Downloaded By: [University of Oxford] At: 16:44 8 January 2008 Journal ofPoliticalIdeologies(1999),4(1)13-37 power, itscentralambitionwastolimittherightsofbelligerencyaparticular Nuffield College,Oxford,0X11NF national society,andjustwaronamebuafew.YetalthoughGrotiushimself political theory,incorporatingthemoderntraditionsofinternationalawinter- KARMA NABULSI An ideologyofwar,notpeace:jus clear. is undergoingaremarkablerevivalnWesterpoliticathought,himost of thestate.AsGrotiantraditionwarwas'index-linked'tolegitimate modern lawsofwar.Thisarticlewillseektotracethecoreelementsthis ABSTRACT TheGrotiantraditionofwardevelopedinaparticularmanner war in belloandtheGrotiantraditiof dominant interpretationso f Grotius,andfromthetraditionshiclaimetohav e complex viewsuponwar,whichdrewfromawide rangeoflegalandpolitica exclusively concernedwiththerights,wrongsanpractice s ofwar.Indeed,it work, DeJureBellietPads('TheLawsofWaran d Peace'),whichisalmost of theabove-mentionedtraditionsemploy.Thisyste m isdrawnfrohimai the methodologicalandideologicasystemwhich e introduced,andwhichall overlooked. ThisarticlewillseektoshowthaGrotius ' maincontributiolayi important contributionothecurrendebatappear s tohavebeenlargely military occupationinnineteenthcenturyEurope. become activelyinvolvedinpoliticalormilitaryactiontimesofwarand class ofparticipant(thesoldier),andtoexcludeallothersfromtheright important valueswerelaw,order,power,andanattachmenttothesovereignty tradition, whichdrewheavilyonthewritingsofHugoGrotius(1583-1645).Its the lastquarterofnineteenthcenturyincontextframing inspired. Second,toshowtha t theseideasinfluencedthformulationoflaw s ideological traditionofwar , whichdiffersquitedramaticallybotfromth e systems. Thepointwillb e toillustratthatherisadistinctivelyGrotia n is onlybexamininghiideaonwarthatthiideologica l approachbecomes Grotianism iswithoutdoubthestrongesparadigncurreninternational 1356-9317/99/010013-25 ©1999Carfa x PublishingLtd The objectofthisarticlis,accordinglythreefold: first,toseouGrotius' Downloaded By: [University of Oxford] At: 16:44 8 January 2008 3 2 1 KARMA NABULSI his mainwork,DeJureBelliacPadsbytheSwedis h monarcGustavus those ofcivilianpopulations.Finally,Ishallexplorhowthisideologyinformed particular toinformthepriorityaccordedrightsfstateanarmieove will beillustrated.Next,thdistinctmorapropertiesofthiparticularGrotian Grotius andthenumerou(anoftenconflicting)traditionwhichinspire an understandingofconceptscurrentlyiuse,suchjusinbello,andtradition tradition heinspirediitshistoricalcontext.Onlybthitypofendeavourca but succeededinconcealingitsideologicalpurposedoinso.Finally(an Grotian languagenotonlydefinedthtermsofdebatlawwar, emphasis herewillbonanumberfGrotiaproperties:flexibility,elasticity, which favouredoccupyingarmiesanpenalizecivilianresistance.The deathbed: 'byundertaking manythingsIhaveaccomplishedlittle'.Further - diplomacy, poetryandlaw werealldisputed,notleasbyGrotiushimselfonhi s at theColonialConferencof1613,andposition hetookinMareLiberum). contradiction betweehisdiplomaticpositiowherepresentin g theNetherlands author whoclearlydesiredtestablishthalawwas apublicauthority,yetfirst pillow, orasfetishinhisaddlebagelaidwast e andconquereEurope. Adolphus, who(dependingntheversioonfollows) , usediteitheras number ofbooks.Themoststrikingimaghisscholarshipwathuspu escape artist,famousforgettingoutofmanyatighspobrelyinngrea Grotius ilegendaryforhiinexhaustiblegiftmystificationandobscurity— The GrotianEnigmas the endofnineteenthcentury,andefinedominantparadigmlaws the practicesandbeliefoffoundermodernlawwar.Thes are showntoprovidthnecessaryfoundationsfhiconceptiowar,andi a pluralistmethod,andstrongattachmenoorderpower.Theseelements tradition ofwararesetout:theyseeconsisiasingulalegaldiscourse, such asjustwar,beunderstood. of thinkerssuchaHugGrotius,andequallyplacingtracinthe more broadly),thisarticlwillstresthimportancofexaminingideologie qualities. Thepotencyofthistraditionwarimanifesteditcovertquality and adaptabilitywerethtradition'sstrengthsuccesitdefining of warinthelat19thandearly-to-mi20tcentury,especiallythosprovisions more, theeclecticnaturo f hislifeseemtomergeasilyintthmyster f and interestsweretheological . Asapolymath,hicontributiontothefields f Grotius ifamedforhiattemptosecularizenatura l law,butmuchofhiswork of Grotius'clientsshapedhiconvictions;theexampl e usuallycitedisth wrote indefencofprivatandmercenarywars(o thechargthatinterests indeed, theabidingimagofGrotiusmanremainthataintellectual of war. ideological changeshighlighttheadaptabilityofthitraditionaideveloped 14 This articlewillproceedafollows:firstthinherentlyenigmaticqualitieof The greatestenigmainthstudyofGrotius manhimself.Hereisa Downloaded By: [University of Oxford] At: 16:44 8 January 2008 5 4 13 12 1 10 8 7 6 14 9 nature ofhiscontribution,whethe r itbenaturallawointernationasociety,no r those whoendeavourtsituat e him'instime',severaldonotagreth e of positivelaw.Asaneminentjurismaintained:'Grotius'usthpractic unprecedented lengththetraditionalcasforsayingthattherisalawcommon restatement ofprincipleswhichhadalreadyforgenerationbeencommonplace discipline. Forexample,KnightarguesthaDeJurewareally'nomorena defects ...whichinvitecriticism'. Grotius' 'evasionsandcontradictionsarenoteventhmos'conspicuou his works.Haggenmacherremarkupon'intrinsicambivalence';Vaugha division doesnotresolveth e primaryquestionofGrotius'motives.So,amongs t may IexpressmyconfidencethatGrotiuwouldshar e thoutlookofamodern portentously reportedtoagatheringfexperts:'Inclosin g thisbriefcomment, would'. AnotherlawyeclearlyfoundGrotiusles s silentwithhim,ae of nationssuchaehadforeseen,resolveconflict s ...hewacontento the meetingsofthiConference,hwasilentconten t owatchascongres Grotius, likeBanquo'sghostintothveryconferenc e whertheyarspeaking, current debates.Aminoroffshooofthissecondschoolendeavourdrag two schoolsnotedbyWillemintheGrotialiterature:historical,which deployed tosupporrdenyhispaternitfthesevarioutraditions.Therar theory'. Anotheraspectofthisparticulaenigmaariseovethemethod the sourcoftradition'internationalsociety','solidarism''rationalism' branches, ifany.Againinternationalrelationstheoristhaveclaimedhima Law hasinrealityofunctiothestructurfhisystem'.Stillother of mankind,belongstmodernpositivism';rfromanothelawyer:'Natural and otherevidenceofConsensusStates,adistinctfromthvaguconsensu whole engagementisseenbysomaattemptojettisonaturallawfavour meritorious) claimsthatnaturallawwathelasthingonGrotius'mind:hi natural law'.Thisviewijuxtaposedagainstother(anapparentlyequall to allmen,thenaturalaw...deepeslayerfGrotius'thoughis modern naturallawtradition:'hisbookidevotedtoputtingonceagaia is alonglineofscholarwhcomfortablyclassifGrotiuthfounder of theschools,andparticularlyneo-scholasticsSpain'.Howeverther contradictions'; andLauterpachtpointsouinhiauthoritativeaccountha found hisworkriddlewith'perpetualconfusion...anestofsophistriean the firsttwoapproaches(withafewcautiouslyincorporatin g bothstrands),this Christian humanist'.AlthoughmostwritersoGrotiu s canbedividedbetwee observe reasonandthsociablenessofmainterac t ashehadconceivethey solemnly declared:'IfGrotiuswapresentinspiridurin g thecountlesshourof or tfindhimaplacethverydeskwherthear e writing.Asonlawyer defined asthe'Grotianquest',iintroductioofGrotius'ideaintmor offers acontextualizationof'themaihitime';thsecond,commonly is the'father'ofinternationallaw,withoutbeingtoprecisabounwhich suggest hemanagedointroducboth.Morfamiliaristhcontentiontha 'progress', traditionalismandevenaccordingtomoremoderntheorists'regim Many havedeniedthathwasthfounderofanparticulaschool AN IDEOLOGYOFWAR,NOTPEACE 15 Downloaded By: [University of Oxford] At: 16:44 8 January 2008 18 17 19 16 15 Juste. HisthesiithatDeJureBelliacPadscannobeseenathprecursor interpretation ofGrotius'ambitionscabefoundithmeticulouslycontextual- equally manifestinthewritingsof'GrotiaQuest'school.Adistinguished order ojustice,slaveryfreedomsecularismGod.Thisincoherencei on theinterpretationsfhicharacter,norindeedwhetheaimwatdefen KARMA NABULSI ways whilstclaimingtheiroftencontradictoryvalueobequintessentiall fact thathereisnoagreemenoverwhaactuallymeanba'Grotian'. methods introduced(orbelievebeintroduced)yGrotiuhaonpolitical cal approachstilexcludesthesubsequenteffecwhictechniqueand correctly) bysituatingDeJureBelliacPadswithinwhatTuckdescribedas much morescientificallyrigidanlimiteworkwhossolaimwastoseou relationship betweendomesti c andinternationalpoliticatheory.Forsome,it s plurality oftheoreticalroofs.Thispluralismappear particularlystronglinthe of Grotianismtheflexibilitywhichissucthat itseemswelcomeundera nings ofnaturallaw.Sheconcludedthatoncanno t even'consider[Grotius] in ordertobeatruGrotiaonneededoverlay 'practice'ontheunderpin- tion. Lauterpacht'sdefinitionofaGrotiaisimilar , althoughebelievedthat members suchaVanVollenhoven.However,ifth e clubcouldlimiteto which, characteristicallythereisimmenscontroversy.Thsheerdiversityof