Cities 29 (2012) 142–154 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Cities journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cities City profile Seoul ⇑ Hyung Min Kim, Sun Sheng Han Faculty of Architecture, Building and Planning, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia article info abstract Article history: Seoul is a major global city with a history of over 600 years. Its development trajectory, current status in Received 13 August 2010 the world economy, and challenges faced in socio-spatial dynamics present an excellent case in the study Received in revised form 25 November 2010 of cities, especially of the Asia–Pacific region. This profile outlines Seoul’s historical development, recent Accepted 12 February 2011 changes and contemporary conditions (in terms of its territory, economy, land and housing market, Available online 13 July 2011 urbanisation policy, infrastructure development, social impact and culture), metropolitan planning, and future development. Keywords: Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Urban history Economic development Housing Planning policies Metropolitan governance Historical development structure of cities, were adopted as fundamental to the Chosun Dynasty (Kim, 2009). Thus, in line with feng shui and Confucian A significant year in Seoul’s history is 1394 during which Seoul, by principles, the Kyongbok Palace was located in the middle of the the name of Han Yang, was chosen as the new capital of the Chosun (or city2; the ancestor shrine Chongmyo in the east of the Palace, and Joseon) Dynasty (Kim, 2009: p. 194). The first 10 years of Seoul as a the Dynasty Sajic in the west3 (Ko, 2005). The city wall was built capital city were characterised by uncertainty about its status as along the four inner mountains (Fig. 1). At the corner of the city the capital, due to competition between Han Yang and another candi- wall,4 there were four great gates including Nam Dae Moon (the date capital site (the ancient capital city Gaegyeong). In 1405, Han South Great Gate) and Dong Dae Moon (the East Great Gate). These Yang had its capital status affirmed (Ko, 2005). This resulted in a rapid gates are national treasures today. The Sejongno – called Eukjogeory population increase. In the period 1409–1428, the number of house- in Chosun – was the widest road in Han Yang connecting the holds in Han Yang increased from 11,056 to 18,522 (Ko, 2005). Kyongbok Palace to Chongno in Chosun. Chongno, the main business The current urban structure of Seoul was shaped by Han Yang’s axis in Han Yang, played a key role in linking business and adminis- feng shui (literally wind and water) characteristics (Kim, 2009; Ko, trative functions. The Chongno started at Sejongno and ended at Dong 2005). Han Yang was surrounded by four inner mountains and four Dae Moon. The area inside the city wall became the Central Business outer mountains with the Cheonggye stream flowing through the District (CBD) and a political centre of modern Seoul. The Office of middle. Functionally, the Han River offered good accessibility to the President or Cheongwadae (the Blue House) is behind the the rural areas, so that the ruler could easily collect taxes. In Kyongbok Palace and government offices are in front of the Palace. addition, Confucian principles,1 especially those relating to the Han Yang was repeatedly damaged in wars,5 but it was restored and developed as a centre of economy and trade. By the end of the ⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +61 3 8344 7055; fax: +61 3 8344 5532. 19th century, modern service facilities and infrastructure were E-mail addresses: [email protected] (H.M. Kim), [email protected] introduced to Seoul. For example, the first western hospital and (S.S. Han). medical school were founded in 1885 (Cumings, 1997: p. 126). 1 The legacy of Confucian culture remains obvious in contemporary Korean society. For instance, Confucianism is behind the system of government officials’ recruitment in modern Korea (Cumings, 1997: pp. 300–301). As a prestigious position, the status 2 This allowed the Palace to have mountains at the back and to look at water in of government official is awarded to the applicant who is able to succeed in a very front (背山臨水). That is, there was Bookak Mountain in the north of Kyongbok Palace competitive process which includes a rigorous examination. There are overwhelming and Cheonggye stream flew in front of Kyongbok Palace (Ko, 2005). numbers of applicants spending many years solely on preparing for the examination, 3 The influential Confucian text the Rites of Zhou had the principle ‘ancestor shrine known as ‘Gosi’in Korea. A special housing type, known as the Gosi-room, has been in left, ancestral rites right (左祖右社)’. Han Yang followed this rule ordered by the King place for applicants to stay and study whole day. Universities usually organise (Ko, 2005). training courses to help applicants to pass the examination. In more general terms, 4 The city wall was demolished by the Japanese in the period 1906–1910 (Son, Confucianism is well reflected in the Korean aspiration to education. Korea is an 1985). exceptionally well educated country and this contributed to its rapid industrialisation 5 For example, Han Yang was invaded by the Japanese in 1592 and the Chinese in (Amsden, 1989: p. 219). 