albanians and Serbs, sixteenth–eighteenth centuries from: The Routledge Handbook of Balkan and Southeast European History Routledge Accessed on: 29 Sep 2021 https://test.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9780429464799-4

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Downloaded By: 10.2.98.160 At: 16:19 29 Sep 2021; For: 9780429464799, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429464799-4 occupy holdings in theconquered landunderthe system.imperial Nevertheless, anIslamizedlocaleliteemerged, to forrights mainlyinreturn the fi Dukagjin, Kastriota). Islamisationinthefi camp. This cleavage ranthrough important (Zenebish,Albanian noble families Muzaki, Balsha, society whichwas split, oftheBalkans, asinotherparts inapro- territory. andmany leaders oftheirtroops SomeOttomanmilitary belongedtotheregional theOttomansasMuslim misleading todescribe Turks from Asia Minorwhoinvaded foreign in1521, fromof theHungarians theOttomanconquestofBalkanswas complete. (1393), Kosovo (1455), andSerbia (1459)hadalready beentaken. With theOttomancapture its lastoutpostsinpresent-day (Dulcigno/ (1463– in ca. 1385andendedin1479when Venice hadtocedeitsterritory, afteraprotracted war had beenmore limitedinspaceandtimeotherregions. Ottomanconquestin Albania started in someregions, andarelatively where lesscontestedestablishment warfare ofOttomanrule variation.regional There was stiff TheOttomanconquestoftheBalkanswas aprolonged by process considerable characterized person (1464/ person of over two thirds ofthepopulationaftertwo majorcampaignsledby SultanMehmedIIin resistanceregional by adoptingdrasticmeasures thatledincentral Albania to thedisappearance conquest. warfare canalsobeexplainedbyoutundertheumbrella ofOttoman oldfeudsthatwere carried troopsOttoman regional units. consisted alsoofOrthodox auxiliary ofregional The bitterness tral (, Dibra)and northern Albania. Like occupied by inotherregions theOttomans, alsointhe Albanian contextitwould be Warfare was centered incentral andnorthern Albania. The Ottomanseventually oppressed rst half of the sixteenth century) wascondition forjoiningtheOttoman halfofthesixteenth century) notanecessary rst 79), around ofShkodra thefortress innorthern Albania. The Republic ofStMarklost ALBANIAOTTOMAN AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES AND SERBS, SIXTEENTH– 67). Enslavement, massfl KOSOVO, ALBANIANS Cnetn te toa conquest Ottoman the Contesting resistance over disruption decadesandensuingdemographic Oie Jn Schmitt Jens Oliver ight, andmassacres incen- changedthesocialstructure rst phaseofconquest andOttomandomination(until rst 1 18 system. BesideIslamized , Antivari/