apportioning andassigninofthe'duties'membershiptradition,over example, HedleyBull'sandMartinWight's.Acorollarofthiproblemithe Falk's andMurphy'interpretationoftherolaGrotian,wellasfor Self-confessed membersseethemselves,antheirtraditioninmarkedlydistinct man, hisworkandhowitobeusedthesdivisionhavoftenobscureth to theGrotiantradition.Noonlyistherconsensuovernaturf any 'heritage'valuetoit. approach acknowledgesthesingularmethodologyofGrotiuwithoutassigning could besaitocreata'Grotiantraditiofwar'.ThusHaggenmacher' ideologies ofsucceedinggenerationinternationallawyerandtheorists, a generaltheoryofthelawswar.Harguethipersuasivel(andIbeliev of thesysteminternationallawthatdevelopedsubsequently;isinsteaa But domesticliberalpolitica l theoryisalsoconcernedwithissuefdemocracy , and theruloflawmarks Grotianismasparadigmaticinstanceofliberalism . commitment ointernationa l improvementandprogress,mitigationconsensu s as whatiusuallydescribed"Grotian"\Thiubiquit y capturestheenigma such pluralistsaOppenheim,Bullwouldhavegladl y renewedhissubscrip- example, lostnotimeiremovinghimselffroman y clubwhichwelcomed statements)'. Twotypicalexamplesarethdisparitiewhichemergbetween seeking tosolveapparencontradictions)andanti-apodictic(avoidinfirm method were:'aporetic(leavingphilosophicalquestionsopen),antinomi(not ized historicalworkbyPeterHaggenmacher,GrotiusetlaDoctrinedeGuerre 'medieval technicadebate'continuinginGrotiustime.However,thishistori- 'the Grotiantradition'cabaproblemforGrotian s themselves.Bull,for 'Grotian'. Inthewordsofondevotee,threprincipleGrotia 16 This enigmaifurthercomplicatedbythosewhosethemselvebelonging Downloaded By: [University of Oxford] At: 16:44 8 January 2008 20 23 2 21 24 Francis Lieberhelddeeplyconservativeviewonissuesuchaslaveri controversy withintheGrotiatradition.Aswillbshowbelow,publicist values—in particularequality—intointernationaldiscourseisasourcfseriou distributive justice,equalityandhumanrights.Thinclusioofthesfurther particular rangeofcore,adjacentandperipheralvalueswithinatradition' This articleintendtotranscendthtaxonomicalconfusionoverhowGrotian between liberalismandGrotianisisthereforecomplex,notreducibloa versely, adomesticliberalsuchsKennetWaltzeschewthepossibilityof wise afollowerofRousseau,andbynmeanscaptivatewiththosair Bluntschli: 'HeisaLiberalbothmanandscholar.Butwao definition ofhispoliticalstancewaattemptedbyfrienancolleague, Grotian 'humanizing'traditioandafounderofthemoderlawswar.A America, butnonethelesssawhimself(andhabeenseesince)aparothe Bull: hence atendencytosituat e themselvesinrelatiotothdominanconstellatio n necessary changefollowsfromthGrotianidentificatio n withorder.Forall not quitethsamasKantianones,whichiturdiffere d fromWilsonian),the process. Thenotionofconsensusplayedapivotalrol e here.GiventhatGrotians rarely static,butshifadifferenperiodsoftimeunde r theinfluencofinternal manner ofitsdevelopmentovetime.Thevalueinternalanideologyar have oftencomupwithsingularlyunhappresults.However,identifyingth the internalvaluesofGrotiantraditiohanotbeeaddressedbymos expressing contrastinpatternsofinternalvalues.Moregenerally,thrankin of warthroughthelat19tcentury.Itwillemergtha'conservative'and are classifiedanclassifythemselvesbtracingthhistorofGrotianideolog Grotius' EnigmaticEthicsofWar simple formula. introducing liberalprinciplesintotheinternationasystem.Thinterfac allowed themselvestobecaught,likfliesincobwebs'.Finallyancon- systems ofthephilosophicalschooinwhichunwaryandunpracticameha of powerinthestatessystem . Thisapproachinotonlynotedbucelebrateb y Grotians, orderremainedon e ofthcardinalvaluesininternationasystem ; content ofthe'Grotianmiddle'shiftedcorrespondingly . Anotherexampleof those normativextremesnecessarilychangedovertim e (Erasmianvalueswer it sthoseextremethapartlydefinedtheiridentit y astradition.Butsince of itsvalueactuallydevelopedovertime,acquirin g adistinctshapeinth and externalpressures. ideology canprovidenewinsightsnotonlintoitshape,bualsth international relationstheoristandlawyers;thosewhohavtrie sought odefinethemselvesathmediaresbetween twoextremesetsfvalues, 'progressive' clustershavealwayco-existedwithinthGrotiaensemble, This iclearlythecaswithGrotiantraditioo f war.Furthermore,many AN IDEOLOGYOFWAR,NOTPEACE 17 Downloaded By: [University of Oxford] At: 16:44 8 January 2008 2S 29 27 26 persona andhisfama—hispersonalitythebodofwork—inotuseful perfect. AsTucknotedof Grotius'viewsonsociability:'Thenaturalsociety f derived fromhisconcepto f sociability,positedthatmanwasperfectiblebuno t Grotius' conceptionofhuma n nature,asdefineditheProlegomena,an d which borrowsheavilyfromthecanonofreactionar y thinkingtoforestallthe their particulatermsofreferenceuponthdebates ; andaboveallarhetoric reservoir oflawyers,whichartificially'closes ' argumentsbyimposing variety ofapproacheswithinasingleparadigm.On oftheprincipalmanifesta- deed, IwillarguethataseparationbetweewhaSchwarzenbergercalledhis tradition whichreliesomoral,ideologicalandintellectualambivalence.In- this characteristicneedtobeemphasizedinorderpresenaauthenti become clearerasthargumentunfolds.Firstly,iwillbarguedthanatur Grotius' CoreValues introduction ofsubstantivechange. language whichisformalisticandtechnical,oftenderive d fromtheconceptual extricate itselffromthmeaningless'passions'o e ideologicaluniverse;a of Grotians—astylewhichisalwaycontrolledan d tempered,seekingto tions ofthitraditionwillbeseetliithverystyle , languageandrhetoric whether hewasthfoundeofnaturallawitnegatohaconcealedamor used byorthodoxapproachestoGrotiuignorethath'truth'fwhetherhwa for settingouthiscentralphilosophy.Secondly,controversyovethemethod of thepowerfulisnotadetaibmentionednbiographicasketches.Rather, of Grotius'characteriscentral:hirealityanintellectualHoudinandservant thought. Theseelementsarmethodologicalamuchsubstantive,andwil identify anumberofnewanddistinctelementsunitwithinGrotians' century orthemid-20th. therefore differsignificantlydependingonwhetheitwasgivethmid-19th was becomingincreasinglyacceptedbtheenof1940s.A'Grotian' not paroftheinternationalsystem'sschemvaluein1850reve1919,ye particular epoch.Butdominannormschange:thenotionofracialequalitywa The Grotiantraditiowasthu'index-linked'tolegitimatepower,anditvalue KARMA NABULSI important point:Grotiusfoundedasynthetictraditionwhichcoulencompas a naturalistorpositiviscanbeseeirrelevant,sincthdebatove answer tothequestionfjustificatioslaveryiinternationallawwould always tendedtoexhibistrongaffinitiewiththeprevailinnormfany 18 25 or thatkingsandgovernmentthoughhighlyfhiviewweresometimeablus that inhisearlylifeHollandhtaughanwrotarepresentativofpowerfulstat now) thatasprofessionallawyerhiviewwereaffectedbythinterestofclients, actual interestsandpolicies'ofstates. to internationallawthahewasnmervisionarybusoughfoundhiviewth them insupportofhispolicies.InoaweaknesbustrengthGrotius'contributio one mayalsodoubtwhetheriwasalimitationfGrotiu...(likmanuEurop All thesevariationsanddifferencenotwithstanding,thambitionherito Downloaded By: [University of Oxford] At: 16:44 8 January 2008 31 32 30 tion ofraisond'etatwasaidethestatunfettere d bythebondsoflawan ends. Erasmus'conceptionofcommunitarianismwasgroundediaaxiomatic common feature:theywereallbasedoideologicallabsolutistdoctrinesf values andinstitutionalstructures,inhiviewthesestatparadigmshareon public institutionswereestablishedinhitime,antocreatdifferenground necessary consequenceofhissystemthought.Himainintentioithinking vulnerable tochargesfsupportingtyrants,bothinactualityandbdefault. composition. Bytheparticulartoolshemployedtodefinthirationale,wa Grotius' focusonthebasisforinstitutingstate,rathethaitinternal vagueness andincoherenceofhiviewngovernmentwerderivefrom whereas toother(notablyRousseau)heappearedfavourdespotism.Botth guarantee thatanypositivchangeswouldbofanenduringcharacter. Finally, theideaofprogresswahypotheticalratherthancategorical:al certain socialandinstitutionaprerequisites.Secondly,yimprovementi Firstly, perfectibilitywasconditional;theachievementofprogresdependedn Grotian scheme,man'ssocialconditioieffecthadthreedistincfeatures. which sucapursuitactuallydeprivesanotherofsomethingthepossess; men isonewhichindividualpursutheirowinterestuptothpoina his ownsystemofthought . Bysettingopposindoctrinesandvaluealongsid e recognition ofthisdiversit y wasnotanendiitself,bumeanofcontrivin g diversity andrecognizeth e richnessofdifferentintellectualtraditions.Ye t prepared todrawwasextremel y broad,revealingacapacittoaccommodat e his particularpurposes.Furthermore,therangofdoctrine s fromwhichewa communitarians, norreligiousimperialistcouldsingl y offeracomprehensive The firstwasthrejectionofexclusivityanon e doctrine:neitherrealists, be termedideologicalrelativism.Thisrelativismha d severalgenerafeatures. society initspursuitofpower. was foundedonhiunshakeableconvictioithtemporalanspiritua faith inthebenigandpacificattributesofhumanature.Dante'imperialism from thoseprovidedhitherto.Althoughsubstantivelydifferentintheircor