1636 (Cumings, 1997: pp. 76–78). 0264-2751/$ - see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.cities.2011.02.003 H.M. Kim, S.S. Han / Cities 29 (2012) 142–154 143 During the war, 35,000 out of the 190,000 houses were totally burnt and more than 20,000 houses were badly damaged (Son, 2003a: p. 11). Bombing continued for many days in Seoul and se- vere battles were fought for control of the city. As South Korea and North Korea occupied Seoul in rotation, the city was ruined by fires and pillage (Son, 2003a: pp. 41–87). After the Korean War in 1953, Seoul was put on the track of ra- pid urbanisation as the capital of South Korea. Infrastructure investment on highways that connected Seoul with other cities, as well as the development of labour-intensive export-oriented light manufacturing industry were the main forces driving the Kor- ean economy under its powerful military dictatorship. Right after the Korean War, the vital task was to protect South Korea from communism and to help it escape from absolute poverty. In order to build more factories, the ‘Urban Planning Act’ was endorsed in 1962, replacing the former ‘Chosun Civil Area Planning Enactment’. The ‘Land Expropriating Act’ was endorsed in 1962, ensuring the availability of ample land for infrastructure. Large scale concentra- tion of investment and jobs made Seoul a magnet for rural mi- grants and further economic activities. This caused severely uneven development in Korea to the extent that the journalistic term ‘the Republic of Seoul’ instead of the Republic of Korea was created (Hill & Kim, 2000). As such, Seoul soon faced a number of urban problems, such as shortage of land, high housing prices and extensive property speculation. Recent changes and contemporary conditions Seoul had about 100,000–200,000 residents in the Chosun Dy- nasty. Today, its population is about 10 million; Seoul is referred Fig. 1. Location of main features in the old Seoul Han Yang. Note: The base map as one of the emerging world cities in the Asia–Pacific region (Bea- Suseon jeondo was drawn by Kim Jeong Ho in 1840s. verstock, Smith, & Taylor, 1999). The tram (or street car) was brought to Seoul in 1899, running from Territorial and Administrative organisation the West Great Gate to the east area Cheongryangni via Chongno (Son, 2005a: p. 152).6 The first train operated in 1889 linking Seoul Seoul has 10 million residents with an urban built-up area of to Incheon (Korea National Railroad, 1999: pp. 47–53). The Seoul– about 605 km2; the population density is 16,840 persons/km2. Pusan railway was also built in this period (Cumings, 1997: p. 126). Over one-fifth of the national total population lives in Seoul, and Between 1910 and 1945 Korea was colonised by the Japanese. In a half of the total population lives in the Capital Region.8 Seoul is order to control the Korean economy and benefit from its resource composed of 25 districts (local government, Gu) and all areas in extraction, the Japanese put a high priority on changing the Korean Seoul are urbanised (Fig. 2). An election has been held every land system (Chang, 1971), conducting land surveys, introducing 4 years for the mayor, the governors of the districts, and city the modern property right system, as well as reorganising land assembly members since 1995 when the nomination system chan- tax under the Governor-General of Korea (Jung, 1995). The Japa- ged into an election system. Table 1 reports some key statistics of nese capital flew into government projects such as transportation, the districts. communication, electricity plants and land development in order As a result of natural and policy constraints Seoul is a city with to make Korea a source of raw material supply and a market for one of the highest population densities in the world. 237 km2 out manufactured products (Chang, 1971). They built residential areas of its total 605 km2 cannot be used for development because of outside Han Yang and brought about urban expansion by establish- geographical features such as rivers and mountains (Seoul Metro- ing the ‘Chosun Civil Area Planning Enactment’ in 1934. The con- politan Government, 2006: p. 166). The Han River passes through centration of foreigners in the south of Cheonggye stream led to the middle of Seoul and many mountains extend across the city.