Ottoman andananti- Bar) in1570. (cavalry), Ottoman

19

Downloaded By: 10.2.98.160 At: 16:19 29 Sep 2021; For: 9780429464799, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429464799-4 northern northern Albania). BothinOrthodox andCatholicareas, localclergymenplayed animportant the Sea(Himarainsouthern Albania,Adriatic of , parts Montenegro, in Catholictribes against theOttomanshadbeen confi and CroatiaHungary intheHabsburg counteroff Croatia. Failingintheir secondadvance on in1683, they were thenforced outof of Vienna. After they were repulsed in1529, and theOttomansstillheld mostofHungary and its alliesintheHolyRomanEmpire. Bothhadreached thegates resistance foracomplexoflocal motives. extreme. avoid Recentinterpretations projecting but acknowledge backnationalinterpretations oftheOttomanEmpire haveance thatcontestedthelegitimacy ledsomeresearch totheother proof foraproto- asadecisive againstOttomanrule states cultivated nationaluprisings theideaofpermanent ,dependencies inSouthern and Venice. Traditional oftheBalkannational historiography seventeenth century, theytieswiththeCatholicpowers, pursued Habsburg Spainwithits opposition. for armed example andsoughtwidersupport Especiallyinthesixteenthandearly eighteenth century, onlyChristian Albanians inmountainouscoastalareas followed Scanderbeg’s rule.substantially intheirrefusal toacceptcentralizedimperial However, untilthe endofthe representatives especiallyifthey were foreigners. andMuslim Christian Albanians didnotdiff versionsregional of pay taxes, law oraltraditions(diff they insteadofregional declinedtoacceptimperial The motivation of Albanian rebels didnotchangeconsiderably over time. They refused to until 1459. mainly inpresent- battle ofKosovo Polje andauthority againstOttomanforces in1389but kept reduced territory Ottoman onslaught. hadsurvived coalitionofhissuccessors theindecisive but legendary A alsoMacedonia, andcentral , comprised northern to 1355) which didnotsurvive the the , was conquered. The short- Ottoman provincial systemonlyin1455whenNovo Brdo, silver themostimportant mineof who pushedconquestnorthwards andwestwards. Kosovo was eventually intothe integrated munity (Arbëresh) whichexistsuntilthepresent day. century – – and from thePeloponnese workswidely read inLatin, historiographical whileOrthodox Albanians from central Albania refugees settledin Venice where Barletiuspublished suchasMarinus Albanian scholars humanist culture closelyrelated to modelswas almostdestroyed.Adriatic Catholic Albanian (1405– did notjointheresistance Scanderbeg incentralandnorthern Albania ledby GeorgeKastriota (Sancak- network, thearea uptotheriver Shkumbinwas soonorganizedasanOttomanprovince central Albania. Although theOttomanadvance destroyed demographic oftheregional parts the mid- endin1417whenthecoastaltownpreliminary of Vlora fell, anditsresults were stabilizedin oftheSouthwesternBalkans.counterattacks thanotherparts Ottomanconquestcametoa The most important resistance was Themostimportant framedby thetwo Ottomancampaignsagainstthe untilitended in1912. resistance Sporadiclocalandregional accompaniedOttomanrule Macedoniaserved sincetheconquestofSkopje (1392)asabase ofOttomanmarcher lords Southern Southern Albania was lessaff TheCatholicculture whichhadbeendominantinnorthern Albania anditsemerging 68). i Arvanid). covers OneoftheoldestOttomantaxregisters thisarea. Southern Albania 1430s after a failed uprising oflocalOrthodox uprising and 1430s afterafailed Albanian noblemen insouthern moved Italy(KingdomofNaples). toSouthern There, adistinctcom- they formed day andSmederevo centralSerbiawithresidences inBelgrade ontheDanube national identity. New approaches toOttomanstudiesdownplaying resist- ), they demandedhomerule, andthey wishedtokeep outimperial where they had immigrated at the beginning ofthefi where atthebeginning they hadimmigrated ected by Ottomanattacks, warfare, guerrilla andOttoman Ottoman Albania and Kosovo ned toremote andisolatedmountainareas notcloseto lived Du SerbianEmpire ofStefan 19 ensive. Inthelongintervening years, uprisings š an(tsarfrom 1346 fteenth erent er 20