about thestatwasounderminvarioudoctrinalfoundationuponwhich Yet thiswanoaflawinGrotius'substantivepoliticalvalues,burather of thestate.Hsawhimselasmanprogressivmoralandpoliticaviews, improvements werethereforreversiblbecaustherwanodivinrearthly it wasnocertain;Grotiurejectedateleologicalapproachoman'nature. man's situationwareversible.Perfectibilityhypotheticalithesensthat it nGrotius'eyesaprinciplewhichmoralrelativiscouldaccept'.Ith adds: 'itisthiminimalischaracteroftheprinciplsociabilitywhichmad it snooneofbenevolence,awwouldcustomarilyunderstanthterm'.H each oftheseparadigmsinaeclecticfashion,usin g whicheveraspectsserved institutions. Asshownabove,Grotiudemonstrateda willingnesstochoosefrom account oftheworld,rbuildacoherennormativ e foundationtostat supremacy oftheRomanChurch.ThcentralpremisMachiavelli'sconcep- The writingsofGrotiuindicatthathhadcontradictoryviewnthnatur In lieuofthisideologicalabsolutism,Grotiuoffered anapproachwhiccould AN IDEOLOGYOFWAR,NOTPEACE 19 Downloaded By: [University of Oxford] At: 16:44 8 January 2008 39 38 37 36 35 34 3 Remec pointedout,its'possiblethamenconsenoawidrangfpossibl himself fromideologicalargumentsaboutthefoundationostatpower.A new foundationalprinciplesforthesourceoflaw.AKingsburyexplains: permanent. Forinthemoralworldnaturofthingsknowfromthei precedent ratherthanoprinciple:'Theopiniofthoscanevebassented right wasestablishedthroughcustomanpractice,hiemphasison lay behindtheachievementofsovereignty.Lawnoonloccupieakeposition bedrock uponwhichallnotionsoforderwereconstructed.Accordingly,higoa KARMA NABULSI 20 force andlawtogether,Unde r alikebond"\Thislinkagofpowetlaw , right isthawhichacceptableothstronger, t wemayunderstandtha Grotius himselfputit:'wemayreadiladmialsoth e truthofthsayingthat world's mostpowerfulnations,aheadoftheir respectivehouseholds.As and absoluteprinciplesofjustice,butfromthagreement s reachedbythe to theheadfahousehold.Thlawnationswa s notderivedfromabstrac the modelofdomestichome,wherakingoccupie d ananalogouspositio feature ofthisunderstandingwaanimaghierarchica l stateformulatedon domestic sphere,butalso(andespecially)interstat e relations.Animportant expressions ofagreementamongdominanforcei n society. but simplythastateswerefoundedonlaws,especiallbecaustheslaw mattered wasnotwhathe'true'lawormoralprinciplwas,anoteearlier one... Thereisno"best"formfgovernment,accordingtGrotius'.Wha selves ratherthanthelegalnormtunderlaythem,hwaablodetac international law'.Focusingonthelegitimacyfstatinstitutionsthem- a specifichierarchyofformalrmateriasourcesthetypefoundinmoder operations'. Byintroducingapluralisticapproach,Grotiuswaabletoestablish to, whosaythatthepowerfDictatoisnosovereignbecauswa was boththeendandmeanofsovereignpower.Grotiubelieve in Grotius'schemeofvalues,twasthessentialprocedurameanestablish sovereignty asindissociablefromthlaw,nomatterwhatteleologicalpurpose in disputingvariousformofpoliticalautonomywatestablishtheconcep and procedures. His aiminattackingdifferentideologicalsystemwaoclearapathfo demanded. Nonetheless,Grotiusdidnotseehimselfacompletrelativist minimize it(andevendiscarentirely)whepracticalimperativeso there wasarelativizationofideologyitself:iotherwords,willingnest each other,Grotiuswaabletocarvouamiddlgroundforhimself.Finally similar totheHobbesian interpretation,wasoneofthcentralfeature f Solon accomplishedverygrea t results,ashehimselfusedodeclare:"Byjoinin g law failsofitoutwardeffec t unlessihaasanctionbehindit.Ithiwa y systems ofgovernment,fromtheentirelydemocratictextremabsolutis a stablesystemofdomesticandinternationalpolitics.AsGrotiudefineit,law society (bothdomesticandinternational)governebcertainkevalues 'Grotius' accountofsourcesiatheorylawngeneralrathertha This waanunderstandingoflawwhichGrotiu appliednotonlyothe The supremcharacteristicofthiscivilizedsocietywalaw;itth Downloaded By: [University of Oxford] At: 16:44 8 January 2008 46 4 43 42 40 47 45 41 them. consent ontheparfapeopl e intimesofwarordetjustifyenslavin g voluntary subjectionforbasi c necessitiesaoneofthlegitimatgroundfo r upon. InaparagraphofBookentitled'TheRigh t overSlaves',hepresented which manyofhismodernadmirerareunderstandabl y reluctantodwell enslave others.Grotiuswrotagreatdealonth e rightsofslavery,afact within thestatthusprovidedfoundatiofor e rightofconquerors proposed toargueforthlibertyfactionstates . Hisrightofslavery of individuals;accordingly,manyhislimit n individualfreedomwere reveals hipenchantformaintenanceofthstatusquobetweenruleand heavily ontheprinciplthatrebelliorresistanctyrannicalrulwas Thus Grotius'approachtothequestionfobediencsovereigpowerrelied function oftheambiguouspositiolibertyiGrotius'writings.Hboth right overthepropertyofhissubjects.' that ofafatherovehischildren,masteslaves...ThutheRegal ourselves, whichiscalledlibertyanthepower,whavoverothersa beginning ofDeJureBelliacPads,hedefinedlibertyassubsidiarright freedom ofapeoplecouldcomonlyafterthformationstate.I Although edefinedthstatas'completassociationoffremen', conditional uponachievementoftheduaimperativesauthorityandorder. low aspoliticalvalue.Itwas,bestsubsidiaryprinciplewhichwaalway this interpretationofhumafreedom.Moreimportant,libertywarankedver freedom wasmerelyacontingentconditionwhichsimplmeanthaoneno this virtuewaaninnatelementihumanaturall.Ihidiscourse, essentialist terms;asconcepiwasubsidiary,conditionalreversibleand Grotius' paradigm.Aswewillsee,thilinkagidentifiedorderpower,laan slavery. IntheGrotiala w ofnations,thereisnotevenarequiremen f salvation'. Asnotedearlier,hifocuwaonstates ' rightsratherthanthose exercitium, notthroughdisobediencebu h submissionandeternal i.e. martyrdom,sothateternalsalvationmighbeattained ' andconcludesthat Despite hesitatingattimes,Grotiusbasicallyadvise s submissionithiworld, illegal. AsOnumanotes:'Grotiustressethevirtuofobediencandthereby accepts andrejectthenotionofman'libertyapartlawnature. (rather thangivingexpressiotomoralandpoliticarights).Thisiagaia authority isabovethatofafatherandmaster,Sovereignhagreate sovereign authority:'Thisrightcomprehendthepower,thawhavover subject oanother'srule.BuforGrotius,evenslaverywanoinconsistenwith and politicalinstitutionswatoactualizeliberty,hinstearejectethideatha finally, profoundlyambiguous.Farfrombelievingthatthepurposofhistor ideology ofwarsliberty.InGrotius'visiolibertviewedinon- sovereignty astheclusterofcorvalueinGrotius'system. 'Grotius seektoresolvethquestionfresistanc e againsttyrantsquoad ... Mustoneobeythislawofnonresistanceveicaseextremdanger? Among theadjacent(andatimesevenperipheral)notioniGrotia His philosophyemphasizedanassociatiooflawwithorderanauthorit AN IDEOLOGYOFWAR,NOTPEACE 21 Downloaded By: [University of Oxford] At: 16:44 8 January 2008 48 50 jus gentium.ItallowedGrotiusoadvanceatheorywhichclaimethastateha just. Thiswaputforwardacustomofwar,sourceintypecontractual problems encounteredineachextremeview: war. Inhisdefiningstatementitheintroductioobooklawfwar having mutualandlegitimaterightsagainsteachotherinwar. representatives inbattle(commanderandsoldiers)coulbrecognizea nates could,othatbelligerentinthefieldfbattlcouldbbothlawfulan position ibetweethesetwo,andsuggesteaentirelynewlegalapproach.H the other),orthattherwasonlyonjusparty.Grotiusunsurprisinglytooka rights inwar(thatis,eachbelligerencouldhaveaequalrighomak on thelawsfwarbeforGrotiuhadarguethateithethercoulbbilateral belligerents inwar,aadditionalprincipletotraditionajusadbellum.Writer rules thatgovernedwaranpeace,buodefinewhathoswere.Indoing can befoundiitstitle.Higoalwanotoestablishwhetherthercoul and peace,theProlegomena,Grotiussetouhiphilosophyaresponso excessive andtooabsolutinthextentlimitstheysoughplacupo place. Heclaimedthalternatphilosophiesofwaranpeacwerbothto established theoriesofwaranpeace,thuadvancinghiownsystemithei purposes. Hisprincipalgoawatocounterwhahebelievedwerthtw tacitly agreedthat,irrespectiveofthobjectivjustictheirclaims argued that,althoughsovereignscoulnothavebilateralrightstheirsubordi- so hecreatedasystemflawwhiccoulofferbilateralrighttbot Much likeHobbes'Leviathan,thambitionofGrotiusDeJureBelliacPads The GrotianEthicsofWar KARMA NABULSI 2 His methodofseekingmoderation , temperamenta,wascrucialandlaia introducing improvements wastoillustratethpossibilityandlimitfchange . brutal rangeofcustomswhichdescribedaacceptabl e undervarioustypeof chiefly withthecustomsandpracticeofwar.Th e mannerinwhichGrotius chapter headingsofBookIIIDeJureBelliacPads, whichwasconcerned practice ofwarfare.Hisappealforthapplication f thisvirtueformedseveral His subsidiarypurposewatointroducaconcep t of'moderation'intthe of nearlyalltheprivileges whichIseemtogranthem'.Indeed,hissyste f law, headded'Imustretrac e mysteps,andmustdeprivthoswhowagwa r introduced thenotionoftemperamentuwastypical. Afterlistingaparticularly 49 being helpfulthatidoesharm,becausensuchargumentth e detectionofwhatisextrem opposite direction,aswaraccustomedtodothatheymacombacktrumiddl purpose, asItakeitiswhenthinghavgoniondirectiontoforcthemth