The School's Choice: Guidelines for Dropout Prevention at the Middle and Junior High

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 298 324 CE 050 889

AUTHOR Bhaerman, Robert D.; Kopp, Kathleen A. TITLE The School's Choices Guidelines for Dropout Prevention at the Middle and Junior High School. Dropout Prevention Series. INSTITUTION Ohio State Univ., Columbus. National Center for Research in Vocational Education. SPONS AGENCY Office of Vocational and Adult Education (ED), Washington, DC. PUB DATE 88 GRANT G008620030 NOTE 164p.; For other guides in this series, see CE 050 879-888. AVAILABLE FROM National Center Publications, National Center for Research in Vocational Education, 1960 Kenny Road, ColumEus, OH 43210-1090 (Order No. SP700DP02--$13.25). PUB TYPE Guides Non-Classroom Use (055)

EDRS PRICE MFOI/PC07 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Career Education; *Change Strategies; NDropout Prevention; *Dropout Programs; Dropouts; Educational Change; Guidelines; Helping Relationship; High Risk Students; Intervention; Junior High Schools; Middle Schools; Potential Dropouts; NProgram Development; Program Implementation; nole of Education; Secondary Educaticn; Vocational Education

ABSTRACT This guidebook presents a variety of dropout prevention strategies and is intended to help readers determine which strategies are best suited for a particular classroom, school, or district. The primary audience is school personnel who work with young adolescents. It begins by addressing major dropout issues, primary research findings, and possible solutions. Three additional concepts are then presented: bonding, basic skills, and youth advocacy. These topics relative to bonding are explored: classroom and school climate, various school policies (attendance and truancy, suspension, nonpromotion and retention, discipline, tracking and testing), and the roles of parents, families, and the community. These basic skills topics are then discussed: curriculum concerns, instructional issues, teaching/learning styles, career awareness and educational planning, cooperative learning, peer tutoring, and the role of vocational education. Specific issues featured in the discussion of youth advocacy are adolescent behavis :r, expectations of youth, early identification of potential dropouts, building self-esteem, guidance and counseling, and accommodation. The monograph concludes with a discussion of planning and evaluation techniques, staffing patterns and staff development, th6 role of administrators, and overview of choices that teachers, counselors, and principals should consider in developing dropout prevention strategies. A list of 145 references concludes the guide. (YLB) ...;)DROPOUT 1/ PREVENTION SERIES

The School's Choice: Guidelines for Dropout Prevention at the Middle and Junior High. School

p.8. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Odic of Educational Research and Improvement "PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS ED CA TIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY CENTER (ERIC) This document has been reproduced as received from the person or organization originating it, O Minor changes have been made to improve reproduction quality

Points of view or opinions stated in this doctr merit do not necessarily represent official TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES OERI position or policy. INFORMATION CENTER 'ERIC)."

THE NATIO I CENTER. -- t. FOR RESEARCH EN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION OHIO STAR UNIVERSITY THE NATIONAL CENTER MISSION STATEMENT

The National Center for Research in Vocational Education's mission is to increase the ability of diverse agencies, institutions, and organizations to solve educational problems relating to individual career planning, preparation, and progression. The National Center fulfills its mission by:

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Providing information for national planning and policy

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Program Information Office National Center for Research in Vocational Education The Ohio State University 1960 Kenny Road Columbus, Ohio 43210

Telephone: (614) 486-3655 or (800) 848-4815 Cable: CTVOCEDOSU/Columbus, Ohio Telex: 8104821894 THE SCHOOL'S CHOICE: GUIDEL!NES FOR DROPOUT PREVENTION AT THE MIDDLE AND JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL

Robert D. Bhaerman Kathleen A. Kopp

National Center for Research in Vocational Education The Ohio State University 1960 Kenny Road Columbus, Ohio 43210-1090

1988 FUNDING INFORMATION

Project Title: National Center for Research in Vocational Education. Applied Research and Development

Grant Number: . G008620030

Project Number: 051BH70001

Act under Which Carl D. Perkins Vocational Education Act, Funds Administered: P.L. 98-524, 1984

Source of Grant Office of Vocational and Adult Education U.S. Department of Education Washington, D.C. 20202

Grantee: The National Center for Research in Vocational Education The Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio 43210-1090