Downloaded By: 10.2.98.160 At: 16:19 29 Sep 2021; For: 9780429464799, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429464799-4 Albania was organizedasSancak Arvanid (1415/ in theearlyestablishment ofdirect Ottoman rule. The provincial andcentral systemofsouthern controlremained until1912. underimperial oftheBalkansouthwestThe importance isrefl toSalonicaandConstantinople, route ofDurrës transport linking theport the Via Egnatia, oftheEmpire againsttheCatholic powerswestern periphery intheMediterranean. The major seatrade. ofUlcinjasbaseagainstChristian the port Ontheother hand, thearea protected the in theseventeenth andeighteenthcentury, from used theentire Muslimcorsairs Mediterranean Seaandthreatened Catholic (Venetian,Adriatic Spanish)se conquered Otrantoin ); (mainly itsports Avlonya/ Italy(in1480– area was toattackSouthern aspringboard ThesouthwesternBalkansserved several functions intheOttomanEmpire. geostrategic The Balkans (present- ress protecting accesstothesouth, they quicklypenetratedintothecore oftheOttoman to smallareas. were never sincethey periphery threat remained toOttomanrule confi Adriatic aserious down intheBalkans. advertising Ottomanrule projectscourts atthe forbringing Uprisings mainly around 1600, adventurers andpretenderswere BalkanChristian roaming European role Italyand inmaintainingcommunication channelswithSouthern Venice. Intimesofwar, authority of the Sultan at the turn ofthecentury. oftheSultanatturn authority the provinces tothe oftheEmpire,Arab parts warlords regional were the challenging forces.regional Inthis respect, theBalkansouthwest was notanexception. From Bosniaand re- the early1830s, theOttomanEmpire successfullysuppressed power theseregional and centers leader intheBalkansowning cattle. some900estatesandover 1 million Between 1820and hadbeenforcedOttoman regime toresort. Around 1800, Ali was probablypolitical therichest network oftradingtowns. Like otherwarlords hebenefi 1785 andoccupiedIoanninain1788. Hispower was andanextended basedonaprivate army by merchants andpastoralists, extorting was appointedby theSultangovernor of Thessaly in family, around Shkodra), andKosovo (Begolli, Rrotullaj). Ali Pasha whohadacquired hiswealth (AliPasha,Epirus died1822, withhiscenterinIoannina), northern Albania (theBushatlliu eral weakness fortheOttomanEmpire. warlords Muslimregional emergedinsouthern Albania/ Serbiain1739.northern Butthelasttwo were ofgen- decadesoftheeighteenthcentury aperiod Muslim warlordsregional thanby Orthodox insurgents. A renewed Ottomanoff resistance.for further and SerbsinKosovo, insubsequentlydisputedproportions, but weakened capacity theChristian since discounted, of40,000households. The exodusstillleftasubstantial number of Albanians Remembered inSerbiaastheGreat Migration, largernumber camefrom afar aninitialaccount, ofthepresent- settled intherecently reconquered territory Christians, mainlyOrthodox Serbrefugees but alsoCatholics, some40,000, numbering were suppress therebellions, andmany rebels followed theretreating Habsburg troops. The Balkan to Kosovo. SinceHabsburg troops hadoverstretched theirsupplylines, theOttomans could population,of theChristian bothOrthodox andCatholic, Bulgaria inanarea from northern 1448, troops advanced Christian intothecentralBalkans. extendeduprisings This triggered established the authority of its imperial center, ofitsimperial established theauthority whichhowever remained challengedby Whenhowever Habsburg troops in1688, conquered Belgrade thekey Ottomanfort- Ottoman rule intheBalkansouthwest Ottomanrule was by challengedmore intheeighteenthcentury day SerbiaandKosovo). SkopjeThey burned in1689. For thefi Th e formal andinformal structure power Oliver Jens Schmitt 20 17); in1455theOttomans installedtheSancakof

ted from the tax farming towhichthe tedfrom thetaxfarming Vlora) controlled the entranceinto 1 an Ottoman expeditionary force 1 anOttomanexpeditionary aways inthissensitive area; mainly day . innorthern ensive reclaimed rst timesince rst ected ned 21