bad men,havecomtoapoinfforbiddingallusarmsthChristian...their Confronted withsucutterruthlessness,manymenwhoarethverfurthestfrombeing that nothingisallowable,oreverythinis. truth. Forbothextremesthereforearemedymustbfound,tha t menmaynobelieveeither is easy,andresultnweakeningtheotherstatementwhich arewellwithinthboundsof ground. Buttheveryefforapressingtoohardinoppositdirectiosoftefarfrom Grotius' methodofanalysiswadrivenbybothprincipalansubsidiar Downloaded By: [University of Oxford] At: 16:44 8 January 2008 51 jeopardy thesisarguethatthecosofanproposedchangrreformitohigh that anysubstantivechangwasdangerous,becausieitherhathrevers Hirschman's laternotionofperversityandjeopardy.Thefirstpositthidea His selectionatfirsmayappearsimplarbitrary;o n acompletereadingofhis his owncentury.Heexplainedthreasonforadoptin g thisprocedure: these concernshiwayofdefiningwhatwercustomarpracticewar, His methodinestablishingatheoryusinthieclecticprocedurerepresentehi purpose) wasnoticedbyLauterpacht: natural law,thelawofnationsrvolitiona.Thiskil(butnoitideologica customary practicescould,accordingtoGrotiusbesourcedfromdivinlaw normative claimtomoderatthescustoms.Boththand all customsandpracticealegitimateinwartime,butadvancemor war hadarecognizeplacewithinthlaw.Accordingly,Grotius'systemdefine this methodofseekingchangeby'pressintoharinthoppositdirection', his methodofintroducingchangewhichwamucmorconsequential:th his quotationaboutfindingthemiddlwaywhichimosremembered, foundational stoneforthGrotiantradition.Althoughitwaslasphras effect othaintended,rendangersthepositivvaluealreadyachieved.Th of man'sinhumanitytman . Thesecondtheoreticalfeaturconcerneth e of hisselectionshowtha t hewasdevotedoLivy'morviolenillustration s work, howeveritsapparen t thatheexamplesusedarpurposelyan d searching forillustrationsofthesecustominancien t historyandexamplesfrom features ofthiGrotiansystemareparticularlyworthmention.Thfirst distinct contributionothefoundationsfanewschoolthoughwar.Fiv amounted toabeliefnhisparthathemorutilitariaanharshpractice actually underminedvariouscustomwhichoughtobemaintained;thi if t'endangerssomeprevious,preciouaccomplishment'.Grotiumaintained selectively chosen.Rather than'bettertimesandbettepeople'aexaminatio n search foramediaresbetweenthe'extremes'whicbelievedsodisastrous. 53 52 judgements. Theillustrationshavgreaterweightinproportio n astheyaretakefrom establish thelawofnations. we havsaid,isnameasurprovedandbynoothermeans, infact,isitpossibleto Roman, totherest.Andjudgementsarnobslighted , especiallywhenthearei better timesandpeoples.Thuwehavpreferreancien t examples,Greekand History inrelatiotooursubjecsusefultwways;supplie s bothillustrationand levity inthisindiscriminatingandconfusineclecticismtheusofsources'. charity, theobligationsofhonourrconsideration.Butwoftenlookivai Mosaic law,thelawofGospelRomancharityobligations regard tothesamquestion,whaislawfnaturenationsdivinlaw agreement withoneanother;forbysucstatementsthexistenc e ofthlawsnature,a for astatementsowhaithelawgoverningthematte...theralmostouchf impossible tosaywhaisGrotius'viewfthlegalposition.Hwiltelus,oftenwith 'The factseemsobthanmossubjectwhichdiscusseihitreatis Here Grotiusanticipateanapproach,whichwaaptlycapturedi AN IDEOLOGYOFWAR,NOTPEACE 23 Downloaded By: [University of Oxford] At: 16:44 8 January 2008 54 5 pillar inordetoconstituteabalancedstructure.Thiswaperceivethonly KARMA NABULSI between makingamoralclaim,basedoChristialawthelawfnaturerany exclusive adherenctoanyonethicalclaimnearimpossible. a mechanismwhichalloweddifferentmoralvisionsocoexist,making the absolutistclaimsofanysinglideology.Thesdiscourseembodied which onehadtopassinordernavigatatrumiddlpatbetwee means offindingthejustroute:gatacentrGrotius'edificthrough end ofGrotius'theoreticaledifice,claimetneethemor'realistpositivis substantive conceptionsofpluralism.Thnormativpillar,whichheldupon his workandthelatertradition.Thiwaaconflictbetweenprocedural the conservativviewofhistorythanprogressiviconstructingthisersatz not evencloseothcentre.Accordingly,Grotius'workdrewmorheavilyfrom the otherend,destabilizingneutralityclaimandthusabandoninatru the mornormativandprogressivpillarwhichhaconstructetoembody barbaric practicesatoneendofhiedificwaheavilyloaded,ioutweighe war, astructuralimbalancedevelopedwithinhissystem.Athpillarsupporting media res.Asheincludedawidcollectionofthmorexcessivpractice artificial contrivancewhichGrotiusdeemednecessarytoachievhidesire nature hloved,andwasmostcomfortablinassociatio n withpeopleofrank never hadbeen,merelyaphilosopheofthearmchai r indispositioandfact.By rulers' actions,theentirbodyofworkassumed anasymmetricalcharacter, By sustaining,andindeeconstructinglegitimizing argumentswhichendorsed tradition, orthemor'realist'Grotianlawyers. precepts couldequallybeclaimethhumanitarian,'normative'Grotian this approachhadtowitGrotius'abilityciteethicalclaimwithinth ethical schemewhatsoever,createdirreconcilabltensions.Yetthuniquenessof other law,whilstsimultaneouslymaintainingtheabilitodetachfroman moderation iwarfare,usingthetechniquesofinclusivity.Thcontradictio along withtheideologicalrelativismsetouearlier,remainedunresolvebotin middle ground.Thehypotheticalmediareswasnotmerelyconjectural,i 24 members ofsocietynthe other.Althoughedevotedsomeffortojustifyin g of war.Atthehear Grotiansystemwasaessentialdichotomybetwee n and importance,negotiatingeithertheibusinesso thatofarulingclass'. subjects andslaves.Aonebiographerremarked: 'Hehimselfwasnot,and seeming toofferanendlessrangefrightrulers , andmereobligationsfor about, powerandpowerfulleaderscoulincrementa l changebbroughtabout. in authority.Hisentireargumentrestedothfactha t onlybwritingfor,and audience. Theappealformoderationwasmadspecificall y torulersandprince same system(andalongsidothers)whichdenieothermoralclaims:thes the rightsofstateandarmie s ontheonhand,andpositiofordinar y 'middle'. The fourthfeaturlayinhisdeclaredattemptomakamoralclaimfor And finally,anotablefeaturinGrotius'theoryofmoderatio n iwarshi A thirdfeaturewasthmoralrelativisminGrotius'visioofrwhich, Indeed thiswatheessenc e ofthGrotianlegacytfoundinglaws Downloaded By: [University of Oxford] At: 16:44 8 January 2008 57 56 were givenaopefieldtovisidestructioandmayhemupoeachother;thes recourse towarinpublichands.Withitheslimits,howeverstatesandarmie private wars,ththrustofGrotius'writingswaconcentratlegitimate The Grotiantraditioofwardevelopediaparticulamannethlate19th principal agents,andwhatirevealeabouGrotianideologyofwaritself. between therightsofstateandarmiesubordinatpositiocivil- enjoyed theprimaryposition.SownbGrotius,seedsofdistinctio private realmofthsubject,therwasnquestioiGrotius'mindatwhich their onlyhopefosalvation.Betweenthpublicspherofstatand either inwaopeace,andwiththepeculiaformulatiofGrotiacharityas condemned towallowintheprivatsphere,enjoyingpoliticalrcivicrights other sideofthequationlayhaplesssubjecttheirespectivstates, actions werejustifiedbythhalloweprincipleofpracticancustom.On Lieber, whowerecollectivel y responsibleforstructuringboththdiscoursan d classified (orthemselves ) as'Grotian',therewerthrepivota l Grotius' contributionstothelawfwaroutlinedabove . constructed), andabovealltheirpoliticalideologywil l betracedinrelatioto our, thelanguagandmethoofdisciplin(whic h theythemselveslargel general frameworkofthelawswar,butalsinexcludin g allviews,principles largely throughdebates,discussionsandconferencesatBrusselin1874 during thisperiod,anotedearlierthatninternationaljurisprudenceemerged The GrotianTraditioofWar will bedevotedtoexamininghowthisdevelopmenoccurred,whwerit tant—germinated inthelaternineteenthcentury.Thremaindeofthisarticl ians—expressed inthelegaldichotomybetweelawfuanunlawfucomba- members, FedorFedorovic h deMartens,JohannCasparBluntschlianFranci s and actorswhothreateneitvision.Theirgenera l personalitiesanddemean- emerge thatthlegaltraditionplayedacentrarol e notonlyinshapingth works ofthemainagentandbearerGrotia n traditioofwar.Itwill norms duringthatera,iwillbeusefuoexplorsom e ofthcharacteristicsand values, andexternallyinthewaytraditioadapte d itselftotheprevailing exactly howthetraditiondevelopedinternally,ibot h itscoreandperipheral others fromtherightobecomactivelyinvolvedin war.Inordertounderstand belligerency toaparticularclassfparticipan(thesoldier),andexcludall acknowledged asthemostfragile. upon whichtheentirnotioof'humanityiwarfare'rests,equallthasbee combatant. Thisconceptalsohabeenrecognizedathefundamentalprincipl conception ofjusinhellorelied,thedistinctiobetweecombatantandnon- the modernnotioofjusinhello,iparticularprinciplupowhich the Haguin1899and1907.Grotiaideasplayeacrucialrolconstructing and early20thcenturiesinthecontextofframinglawwar.Iwa Although manypersonalitie s amongthepublicistoferacouldb Central totheGrotianpositiowasambitiolimirightf AN IDEOLOGYOFWAR,NOTPEACE 25 Downloaded By: [University of Oxford] At: 16:44 8 January 2008 62 61 60 59 58 63 65 64 6 force thepoliticalandlegaworltoquotme', d toanotherfriend:'Iknow persona. HewrottohispatienfriendCharleSumner : 'Iwillnotresunti hearing ofthePrussianinvasioFrance.Hheldaanti-abolitioniststanc his associationandloveforallthgloryofPrussia.Aonbiographewrote: while inAmerica,andwasdesignefortheicivilwar.Howeverhnevelost as GeneralOrdersNo.100of24April1863commonlyknownasthe'Lieber formulation andcorevaluestoGrotius'own;theswergenerallyreflecte there appearsevidencofstrongreactionaryprincipleawell,similarinthei continuity, andtempereprogress.YetwithintheearlyGrotiatraditioofwar underpinnings. Manyliberalpoliticaconceptscanbedescribedaconservativ world. personal aspectsoftheircareers,andhowtheseinfluenceviewth described Grotiusa'theprimproto-publicist'.Oftenoverlookearthmor men hadmanyfeaturessimilartoGrotiuhimself;indeeGeoffreBes the actualtextsonlawfwarisecondhal19thcentury.Thes KARMA NABULSI not anabolitionist,forhebelievedthaonlystatescoul d dealwithslavery'.He population byhavingthestatlegislaturescarroutaprogramofcolonizatio believed thatimmediateemancipationwoulsolvnothing;ionlylea could notspeakoupubliclyontheissufslavery',anicas'h on slaverywhileholdingaprofessorshipithAmericaSouth:'Lieberfelth another biographer,onreadinghislettersnotedthat'hispiritsoared' Code' (ortohisintimateandhimself,'TheOlOnHundred')wawritten legal contribution,InstructionsfortheGovernmentArmiesinField,issued and 80s. in muchoftheconsensualthinkingaboutlawswardurin1860s,70s in nature,notablytheattachmentolaworderpoliticalstabilityhierarchy its structureandpractitioners,waliberalinpoliticaassumption describing Martensa'juris t intheservicofTsar'quitrightlywonder s the otherhand,'diedfirmly convincedofhisowngreatness'. Grotius, howeverwhoquestionedhiscontribution n hisdeathbed,Liebero find thenamesofThomaMore,HobbesHugGrotius , andPufendorf'.Unlike that myworkbelongsotheliswhichbeginwit Aristotle,andinwhichwe Equally, hisdesireforfamandrecognitionalloffere d strongechoesofGrotius' declared toGeneralHalleck:'Blooisoccasionally therichdewofHistory'. other virtuesitpossessed,waameanofdevelopmen t ofcivilization.Ashe also heldadeeplovefwarwhichsbasenhi s beliefthat,amongmany the onlyethicalapproachwasto'reducnumberfNegroein which was'repugnantoLieber'Anglo-Saxonmind'.Accordingly,ebelieved to socialequalityandconsequenintermarriageamalgamation',anide 26 'he wasdelighted,inhioldagewiththGermaconquestofFrance'an 'the extentowhichdMarten s wahiownmaortheTsar's'.H s ... In1835,whehecamtoSoutCarolinahad todemonstratethahwas As notedearlier,thebroa19thcenturydoctrinofinternationallawbotin Fedor Martenswaanarden t servanoftheRussianEmperor.Best,i Of thethree,FrancisLieberwamostinfluential.APrussianbybirthhi Downloaded By: [University of Oxford] At: 16:44 8 January 2008 68 67 71 70 69 74 73 72 begins hiaccountwiththedeclaration:'Toutunlegends'esformén legal rulesat)thefirstinternationadiplomaticconferenconlawfwari bullying behaviourtowardsdelegateoflessepoweratBrusselin1874,and his essentialvisionofthelawwarbasedextensivelyLieber'Code.Hi together onlyintheimutualdislikeofMartens),butwastirelespromoting Belgian andGermadelegates,separatebyayawningideologicalgulfdrew tions. Hewasdeeplydislikedbdiplomatofallpoliticapersuasion(th about thepurposesofconferencclearlybetrayedhiownpoliticalinclina- Hague Conferences,wherhplayedapivotalrolethlegenconstructe provoquée'. InsettingouthisowauthoritativeversioofthBrusseland Europe ausujetdľoriginlconferencBruxellesdecausequiľon a publicist.Marten'sbookontheconferenctBrussels,LaPaixetGuerre, instrumental inconvening,(andmoreimportantlydevisingthpoliticaan plagued delegatesatBrusselwithhipedanticmanner.BaronLambermont,the puisse tdoivdevenirunautoritpoulmonde'.IwasBluntschliwho Jacquemyns. BluntschliwrotetoJacquemynsn1872:'L'idéd'unconferenc parameters oftheInstitutforInternationalLaw,involvinghifriendRolin- prussienne' from1862.ItwasBluntschliwhoestablishedthehighlypolitical representative ofapartywhichsoughtTunitéallemandeľhégémoni Heidelberg, hewasanactivmemberofthFirstChambeiGermany home inPrussia.BesideshilegalandscholarlyactivitieatthUniversitof training aSwissnational,madehiwayacrosthbordertonaturalpolitica unpleasant episodeoflegalplagiarismnagrandscalthHague. considered theirownvitalconcernsofself-defence)includeaparticularly abound withexamplesofhiarroganceanpetulanctowardwhatthey especially theHaguin1899,(thdiplomaticarchivesBrusselandNante was thecardinalpositionthe y assignedtothenotionforder.Asnoteabove , particular viewofthelawswar,sharedadistinctpolitica l ideology,whichwas under hiswingattheInstitute,andpushethrough practicallysingle-handedly, understood inBerlithattheRussiaprojecharmonize s perfectlywithPrussian foresee endlesspontificatingandceaselesharangue s ...itseemtheyhave Bluntschli has,ofcoursegottenthenervesal l theotherdelegates.Wal Belgian delegateandthconference'shostnoteihidiary:'Tharrivalof parait étredcréeruninstitutionpermanente,durablequiinsensiblemen de juristesudrohinternationalm'asouventpréoccupé...Lpoincapitam Grotius waseentobea'ma n ofpeace',exactlyithesamwaasHobbe s anticipations ofHirschman'notionperversity,jeopardy , andfutility. similar inmanyinstancestoconservativeliberalism , alsoofferingstrikin his politicalmasters.ThesethreGrotians,instrument s andpromoterofa the 'OxfordCode'),whichsubsequentlyprovokesuc h aviolentresponsefrom the creationofaManualLawsWari188 0 (commmonlyknownas military practices'.AnditwasBluntschlwhotoo k thefailedBrusselsproject 1874 inBrussels,andcarrieareputatioforbeingsmuchself-publicist The thirdGrotianwasJohanBluntschliwho,althoughbybirtanlegal The firstclearlyGrotianelemen t ofthepoliticalideologythesthremen AN IDEOLOGYOFWAR,NOTPEACE 27 Downloaded By: [University of Oxford] At: 16:44 8 January 2008 83 82 79 78 7 76 75 84 81 80 jurist LaPradellenotesthaMartenremindhimofVattelhi'clear- 28 of theInternationalInstitut e ofInternationalLaw,hbelievedthatthcorrec t the questionofslavery. Lieber's ownviewothematterhavalreadybee illustratedwithreferenceto Turcs oudeChinoil'observationregieet s usagedelaguerre'. estimation, couldonlyappltoanbetween'nation s parvenuepluoumoin him, believedthatthepeoplesoutsidEuropwer toouncivilizedtmeethe of theworldarounthemantheirplacwithinit.Martens , likeGrotiusbefor peace. Athirdsharecorevaluwastheirelitism , whichinformedtheirview recognized thatkeepingwarthepreservofprofessionalsoldiersserve society. Bluntschliwrotetha t oneofthpurposeshiDroitInternational idées surledroitamorale.Voiläpourquoiserai t impossibled'attendrdes au merneniveadcivilisationtquidifferenpa s notablementdanleur standards ofhi'universalist'conceptioninternationa l law.Laws,inhislofty tion of'internationallaw')wastheonlymean f preservinginternational century, whichreflectedthehegemonicnaturoftwEmpiresBluntschli pouvoir, nisouverainetélégislatifjudiciaire.lissontomnipotente Martens makeinthework,suchas:'LerapportentrleEtatreposentsur Indeed, intheprefacto1916editiofMarten'sLaPaixetlaGuerre, destruction iorderwagewar.Martens,othothehandadoredVattel. views, complaining'itmakesmeimpatienofindoldVatteloftenquoted' law. Interestingly,howeverLieberdismissedVattelbecauseofhis'moderate' a highlyVattelianone;itviewedstatestheprimarlocuoflegitimacan conquest. ThisnotionoforderwaamuchcentralbelieGrotiuit of therightswhichaccruedtthosprivilegebeararms—thrights Yet, thereisalsoadirectlineagfromthiargumenbackmedievalconcep to theinterestsfmilitaryinaattempstopthemslaughteringcivilians. interests ofconquerors.Thiargumentcouldbeseenadvanceappeal war thatregularizingarmiesthebesmeanofpreservinorder.Bluntschli, Similarly, bothdeMartensanBluntschliarguentheirworkothlawf preservation oftheUniowasmorimportantthaextinctioslavery'. desired thepreservationoforder.Lieber'snotioorderwaabsolutthat KARMA NABULSI Codifié wastoconform the'needsofage'.Additionally,afounde r would comeeventuallytosethathishegemon(whichbuttressehiconcep- and Martens,Lieber'sPrussianviews.Martenbelievethatotherstoo ing oftheharmonyinterestsGreatPowerinsecondhal19th soumettent äaucuneautoritétrangére'. le princípd'uncompletindépendance.LesEtatnreconnaissentaucu minded butslightlysuperficial'.ThisiconfirmebtheVattelliancomment warfare, suchastheusofpoisonandfavoureretentionallmean later describingVattelas'FatheNamby-pamby'forestrictinsomemethodof in citingthepurposofdistinctiobetweelawfulandunlawfucombatant, it appearedobereified.Asonauthornoted:'Liebebelievethath Elitism alsoshapedthewa y theperceivedtheirownfunctioanrolei Another strainrunningthrougheacofthepublicistsiasimilaunderstand- Downloaded By: [University of Oxford] At: 16:44 8 January 2008 8 86 85 87 personal politicaideologiesandconvictionweredeeplyembeddeintheir between moreprivatpoliticsandpublicpersonasillustratethfactthatheir private worldsofthesthremen,andindeethattheirmentorinvitetw heritage whichwashighlightedearlierinthiarticle.Aexaminatioofth them withacentralaspectofGrotius'ownneglectedpersonaanhidde political animae:adeepfixationwithpower.Itwasthestrongeslinkthaunited