Downloaded By: 10.2.98.160 At: 16:19 29 Sep 2021; For: 9780429464799, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429464799-4 in the internal aff in theinternal alty andprovided troopswarriors, andinexchangetheEmpire orauxiliary didnotinterfere tegically and economically more important plains. andeconomicallymore important tegically government was confi oral legaltraditions( lowlanders tothemountainsofcentralandnorthern Albanian. The roots ofthediff lawtomary ( self- Vushtrri/ Hungary started in the fourteenth century becauseofthe Ottomanadvance. century inthefourteenth started Hungary Serbiannoblemen, whichtypicallycannotbequantifi migrations experienced hotly contestedby Serbianand Albanian historians. The entire area of theBalkansouthwest political controversies. forKosovo, true This isparticularly is history whosedemographic andaftertheOttomanconquestare untilthepresent day during theobjectof Migrations The Ottomansintroduced Islamiclaw ( towns were disconnectedfrom the legalspacewithits codifi Adriatic system. Urbanautonomy inthe towns disappeared,Adriatic andthenorthern Albanian coastal did notradicallyalterthissystemoflegalplurality. However, there were changeswithinthis tains, forforeignandmerchants miners inminingtowns. andspecialprivileges Ottoman rule co- teenth andthefi In theSerbiankingdom/ TheBalkansouthwest hadlived sincetheMiddle Ages inasystemofcoexistinglegaltraditions. before them, insuchareas. indirect rule ( leaders andtribal Regional potential benefi at leasttemporarily, rule. direct imperial However, stoodinnorelation costsofdirect to rule penetrated even remote mountainareas innorthern Albania andMontenegroenforced, rule. hashowever Recentscholarship foundevidence thataround 1500theOttomanEmpire ofpresent- The mountainouspart urban centers, areas enjoyed whilemountainousrural ofself- degree acertain Shkodra. oftheEmpire,As inotherparts was rule concentered intheplainsand imperial inwesternKosovo. ofKosovo Northern Albania andparts were organizedasSancak in northern in northern Albania, whilethe of LekaDukagjin they already ofOttomanconquest. existedby the initialperiod The bestknown, the the strength of imperial authorities which diff authorities the strength ofimperial fromwith thecontinuous migration themountainstoplains. Itsapplication dependedon were codifi microregion) were appliedincentralandsouthern Albania respectively – establish anall- many Albanians asapillaroftheirpolitical identity. to Until1912theOttomanEmpire failed Indeed, was regime boostedby thiscustomary Ottomanconquestandtheretreat ofmany existed withurbanstatutesof citycommunities,Adriatic law oralcustomary inthemoun- administration fortheOrthodox communities according toecclesiasticallaw. Oralcus- Vu Vu ed onlyinthetwentieth century. The orallegaltraditionspread intothelowlands č örf itrn (or Prishtina/ (orPrishtina/ itrn ts. This explainswhy, inthelongrun, theOttomanspreferred, asotherEmpires )prevailed inremote mountainareas. encompassing imperial legalsystem.encompassing imperial fteenth century, royal/ (ascribed totheheadofakingroupincentral (ascribed Albania, d. 1481) prevailed airs ofmountainareas airs atthelocalandmicro- kanun ned tolessaccessible areas anddidnotaff empire/ , law) are nottobeconfusedwiththeimperial hard toascertain, but kanun ofSkanderbeg Pri Pri despotate whichhadcontrolled thearea between thelatethir- Ottoman Albania and Kosovo day Montenegrotraditionallyboastedofcontinuous home š tina)incentralKosovo, andinthesameyear the Sancak Legal plurality plurality Legal imperial law wasimperial codifi ş Migrations Migrations eriat ) and imperial law ( )andimperial ered over times. law Customary was perceived by 21

andthe ed. tosouthern Serbianmigration kanun ofLabëria ed in Stefan Du ed inStefan regional level.regional This limited self- inthestra- rule ect imperial kanun ed law andcitycouncils. bayraktars )andtoleratedthelegal allthesetraditions (asouth Albanian š )promised loy- an’s erent regional government. Zakonik. kanun It 22

Downloaded By: 10.2.98.160 At: 16:19 29 Sep 2021; For: 9780429464799, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429464799-4 Catholic andOrthodox Churches. and Serbianecclesiastical Sincetheemergence ofBulgarian SincetheearlyMiddle Ages, thesouthwesternBalkanshadbeenafrontier area between the newcomers from centralandnorthern Albania. since antiquity. InKosovo, the Albanian populationconsistedequallyofresident Albanians and that indiff Albanians hadimmigrated western ). The multi- northern Albania andwere directed bothtothe West coast)andtheeast(Kosovo, (Adriatic by actsofrevenge. Most oftheseminormovements inthemountains ofcentraland originated harvests) andoftenby blood feuds, whichforced peopletoleave becausethey feltthreatened winter pastures, emigration. andpermanent The latterwas prompted by economicpressure (bad work. Onehastodistinguishbetween ofherdsmen between seasonal migration summerand the coastwhere theCatholicChurch hadpreservedAdriatic ofitsorganizationalnet- parts de propagandafi de Ottoman sources. They are oflocalCatholicclergymentothe attestedinreports were ofsmallergroups(extendedfamilies) migrations barelymore notedin commoninternal and even from ofBulgaria. parts fromencouraged migration theupland, areas ofthesouthwest, lessfertile andfrom Macedonia andoff erty the Empire invited itsMuslimand Orthodox subjectstotake prop- over Hungarian former plainsofcentralHungary,fertile intoaprovince turned after1541. To secure thisborder area, These mainlyOrthodox Serbshadbeenattractedby theOttoman settlementstrategyinthe central Serbiainthemid- the mostneglectedpopulationmovements withconsequencesfortheentire peninsulaaff Salonica, makingitthemajorcenterforSpanishandPortuguese Jews intheBalkans. Oneof where they by hadtheirown theearlysixteenthcentury. quarters Mostofthemmoved onto the endoffi new (Elbasanin1466) orreplaced fortresses thepopulationby (Shkodra in1479). population. intervened onlyinsensitiveThe Ottomancentralauthority border areas. There itbuilt in thesouthwest. Muslimcommunities emergedmainlyasaresult ofconversions among thelocal southeast (Thrace, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Thessaly), there were nomajorMuslim Turkish settlements were tribes glorifi Orthodox Montenegrin (pastoral economy) ideals), andofvalues (warrior andeven clashes between Muslim Albanian and diff Montenegro. Confessional(Catholic, Muslim, Orthodox) andlinguistic(Albanian, SouthSlavic) the area stretching from central Albania () totheGreat Highlands(Malësiaemadhe) and could survive inthecompetitionforscarce pasture- in theplains. Inthedenselypopulatedhighlands, onlytightlyknitgroupsofpastoral- system was areaction todestructive Ottomanwarfaretraditionalagriculture thathasdisrupted eties. Tribes referredtoacommonmythical ancestorandpossessedtheirown territories. This fl Orthodox Albanians were pushedintothenorthwest oftheBalkans(Herzegovina andBosnia), Catholicand including thedespot(prince), received crown. from theHungarian feudalrights Orthodox erentiation marked thehighlands. However, theirinhabitantsshared a commonway oflife Whilethesemajorpopulationmovements canbetracedinrecorded sources, themuch Amajorinfl Peasants from lowland soci- northern tribal Albania retreated tothemountainsandformed ered taxexemptions andotherprivileges. exodusfromA major centralSerbiaalso ux ofnewdidnotcomefrom settlers Anatolia, but from SpainandPortugal. At fteenth century, Sephardi of Jews mainlytothemajorport immigrated Vlora, (established inRome1622), especiallywhenpeoplewere moving towards ed, aswe have seen, across the toItaly.Adriatic sixteenth century. lostover Someregions halfoftheirinhabitants. layered Albanian dialectsinwesternMacedoniademonstrate erent stagesintoanarea thatwas inhabitedby Albanians Oliver Jens Schmitt ed inasimilarway withepicsongs. Unlike theBalkan Religion 22

land andwater. systemencompassed The tribal Congregatio warriors warriors ected 23