rulers foundenthusiasticdiscipleovertwohundreyearlater. by adoptingtheconstitutionofaacademrinternationalinstitutlaw himself: 'Whatwouldbenecessarytodaanwhawarabouopropos Through thelanguaguse d toconstructhelawsfwar,severalGrotia n penetrate. ThefoundingagentsofthGrotiantraditio n werepartofawider conferences andwiththeirInstitutecolleagues.Secondly,althougtherwer tions onthelegalagendafwarwiththeirespectivrulertinternationa were bothbestplaced,andusetheirpositionsoadvancownformula- founding ofthemodernlawswarfotwreasons.Firstly,thesindividual Lieber, BluntschliandeMartensthestwofacetsfpoliticalphilosophywer the goodlifinsidstatwithoutsidit.ForGrotiusa written works.Secondly,ithighlightstheimportancoflinkingnotion important conclusionsabouthenaturofGrotianideology.First,symbiosi contention thattheonlymeansofmoderatingstates'behaviourwaappeal European nationsatVienna;buhewathuquotedabovmonarchs,ministers emulate Grotius:'HugoGrotiuswaquotedaauthoritytthCongresf of statelikthemselves.Lieberdeclaredthathispersonalambitionwa a conceptwhichineffecempoweredselecgroupofunaccountableservants of nations'.Disguisedunderthenotion'publicopinion',allthredevelope meeting wouldattemptofixthefirstlandmarksfcollectivscientificaction... sciences ofinternationallawthroughtheirwritingdeed...Thi would bethintimatmeetingofaselectgroupmenalreadyknowi method ofinfluencingstatepolicywastcreatanexclusivbodmelik out theirdistincconcerns , butalsoasvehicleforcertainpoliticalends . discipline ofinternationalla w whichusedaparticularlanguagenotonlyoma p self-defence. emphasis ondenyingallrightfbelligerencytcivilians , evenisituationsof centrality oforder.Alltheseelementscamtogethe r tojustifytheGrotian tivism; themannerofintroducingmoderationiwar ; andtheaffirmationof standardization ofideologicalrelativism;theinstitutionalizatio n ofmoralrela- of war:theelaborationadistinctlanguagan d methodologyoflaw;the ments, eachofwhicrepresentedacentraltenetinth e modernGrotiatraditio into aparticularframework.Thisintellectualconstructio n involvedfiveele- Grotius theydemonstratedasupremetalentforsynthesizin g theselegalrules many otherworksaboutthelawofwabeforandduringtheitime,muchlik indissociable. Bluntschli,MartensandLieberplayeadecisiverolinth and nations,becausehewasanunofficialmanabsentfromthstrife'.Grotius' Such ideologicalvalueswereunderpinnedbyanessentiapartoftheir The languagoflawisperhaponthmostdifficul t ofalldisciplines AN IDEOLOGYOFWAR,NOTPEACE 29 Downloaded By: [University of Oxford] At: 16:44 8 January 2008 93 92 91 90 89 of neutrality. of moralrelativismandgav e asemblancofcoherenctthrhetoricallanguag e ordinarily travelledinpair s ofopposites'.Thipluralismconfirmedthepractic e As aprofessoroflawtYaleremarkeddryly:'rules , asGrotiupresentedthem could encompassbothprogressiveanconservativ strandsofGrotianthought. classifying themasperverse,ordangerousindeed simplybdismissingthem philosophy asthetrumiddlgroundhatobchallenged . Thiswadoneby between twoextremes,certaiideologieswhichthreatene d thepositionofhis norms. Accordingly,themethodclearlyinstituteasystemwhichwasbaseon Grotian traditioofwar—thenotiodifferentlegalargumentsbeingadvanced ments eitherway'.ThiscapturetheessencofGrotius'contributiont was heraldedathecornerstonofGrotiansystem:iword tation. 'Innocent'ifpassiveimplied,ocours'guiltypoliticallyrmilitaril used invariablybthethresynthesizerstoclassifcategorfpassiv middle way,howeveritwasthenpossibleoinclud e certainfeatureswhich as 'ideologies'.Oncethparadigmatictheorywaadequatel y establishedasthe established byGrotiusthatinorderodefinehiphilosoph y asthemediares ethical andlegareasoning.Thiswanotacomplet e formofrelativism.Itwas a flexiblerankingofvalues. able todrawnthmethodologyarguforprogressivethicalandjuridica Concert ofEurope.LaterGrotians,arathemoreprogressivdispositionwer early Grotiansusedthimethotoentrenchthehegemonicpositionf concept ofpluralismintheconstructiolawswar.Aillustratedabove, from asinglemethodologicalblueprint.Eclecticislaidthcornerstonof Schwarzenberger, theGrotianapproach'offerssplendidopportunitieforargu- active. civilians underoccupation,hadamoralrathethanmerelydescriptiveconno- accepted 'neutral'legalterminology.Forexample,'innocentciviliansaterm language becamrestrictedbythestablishmentofvalue-ladenconceptsi inscribed byCiceroantheRomanhistoriaLivy.Anotheraspectwashowthi against Napoleon'soccupyingarmy.LieberalsousedNapieachieveth historian Napier,whogaveafamouslyprejudicedaccountfthguerrillawar civilian uprisingsattheBrusselconference,Martenchosoquot of selectinghistoryinthestructurinlawswar.Oquestio Bluntschli whendescribingexistincustoms,thusdefininthe'correct'manner criticism ofGrotius'methodmentionebybothVoltaireanRousseauwasth imbued withparticular(inthiscaseconservative)ideologicaltenets.Acentra discourse itself.Thfirstwasthintroductionofspecificcustomwhichwer KARMA NABULSI 30 same effect.Hwasalsopartial,likGrotiustquotingRomanpracticea dent ('historyasfact').ThimethodwaalsousebMartens,Lieberan inclusion (indeedselection)ofbarbaricRomacustomsaexampleprece- innovations inmethodologywereadvanced,whichintroducedrestrictionth The thirdfeaturofthGrotiantraditiowar s therelativismofit Also standardizedwasthenotionfideologicalrelativism.Indeeeclecticism Equally noteworthwasth e meansofcontrollingthparameterlegal Downloaded By: [University of Oxford] At: 16:44 8 January 2008 96 97 94 La PaixetGuerre,deMartensalsodeployethconceptffutility noble: lepatriotisme.Lorsqu e celasproduit,ľeffetnécéssairel'effefatales t qui pourraientsedéveloppe r sousl'empiredcsentimenttrébeau s preferable pourladefense?C'estevidemenceluiqu i estregie'.Inthewords populations; theremedywasinthisensnothingbutaaggravatioof exclusively. banning waronthegroundsfitinevitability.Equally,hadoptedGrotia de rendrlaguerrplussauvag e tplusdure'.Ofimportancherithabot h harsher andmoreintractable:'onamémäredoute r lesinitiativeindividuelle of aGrotianlawyer,popularexpressionspatriotis m onlyservedtomakewars de patriotisme,celuiquestreglnl'es t pas.Quelesceluiqui on whcouldqualifyaslegitimatebelligerents.Hdeclared : 'IIyadeuxsortes Brussels in1874usedthiapproachwhetryingto promoteastrictlimitation threatened theexistingorderofstates.DLeer,Russia n militarydelegateat Ideologically dangeroustermsuchapatriotism,an d notionsofjustwarals example ofthParisCommunin1871: civic life.Fromthisperspective,hewaalsostronglyopposedtaneffor opposed therepublicannotionsofpopularsovereigntyanmasparticipatioi to allexistingbenefitsandvirtues.Aaloyaimperialist,Martenstrongly existing systemoflegalrulesbyreferencetthnotionjeopardy:threa disease. TheGrotianfoundersalsosoughtsafeguardthsanctityf belligerency wouldmerelservetoexacerbatthconditionfoccupie Grotian lawyersrepeatedlyarguedthatanconcessiootherightfcivilia were counteredbytwoarguments:perversitanjeopardy.Inthfirstcase, disorder totheGrotiansystemfrulesigeneral(andwaparticular) tive andprogressivstrandswathcentralnotionoforder.Ththreat more progressivGrotiansfocusedonth'middlway'approachalmost methods, highlightingtheinevitabilityofwarandmiddlapproach.Th Many 20th-centurGrotiansofthemorconservativschooladoptedboththes method ofarguingforthemiddlwayinintroductiolimitemoderation. in lovewithit,denouncingassacrilegiouthoswhosoughtoutlawit.Ihi futility ofbanningit.Liebernotonlthoughwasinevitable,buhal moderation. Grotiusmadeusofthnotion'inevitabilitywar'(whichwa ingly, theconceptoffutilitywasintroducedhighlighlimitenatur limited intheGrotiatraditioofwarlatnineteenthcentury.Accord- discourse onmoderatioiwar.Thnotioftemperamentuwasextremely the potentialeffectofendangeringalformscivilization.Hoffered involve citizensinthdefencoftheircountry.Sucheffortwerseeahaving 'in perfectaccordwiththefirstprinciplesofnature')iorderjustify 95 vérité qu'ilestplusfacileddistribuerlearmequ s reprendre. la CommunedParisestunexempldestinärappelerjamai s ätoutelenationcette peuvent étrepourlapatrilesmassepopulairenonorganisées . D'autrepart,l'histoird Vu lesperfectionnementdearméemodernes,onpeutjugerfacilemendequelsecour The finalelementinthGrotiatraditioofwarwhichunitedbotconserva- AN IDEOLOGYOFWAR,NOTPEACE 31 Downloaded By: [University of Oxford] At: 16:44 8 January 2008 98 life outsidit.HowGrotian s situatedthemselveindomesticpoliticha a importance oflinkingthnotion s ofthegoodlifinsidstatwith d other words,individualpoliticaconvictionsandpublishe d outputwereinexor- exercised asignificantinfluenceonthconstructio f theGrotianparadigm;i generations ofGrotians,andthepracticalintellectua l methodologythe two factorsarealsessentialforappreciatingthWeltanschauung ofsubsequent vitiated aproperunderstandingofthesubstanchi s philosophyonwar.These thus givingthelitoitclaimfinclusivity. language (rhetoricallybutnosubstantiveluniversalist)actuallexcludedide- certainties whichexposedmanyofitweaknesses.ThepowerGrotian this ambivalencewaasourcofthtradition'strength,paradoxicallyitit needs ofthetime(adefinedatleasbydominanpowers).Finally,i hegemonic