Downloaded By: 10.2.98.160 At: 16:19 29 Sep 2021; For: 9780429464799, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429464799-4 now deemedobsolete. context, In aregional onlySerbsadopted and replaced the term and replaced theterm tation towards theIslamic East. wasalso adoptedby Christian gradually The term Albanians whose very nature hadbeenradicallyaltered by theadoptionofIslamandaculturalreorien- (from theverb Albanesi use terms derived fromuse terms tive connotationnowadays), whileallotherEuropean peoplesandtheOttomanscontinued to European history. Around 1700, anew self- on theBalkansouthwest stilldeserves tobestudiedmore in detail. movement withstrong anti- by theKad Habsburgs in1683) inspired ance towards andarenewal Christians ofthe “holy war” (against Venice in1645, againstthe inthe latesixteenthcentury,(confessionalization) starting namelyanincrease ofintoler- motivated restrictions. Recentresearch highlightsalsotheimpactofSunni as apoliticalthreat andhadto suff toIslamization. contributed deportations The CatholicChurch was perceived by theOttomans disaster. cases, asin1689, Incertain uprisings afterfailed asareprisal forced conversions and subjects.mainly onChristian was religion oftentheonlyway Changing toavoid economic wars against Venice andtheHabsburgs, theOttomanshadtoincrease taxes, aburden whichfell converted religion. totheimperial There were several reasons forthis. Becauseoftheir long the BosnianFranciscans). published in1555, infl inascript was printed stopped onlybyin1912. thecollapse ofOttomanrule Itmostaff exception ofShkodra). IntheBalkansouthwest, Islamizationwas aprotracted process thatwas northern Albanian Catholicclergymen. munity inKosovo consistedofSaxonminers, merchants, andinvestors from Dubrovnik and were strong andresulted inculturalexchange(thefi mountainareas.Roman Church helditsoutpostsintribal Ties withtheBosnianFranciscans Bosnia, survived, Catholic(mainlyFranciscan)monasteries diffi anddespiteserious ecclesiastical network facilitated, asitdidinBosnia, theadvance ofIslam. However, alsoasin work intact. inthesouthremained fairly Inthenorthwest, oftheCatholic destruction thepartial massive inthefi destruction Du Tsar Stefan againstthewishesofByzantinePatriarchate ofConstantinopleby theSerbian authorized Vlachs were almostexclusively Orthodox, tothePatriarchate ofPe adhering their confessionalloyalty according tothepoliticalsituation. InKosovo, Serbs, Albanians, and derland withareas transitionbetween ofblurred theconfessions. Localnoblemen changed belonged totheRomanCatholicChurch’s world.Adriatic Central Albania constitutedabor- inthelateninthandtenthcenturies.from Northern Albania, mainlyitscoastalparts, ecclesiasticalculture goesbacktotheSlavic activitiesshare emanating inBulgarian missionary ence overlapped Macedoniawithspill- incentralandnorthern (Greek) culture ofthePatriarchate ofConstantinople; andSerbianecclesiasticalinfl Bulgarian cultures.liturgical Southern ofMacedoniawereAlbania andparts infl traditions, BalkanOrthodoxy consistedofthree power (Constantinople, centers Pe The Islamization of the majority of TheIslamizationofthemajority Albanians was aremarkable phenomenoninmodern of Islamizationgainedmomentumintheseventeenth whenthemajority century Albanians Aselsewhere inIslamicstates, conquestdidnotleadtoimmediateIslamization(withthe ). shqiptoj š an as rival ruler ofSerbsandGreeks anasrivalin1346. ruler The tiny medieval Catholiccom- , tospeakinaway designatedan thatcanbeunderstood) Albanian society Arbër Arbër fteenth century, mainlycentral Albania, whiletheOrthodox frame- Sufi . traditionofthe The latter represented theChristian Albanians todesignatethe Albanians (e.g. theGreek andanti- Ottoman Albania and Kosovo er much more thantheOrthodox church from politically ı Christian tendencies.Christian The impactofthisphenomenon zadelimovement, aconservative andmilitantSunni denomination ofthe Albanians emerged. alphabetused byuenced by theBosnianCyrillic 23 rst Albanian book, GjonBuzuku’s overs tosouthern Albania. Its ected areas whichsuff uenced by theByzantine Arvanites ( š iptar Konfessionalisierung ć , whichhadbeen , with apejora- ortheItalian ć , and Ohrid) culties,the Shqiptar Missale ered u- ,