powers.Grotianideologyperformedthisfunctiowithnotableskill discourse inthfield,and,sodoingtrepresenpoliticalinterestf discursive power;itscapacitytoarticulatthproperfrontierflegitimat laws ofwar,whosetermreferencitdefinedthiGrotiantraditiowa neutrality whichconcealedanideologicalpartipris.Fromtheperspectivof national relationsandinternationalaw,yetwadistincfrombothofthem.Thi 32 ably intertwined.Further,recapturing theirpoliticalworldviewhighlightsth e convention, ithasbeenarguedherethapersonalpolitica l valuesandpreference Grotian traditionsofthoughthaveusuallybeesystematized . Contraryto acquired fromhim.Thispointhaawiderbearin g onthemanneriwhich ologies andgroupwhichdinotconformoitconceptio n ofthestatusquo, accurately capturedtheambivalentnaturofmilitaroccupationitself.Bui flexibility andadaptability,ensuringthatitsprinciplewerealwayattuneoth and consummateelegance.Thissensitivitywaalsoapparentinthtradition' and weaknesses.Onthepositivside,onofitsgreatestassetwasheer and unlawfulcombatants. of amiddlepathbetweentwcontendingpoliticalideologies;andclaimt law; asubordinationofthedemandslibertytthosorderoccupatio Grotian traditioofwarsbasedahierarchicalreadingthenotio war. ItisanideologythaborrowedheavilfromGrotius'writingointer- writings ofGrotius,andtraceitlaterdevelopmentatraditionithelaw This articlehaoutlinedthcontourofaparticularideologyderivefrom and HedleyBull. the substancandmethoofthestraditionalistscanbseetreplicate strongly attachedtothenotionfmaintainingacleardistinctiobetweelawful ive guidesforhumanaction;aoverridingconcerwithstatsovereigntyand sociability; adualistpositioningofnaturallawbothsprogressiveandregress- Conclusion in theworksoflaterGrotiatheoristwar,mostparticularlyMichaelWalze KARMA NABULSI Finally, ithasbeenshowthaexcludingthepersona andfamaofGrotiusha As anideologicalconstruct,thitraditioofwarhadnumbestrength Downloaded By: [University of Oxford] At: 16:44 8 January 2008 Acknowledgement Notes andreference feigning aninterestiobscureprinciplesofthlawwar. I wouldliketoexpressmyabsolutgratitudSudhirHazareesingh,Balliol international relations. crucial bearingonhowtheytheorisedaboutanpractiseinternationala College, forhismanyastuteobservationspatienteditingandconvincingl 11 BullisthemostcommonlycitedauthorwhoclassifieGrotiua e founderofbothinternationalsociety 10 J.Basdevant,'HugoGrotius'inLesFondateursduDroitInternational (Paris:A.Pillet,1904)p238 2. Thebestanalysis(whichalsoofferanunusualdefencfthischarge)ibyJudgGLadried 5. PHaggenmacher,GrotiusetlaDoctrinedeLaGuerreJuste(Paris:PressesUniversitairedeFrance 4. SeeJCWillems,'HowtoHandlGrotianAmbivalence?:AGuidancTowardssomRecenGuides' 3. CitedinWKnight,TheLifeandWorksofHugoGrotius(London:GrotiusSocietyPublications1925) 9. See,forexampleCMurphy's'TheGrotianVisioofWorldOrder'AmericanJournalofInternational 7. MichaelDonclan,'GrotiusandtheImagofWar'Millennium,12(1983)pp235239SealsEB 6. SeeKnight,op.cit.,Ref3p202 8. JStone,LegalControlsofInternationalConflict:ATreatiseontheDynamicsDisputesandWar-Law 1. JDeBurigny,LaViedeGrotius:avecl'HistoiresesOuvrages(Paris:Deburl'Ainé1752)Ipp International LawandtheGrotianHeritage(TheHague:T.MAsserInstitute,1985)pp207-213Se Grotiana, 6(1985),p.106 Grotius', TransactionsoftheGrotiusSociety,London13(1928)p.128 p. 289Onhispoetry,aextremelycharitableinterpretatiocabfoundi'ThMinorPoetrofHug pp. 89-92 also RichardTuck:'PeterHaggenmacher,GrotiusetlaDoctrinGuerrJuste'Grotiana,7(1986) Lacharrièrc, 'TheControversySurroundingthConsistencofPositionadoptedbGrotius'i International Studies,17(1991),p. 54,M.WightInternationalTheory:TheThreeTraditions(London: Law, 76,(1982)pp.00-00 Revue deDroitInternationaletLégislationComparée,VI(1925),p.549 and A.Roberts,(eds)HugoGrotiusandInternationalRelations(Oxford:Clarendon1990)p75 founder ofinternationallawis'The TraditionofIdealismandProgress',op.cit.Ref.5p48;EBalogh Leicester UniversityPress,1996)pp . 13-15;Lauterpacht'seleventhfeaturemarkingGrotiuath of internationalsociety.CCutler , 'The"GrotianTradition"iInternationalRelations'Reviewof pp. 24,27152and153CutlernotesthatBulldoenohimselfusenatura l lawtounderpinhisconcep of bothviewsseeTheAnarchicalSociety:AStudyofOrderinWorldPolitics (London:Macmillan,1977) view, see'ThImportancofGrotiusinthStudyInternationalRelations' , op.cit.Ref.1Foraspects and solidarism.Fortheformer,seHBull'ThGrotianConceptio n ofInternationalSociety',i citations seeBenKingsbury's:'Grotius,LawandMoralScepticismTheor y andPracticeinthThought a StudyinPoliticalandLegalThought(Chicago:ChicagoUniversityPress , 1981)chap.2Foradditional responsibility inthe'fathering'ofinternationallawseEdwards,Hugo Grotius,TheMiracleofHolland: (London: Stevens,1959)p.10;DiVecchio'GrotiusandtheFoundationofInternationalLaw'NewYork Midgley, TheNaturalLawTraditionandtheTheoryofInternationalRelations(London:Elek1975)pp. Law', BritishYearbookofInternationalLaw,23(1946)p.12 (New York:RussellandRussell,1960)Ip.22;HLauterpacht'TheGrotianTraditioiInternationa Butterfield anWight,(Eds).DiplomaticInvestigations,CambridgeMass. , 1968pp.51-73;forthelatte Macmillan, 1996)p.44fn16 of HedleyBull',inClarkandNeumann(Eds)ClassicalTheoriesof InternationalRelations(London: Lauterpacht, op.cit.,Ref.5pp18192230andesp51Forareview ofthedebatconcerningGrotius' 'The TraditionalElementinGrotius ' ConceptionofInternationalLaw',NewYorkUniversityLaw University LawReview,37(1962),p.263 1983), p.623;CEVaughanStudiesintheHistoryofPoliticalPhilosophybeforeandafterRousseau 135-6; Bull,'TheImportancofGrotiusinthStudyInternationalRelations'H.BKingsbur 154-167 andV.Hraber,'LerôlGrotiusdanlDéveloppementScientifiquuDroiInternational' AN IDEOLOGYOFWAR,NOTPEACE 3 Downloaded By: [University of Oxford] At: 16:44 8 January 2008 KARMA NABULSI 31 See,inparticularchaptersonetofourBookOnfRousseau'Control Social,inBGagnebiandM. 29 OnthisparticularthemeseA.Hirschman,TheRhetoricofReaction: Perversity,Futility,Jeopardy 28 G.Schwarzenberger,'TheGrotiusFactorinInternationalLawand InternationalRelations:AFunctiona 27 Lauterpachtpaystributeohitextualacrobaticthus:'buhere,onc e more,hretreatsfromhiposition 23 AtypicalexampleisthispiecofgalimatiasbydAréchaga:'whenaactpermittenaturalaw 2 Ontheinherentlycondictualpropertiesofhi'thirdimage',seK.WaltzMan,TheState,andWar:A 21 FrancisLieber,MiscellaneousWritings,IntroductionI(Philadelphia:LippincottandCo.1881)p.iv 20 Koskienniemi'sstudyofinternationallegahistorarguethatliberalismprovidethedoctrinaunderpin- 38 Grotius,ibid.,p.75 37 Grotius,op.cit.,Ref.33p67 . 36 P.Remec,ThePositionofthe IndividualinInternationalLawAccordingtoGrotiusandVattel(Th e 35 Kingsbury,op.cit.,Ref.10p 47. 34 Ibid.,p.72 3 Grotius,DeJureBelliacPacis,transl.ACampbell(London:Hyperio n Press,1990)p.71 32 OnthepoliticaldoctrinesprevailingiGrotius'time,seHaggenmacher , op.cit.,Ref.5;Seealsomor 30 R.Tuck,'GrotiusCarneadesandHobbes'Grotiana,IV(1983) p.53 26 OnthisthemeseR.JVincent,'RacialEquality'iBulandWatso(Eds)TheExpansionof 25 Bullop.cit.,Ref.1,p137 24 Foradefinitionofideology'smorphologyandsynchronicmovementacrostimeseMichaelFreeden, 34 17 SeeL.vanHolkandCRoelofse(Eds),Grotius:AReaderforStudentsofInternationalLawandLegal 13 M.Pinto,'TheNewLaofthSeaandGrotianHeritage'iInternationalLawandtheGrotian 12 Willems,op.cit.,Ref.4p106AmoreincisivanalysisofthestrendiCRoelofsen'Grotiuand 19 Lauterpacht,op.cit.,Ref.5p 16 Undersuchguidingprinciples,littlewondethatGrotianismoftencomesacrosaaubergeespagnole. 15 R.Tuck,op.cit.,Ref2p87 14 Murphy,op.cit.,Ref.9p27;emphasisadded 18 Bull,op.cit.,Ref.11p52 American Conservatives:ThePoliticalThoughtofFrancisLieberandJohnW.Burgess(NewYork:AMS History (TheHague:T.M.C.AsserInstitute,1983)pp3-21SeealsoCEdwardsop.cit.,Ref15and Heritage, op.cit.,Ref.2,p92 International Society(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1984)pp.239-254 Ideologies andPoliticalTheory(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1996)chaps.2an3pp48-138 of InternationalLaw,81,(1983)p.91 P. Kooijmans,'HowtoHandlethGrotianHeritage;GrotiusandVaVollenhoven'NetherlandsJournal Willems, 'GrotiusandInternationalLaw'inHugoGrotius1583-1983(Assen:MaastrichtColloquium xiii-xxi. seminal introductiontoEdwards'HugoGrotius,entitled'TheGrotiaQuest',op.cit.,Ref.15pp Aftermath', Groliana,vol.1(1990)pp6-29Theterm'GrotianQuest'wascreatedbyFalkihi the "GrotianHeritage"iInternationalLawandRelations;Quartercentenaryits Press, 1983)p.ix Quarterly Review,VII(1929),p.270;SKrasner(Ed.)InternationalRegimes(London:CornellUniversity Press), 1978. generally, Q.Skinner'sTheFoundationsofModernPoliticalThought(Cambridge : CambridgeUniversity Raymond (Eds)OeuvresComplètes(Paris:Pléiade,1959)Vol.IIIpp . 