24

Downloaded By: 10.2.98.160 At: 16:19 29 Sep 2021; For: 9780429464799, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429464799-4 Albanians were Islamizedand infact Albanianized Serbs(so- case. Inthelatenineteenthcentury, Serbiannationalistsadvanced theideathatKosovo Muslim tion from themuch smallerCatholiccommunities, conversion processes are lessknown intheir , Albanians, Vlachs). continuously reported oncasesofdefec- While Catholicpriests Patriarchate ofConstantinople. were allOrthodox ofthe oftheOttomanBalkansunderdirect rule appointedtobring Patriarchate ofPe thedecisionofPatriarchate ofConstantinopletoabolishtheSerbian Ottomans support againsttheEmpire didthe uprisings repeatedly supported Only whentheSerbianpatriarchs Orthodox Slavic subjectsof Venice andtheHabsburg Monarchy, Catholicpowers. theregional allSlavic Orthodox peopleintheBalkansunderitscontrol,bringing includingpotentially end ofSerbianstatehood(1459), but itwas restored in1557asOttomanpoliticalleverage for Moschopolis inthemid- Orthodox culture regional centerinthe withitsown printing Vlach tradingtown of Voskopoja/ Southern Albanian developed intheseventeenth intoafl andeighteenthcenturies modern Balkans,modern asnationalidentity untilthelate but itdidnotgainpolitical importance the multilingual Orthodox fl insistedoncleardemarcation of Orthodox clergymensuchasKosmas Aitolos (died1779) Kosovo.for theethnicidentityofOrthodox peasantsinearlymodern Insouthern Albania, referred tomedieval Serbianstatehood. However, there isalmostnonon- Patriarchate, frescoes commemoratedmedieval Serbiankings, andchurch traditionconstantly Orthodox community dominatedby and Vlachs. Inthemultiple churches oftheSerbian andMuslims.Christians Insouthern Albania, Albanian Orthodox were well inthe integrated lands,Adriatic however, andcentral especiallyinnorthern Albania, languagedidnotdivide none oftheseprivileges, positiontotheMuslims. placingthemclearlyinaninferior Inthe Christians, immunity incasesofviolence against Christians. andvirtual The Orthodox had tobeararms,right adominantsocialposition indailylife, inlawsuits legalprivileges against evolved around language, law, customary faith, andOttomanMuslimprivileges, suchasthe communities. withsurrounding parison Muslim Albanian identityinKosovo andMacedonia related tolanguageandculture. Albanians obviously felttheirlinguisticdistinctiveness incom- period,into theearlymodern itwould thatwere also bemisleadingtoignore identitypatterns both sides. nor Kosovo Serbsconstitutedethnically “pure” aspropagated groups nationalistsof by modern processes happened, certainly but they cannotbequantifi intheMuslimcommunity.ners Bothtendenciescouldleadtolinguisticacculturation. These Orthodox intoSlavic Orthodox families,Albanians married converted Slavs hadtofi ally adaptedtothedominantlinguisticenvironment oftheirrespective group. religious While idioms were dominantamongOrthodox, whilemostMuslimsspoke Albanian. People usu- guage. The IslamicandtheOrthodox communities were bothmultilingual. InKosovo, Serbian withMuslimsunavoidably(marriages ledtoconversion toIslam). prevailed, Religion notlan- women orforcefully). whohadtoadoptIslamvoluntarily otherOrthodox Orthodox married to thelanguageoflargestMuslimgroup in Kosovo. tothe Albanian languageandimpliesthatadoptingIslammeantautomatically switching In terms ofnumbers, Interms Islamizationmainlyaff The Orthodox church of the Byzantine rite accommodatedtotheOttomansystem. TheOrthodox church oftheByzantinerite Although modern conceptsofethnicidentityshouldnotbemechanicallyprojected back Althoughmodern pools. groupswere Religious (orChristian marriage MuslimschosemainlyMuslimpartners ć and the autocephalous archbishopric of Ohrid in1766/ ofOhrid andtheautocephalousarchbishopric eighteenth century. The SerbianPatriarchate ofPe ock from CatholicsandJews. Ethnicdiff Oliver Jens Schmitt 24 (Serbs,ected BalkanOrthodox Christians ed. However, neitherKosovo Albanians called Arnauta Arnauta erence existedinearly ć religious evidencereligious vanished afterthe š i 67. Greek clergy ). This idealinks ourishing ourishing nd part- nd 25

Downloaded By: 10.2.98.160 At: 16:19 29 Sep 2021; For: 9780429464799, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429464799-4 Schmitt Schmitt kinship- by thesixteenthandseventeenth centuries. As alsointhecaseofBosnianMuslims, these tion. Together withBosnianMuslims, apowerful they formed interest groupinConstantinople European nationwithaMuslimmajority,modern are theobjectofongoingdebatesinregion. for thismassive conversion toIslam, whichmade the Albanians (nexttotheBosniaks)only minority. andnorthern Albania, Insouthern hadsurvived alittlebetter. Christianity The reasons central Albania. InKosovo andMacedonia, theremaining Catholic Albanians constitutedatiny led tosuchaclearMuslimmajority. By1800, hadalmostcompletelydisappeared in Christians been stiff stretching from Lake Shkodra toEpirus. As already noted, nowhere intheBalkanshad resistance totake IttooktheOttomansmore fullcontrol than150 years of Albania, region thehistorical diff sometimes bridged nineteenth century. communities constituted themainframeofreference, Religious andthey Bartl Bartl reconciliation.obstacle toregional equated Albanians withtheresented Ottomanregime, legacythatremains an anearlymodern The prominent positionheldby ofSunni Albanians helpstoexplainwhy Orthodox Serbshave songs in Albanian celebrateOttomanwarfare againstHabsburg troops onthePannonian plains. song demonstratesthatBosnianand Albanian Muslimsshared commonmemories. Otherepic cant roleintheseventeenth inOttomancampaignsHungary century. The Kreshnik epic defi important foundation inthestrategically (1580), built a mosqueinCairo, but alsoremembered hishomelandby creating areligious Grand Vezir. Koca SinanPasha from thehighlandofLuma(west conquered Georgia ofPrizren) prominent hierarchy, intheOttomanruling anddozensof Albanians rose tothepositionof andintoSoutheastEastCentralEurope.central Mediterranean Muslim Albanians became was by facilitated themulti- powers Europe, ofearlymodern from theOttomanandHabsburg Empires toSpainand Venice, Bartl Bartl Ć Malcolm Hysa Duka Ður Nadin irkovi Munich Bythefi đ , , , ev , Ylber Peter Peter , Ferid Ferid , ć Lucia , , Branislav , Oliver Jens , Oliver Jens based networks could include Christian relatives.based networks couldincludeChristian Communication withthemajor ofthisarea.er thaninparts However, nowhere intheBalkanshadconversion toIslam Sima M. Noel , . . 2012 . , .

Der Westbalkan Reich undOsmanischem Monarchie spanischer zwischen AlbaniaSacra 2009 Shqiptarëtdhetëtjerët. teMollaeKuqe NgaMadonaeZezë deri fteenth century, andadministra- tojointheOttomanarmy Albanians hadstarted Shekujtosmanënëhapësirënshqiptare . Albaniaritrovata. dipresenze albanesinellaculturadelcinquecentoveneto Recuperi enell´arte . . Kosovo.history A short

. .

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Turska uXVIiXVIIveku Gori vlastuCrnoj TheSerbs .

Die Albaner. undOkzident Orient zwischen EineGeschichte and

, 4 vols. erences inlanguage. Eva Anne .

Oxford religious religious networksAlbanian family stretching and across theeastern Wiesbaden

Frantz , . Ottoman Albania and Kosovo 2004

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