351-358 Approach', inBullKingsburyandRoberts(Eds)op.cit.,Ref.1p303 . by aningeniouspieceofdialectics',op.cit.,Ref.5p8 p. 18 Press, 1967). Emphasis intext.AmorethoroughanalysiofLieber'politicalthoughtcabfoundBBrown' Edgar, 1996)pp.14-39 ning ofinternationallaw;FromApologytoUtopia:TheStructureofInternationalLegalArgument Hague: MartinusNijhoff,1960)p. 75. (Cambridge: HarvardUniversityPress,1991). is nfactoconflicwhichwoulddetermineahierarchybetweethtwlegalsystems'.Op.cit.,Ref2, and forbiddenbypositivelaworconverselpermittebutnaturallaw,ther Theoretical Analysis(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1960)pp.159-186 Morphological Analysis'inJ.Mcadowcroft(Ed.)TheLiberalPoliticalTradition(Cheltenham:Edward seven distinctcorevaluesidentifiesa(domestic)liberal;seFreeden,'ThFamilyofLiberalisms: (Helskinki: LakimiesliitonKustannus,1989)pp.53-130MichaelFreedearguesthataadherenceo 1983), pp.42-54 Downloaded By: [University of Oxford] At: 16:44 8 January 2008 41 D.KennedynotesthatGrotiuconflatesovereigntwithnaturaljusticeandadds:'ToGrotius, 40 R.Tuck,op.cit.,Ref30p54 39 Grotius,ibid.,p.15 60 ForfurthediscussionseeM.Freeden,op.cit.,Ref24andPManentAnIntellectualHistoryof 50 Grotius,op.cit.,Ref.33p716Unfortunatelythisremarkintroducethechapterwhichgivelegal 49 Grotius,op.cit.,Ref.33p21Emphasisadded 48 Haggenmacher,op.cit.,Ref.5pp397-399 47 Grotius,op.cit.,Ref.33pp719-720 45 Onuma,op.cit.,Ref.43p102 4 Grotius,op.cit.,Ref.33pp19-20 43 OnthispointseeT.Tadashi,'StatandGoverningPower'iANormativeApproachtoWar:Peace,War, 42 Grotius,op.cit.,Ref.33BookIChpp19-20 69 ThefamousPreambltothHagu e Regulations,th'Martens'ClausewasactuallywrittenbBaro n 68 OntheGermadelegate'simpressio n attheHaguseBest,op.cit.,Ref.59p164 67 Martens,LaPaixetGuerre (Paris:A.Rousseau,1901)p99 6 Best,op.cit.,Ref.59163Fordetailsoftheconservativliberalis m ofabranchtheRussianlegal 65 T.Perry,TheLifeandLettersofFrancisLieber(Boston:Osgood , 1882)pp.1718;emphasisintext 64 ForacomprehensiveaccountofthisDarwinianexplanatiowa r byLieber,anditsothevirtuessee 63 Brown,op.cit.,Ref.21pp20-21;Freidelibid.,p235Seealso Freidel'shalf-heartedanambivalent 62 Brown,op.cit.,Ref.21p17;FrankFreidelFrancisLieber:Nineteenth CenturyLiberal(BatonRouge: 61 J.Childress,FrancisLieber'InterpretationoftheLawWar:GeneralOrderNo100iContext 59 G.Best,HumanityinWarfare(Methuen:London1983)p53 57 AnotableexceptionwasthdistinguishedFrenchrepublicalawyerCharleLucas,amembeof 5 Knight,op.cit.,Ref.3pp191-2 54 AdaptingamodelfromHansKuhn,Koskienniemihasetousimilaranalysiofinternationalawn 53 Grotius,op.cit.,Ref.33p30Emphasisadded 52 Lauterpacht,op.cit.,Ref.p 51 Hirschman,op.cit.,Ref.29p7 46 SeethilluminatingNaoya's'ThLawofWar',op.cit.,Ref.43pp267-8 58 AnotherpowerfulagentwastheconservativBelgianpublicisandfirstheaofInstitut 56 SeeG.Best,WarandLawSince1945(ClarendonPress:Oxford1994)especiallypp32-3444-46;also International LawJournal,27(1986),pp.8590 Liberalism (Oxford:ClarendonPress,1987)pp.214-227 Liberalism (Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1994). and JusticeinHugoGrotius(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1993)p.143 sovereignty isatypeofpowerwithinthnaturalorder'.'PrimitivLegaScholarship',Harvard to thisgrandthefrecorded:'M.eMarten s présentaitladéclarationcommeétansiennfitaucun Freidel, op.cit.,Ref.62p417 Humanitarian Crisis(Brussels:EuropeanCommission,1995)Ip.19 perhaps theshakiesticentral,criticaldistinctionbetweesoldierandcivilian'.Lawin grounds forextensiverightoveslaves. Lambermont, aBelgiandiplomat.Martens , notoputofineapoinnitpinchedit—asonewitnes school fromwhichhispoliticaphilosophywabased,seeA.Walicki , LegalPhilosophiesofRussian J. Childress,op.cit.,Ref61p44 76-9. childbirth) in'FrancisLieber,CharleSumnerandSlavery'Journalof SouthernHistory,IX(1943),pp. attempt ojustifyLieber'sbuyingandusinfhouseslave(onwho m becamepregnantanddiein Louisiana UniversityPress,1947)pp.408-9 of hisLifeandThought',AmericanJournalofJurisprudence,21(1976) , p.40 the viewsofthremencitedabove. International Law,Rolin-Jaequemyns.Howeverhisrolewamorthatofasupporterandconsolidato as 'bodyoflawwithnimpressiveandadmirablsuperstructurbuiltinsecurfoundations,whic A. Roberts,'TheLawsofWar:ProblemContemporaryConflicts'wherthlawwarardescribed p. 84 general, positing'descendinandascendinpatternsofarguinaboutinternationalorder'.Op.cit.,Re20 tionale deBruxellessurlesLoisetCoutumesGuerre(Paris:A.Durand,1874);LesActesla Institute ofInternationalLaw,anditssoldissentingvoice.HiworkincludLaConférenceInterna- Observations surlesLoisdelaGuerreetľArbitrageInternational(Paris:Cotillon,1881). Codification GraduelleduDroitdesGens(Orléans:E.Colas,1875);CivilisationdelaGuerre, Conférence deBruxellesConsidérésauDoublePointVuelaCivilisationGuerreet AN IDEOLOGYOFWAR,NOTPEACE 35 Downloaded By: [University of Oxford] At: 16:44 8 January 2008 79 Perry,op.cit.,Ref.65p59andfn82 78 Childress,op.cit.,Ref.61p59andfn82 7 J.Bluntschli,LeDroitInternationalCodifié(Paris:GuillauminetCie.1870)p300SealsoGDraper 76 Brown,op.cit.,Ref.21p 75 RoelofsencitesTuckatheforemostexponenofsimilarityHobbeandGrotius'philosophy.C 73 HiscorrespondenceoverthManualbecamsomethingofalegascandal,withbotFieldMarshaMoltk 72 July29,1874DossierB748.4BrusselsArchivesofMinistrForeignAffairs. 90 Healsoquotedananonymoustomentitle'L'Angleterreetlespetits Etats,wherethauthor'General 81 Martens,op.cit.,Ref.61p47 80 LaPradellecitedinBest,op.cit.,Ref.59p164 94 Hencehismaincriticismofth e Erasmianapproach.Grotius,op.cit.,Ref.33p52;seespeciall y 93 M.McDougal,op.cit.,Ref1 p.166 92 Schwarzenberger,op.cit.,Ref.1 , p.306fn14 91 SeethargumentsofG.Mavrodes,'ConventionandMorality f War',PhilosophyandPublicAffairs, 74 Indeed,Hirschmannotedthathisargumentsarenothexclusivpropertyof'reactionaries':'thecab 71 AnnuairedeľInstitut,I(1873),11-28. 70 Rolin-Jacquemyns,R.A.'Bluntschli—Nécrologie'RDILC,XIII(1881)p626JKBluntschlisbetter 89 SeeespeciallyLieber's:'GuerrillaPartiesConsideredwithReferenc e tothLawandUsagesfWar',in 8 J.Boyle,'IdealsandThings:InternationalLegaScholarshipth e Prison-housofLanguage',Harvard 87 LieberinalettetoHalleck,1863;emphasistext.CitedFreidelop.cit.Ref62p39 86 Bluntschlinparticulardevelopedthetheoreticalnotioof'publicconscience'internationalaw.This 85 CitedinJ.BScott,(Ed.)ResolutionsoftheInstituteInternationalLaw(NewYork:OxforUniversity 83 Martens,ibid.,p.47ThatRussiawastheninvolvedirwithTurkey(anwoulbereleasefrom 82 Martens,ibid.,p.83 36 KARMA NABULSI 84 InalettertoLiebedescribinghistaskiwritinbooabouthelawfnations,Rolin-Jaquemyns Affairs, 5,1(1975)andL.Alexander'Self-DefencethKillin g ofNon-combatants:AReplyt Resistance, andtheLaw(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1999). T' (Brialmont)statedthattherehaneverbeensuchathingslevée enmasseinEuropeduringth International LawJournal,26(1985),pp.327-359SeealsoMartinKrygier , 'LawasTradition'inLaw Prolegomena, p.viiiBasdevantnote d 'Grotiusprenlasociétéinternationaleteilqu'ellexist...in Roelofsen, op.cit.,Ref.12p20 29, pp.78 Hirschman addsthatnonethelestheseargumentsarused'mostypically'byconservatives,op.cit.,Ref. a beautifuldream'.CitedinCAndler'sFrightfulnessinTheoryandPractice(London:TFisherUnwin, famous exchangeofletterandarticles,(i.e.VonMoltke:'Perpetualpeaciadreamtnoeve and theheaofGermanGeneralStafHartmanrepudiatinghisManualawwaria known astheauthorofTheTheoryoftheState(Oxford:ClarendoPress,1885). Lieber, op.cit.,Ref.21IIp282 and Philosophy,5(1986),inparticularp.244 de laGuerre',NouveauRecueilGénéraldeTraités,SeconseriesIV (1879-1880). de laConférencRéuniàBruxelles,u27JuilletAoû1874pourRéglelesLoiCoutume text. Lieber'sdreamwatocometruaBrusselin1874,whethRussiadelegatBaroJominmad Concept ofLawandState',op.cit.,Ref.2p33 central roleofpublicistsinthformatiolaw.GSperduti,'ThHeritagGrotiuandModer notion however,didnotimplygroundinglawipopularnorms;ratheritspurposewaojustifth Press, 1916)p.xviiHewrotthsamtoLieberwhconcurredEmphasisintext op. cit.,Ref.70,p625 Martens' position. adhering tolawsifcouldclaimtheothersidcouldn'adherthem)woulperhapseerelevan of 'innocence'.ForfurthediscussionseeMWalzer,Obligations:Essays onDisobedience,War,and Fullinwider', PhilosophyandPublicAffairs,54(1976)whereallthre e acceptedthGrotiandefinitio 4, 2(1975)andtworepliesthiarticle:R.Fullinwider'WarInnocence' , PhilosophyandPublic allusion äsoorigine'.Brussels,MinistryofForeigAffairsDirectioPNo6120Annexe324Jul 'Combatant StatusinHistoricalPerspective',MilitaryLawandofWarReview,IV(1976)p.56 invoked byangroupthatopposesorcriticizenewpolicproposalnewlenactepolicies'. several referencestohicodeinthopeningaddress,acknowledginabasifdraftext'Acte Citizenship (Cambridge,MA:Harvar d UniversityPress,1970). 'Christian era',Martensop.cit.,Ref.61pp377-8376 1913), p.46 1899. Forafullaccount,seechapte5ofKNabulsi'sforthcomingTraditionsofWar:Occupation, Downloaded By: [University of Oxford] At: 16:44 8 January 2008 98 TheethicaldebatsurroundingthfoundationaprinciplesofMichaeWalzer'JustandUnjustWars 97 A.Rolin,LeDroitModernedelaGuerre(Brussels:Seycourt1920)p267 95 Martens,op.cit.,Ref.61p381 96 'ActesdelaConférence',op.cit.,Ref.87p99 and InternationalAffairs,whichislargelydevotedtoit. (New York:BasicBooks,1992)ishavingaremarkableresurrectionwitnesthe1997editionofEthics guerre maislarégier',Basdevantop.cit.,Ref10pp.256257 prétend pasimagineruneorganisationquifassdisparaitrlaguerr...supprime AN IDEOLOGYOFWAR,NOTPEACE 37