Executive Director. Ray D.Ryan

Disclaimer: Thispublicationwaspreparedpursuanttoagrantwiththe Office of Vocational and Adult Education, U.S. Department of Education. Grantee undertaking such projects under go%ernment sponsorship are encouragedtoexpress freelytheir judgment in professionalandtechnicalmatters.Pointsof view oropin:ons donot,therefore,necessarilyrepresentofficialU.S.Depart- ment of Education position or policy. Discrimination Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 states: "No person in Prohibited: theUnitedStatesshall,onthegroundsofrace,color,or nationalorigin,beexcluded fromparticipationin,bedenied thebenefitsof,orbesubjectedtodiscriminationunder any program oractivity receivingfederalfinancial assistance." Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 states: "No person inthe UnitedStatesshall,onthebasisofsex,be excluded fromparticipationin,be deniedthebenefitsof,or be sub- jected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving federal financial assistance." Therefore, the National Center for ResearchinVocationalEducationProject, likeeveryprogramoractivityreceivingfinancialassistance fromtheU.S. Department of Education, must be operatedin compliance with these laws.

ii He who destroys one life, it is as though he destroyed the entire world; while he who sustains one life, it is as though he sustained the entire world.

--The Talmud

iii CONTENTS

LIST OF EXHIBITS, FIGURES, AND TABLES vii

FOREWORD ix

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY xi

PROLOGUE xiii

WHAT ARE THE DIMENSIONS OF THE DROPOUT PROBLEM? 1

HOW CAN WE PROMOTE BONDING? 13

HOW CAN WE IMPROVE TEACHING OF THE BASICS? 57

HOW CAN WE ENSURE YOUTH ADVOCACY? 91

WHAT DO WE NEED TO DO TODAY? 125

APPENDICES 143

A.Additional Resources 145 B. Resource Groups 149

REFERENCES 151

v LIST OF EXHIBITS, FIGURES, AND TABLES . Exhibits 1. MAJOR FINDINGS ABOUT STUDENTS, CLASSROOMS, AND FAMILIES AND COMMUNITIES 7 . 2. FACTORS INVOLVED IN DROPPING OUT 8 3. OPTIMUM ENVIRONMENTS 9

4. INDICATORS OF GROWING YOUTH PROBLEMS 18 5. DOES RETENTION EVER MAKE SENSE? 35 6. DISCIPLINE CHECKLIST 39 7. HOW STUDENTS LEARN 66 8. HOW TEACHERS TEACH 66 9. CHECKLIST ON TEACHING/LEARNING STYLES 67 10. INFORMAL LEARNING SYYLE INVENTORY 68 11. PROGRAM CHARACTERISTICS COMMONLY NOTED BY VOCATIONAL EDUCATION PROPONENTS 81 12. EXPECTATIONS SURVEY 100 13. SAMPLE REFERRAL MEMO FOR IN-SCHOOL USE 105 14. SAMPLE REFERRAL FORM FOR OUT-OF-SCHOOL USE 106

15. MEETING DEVELOPMENTAL NEEDS OF YOUNG ADOLESCENTS 135 16. DROPOUT PREVENTION PROGRAM COMPONENTS 138

Figures

1. A social development model of dropout prevention 19 2. The at risk merry-go-round 25 3. Technology education curriculum structure 86

Tables

1. STATE-BY-STATE DROPOUT RATES 4

2. REASONS FOR DROPPING OUT (APPALACHIA) 10

vii

-,. 0 FOREWORD

As the authors of this monograph are quick to point out, dropping out of school is not theresult of anisolatedincident.Rather,itistheresult of an accumulation of factorsthat weigh soheavily on thestudentthat no other alternative seems possible. Individual dropout patterns--which oftenmanifest themselvesatthe beginning of the high school years--are well developed before the student reaches the 9thor 10th grade. Dropoutpreventionstrategies,therefore,must beginatthemiddle and juniorhigh school levels during the period when young adolescents are beginning to make decisions that will greatly affect their ability and desire to remain in school.

The National Center--in responsetothis problem--has developed a comprehensive packagetoprovidestudents,teachers,administrators,andcounselorswithmaterials focusingondropoutpreventionissuesandvocational-technicaleducation'srolein addressingthoseissues.Thisschoolresource andthesupportiveclassroommaterials address the concepts of bonding as a means of helping students reach theirpotential, integrationof basic and vocationalskillsasa means of providingrelevantin-school experiences, and advocacy as a means of ensuring student success. Sincere appreciation isparticularly due to the following persons who reviewed the preliminary draft:Dr. Jan Mc Tiernan, Coordinator of Project COFFEE, North Oxford, Massachusetts; Dr. John V. Hamby, Acting Director, National Dropout PreventionCenter, Clemson University; Dr. Ida M. Halasz, Director of the NationalAcademy at the National Center for Research in Vocational Education; and Dr. Betty L. Rider,Research Special- ist, National Center for Research in Vocational Education.

Special recognition alsois due tothe following National Center staff who played major individual roles in the development of this document: RichardJ. Miguel, Associ- ate Director of Applied Research and Development; Robert D. Bhaerman, Project Director, for leadership and direction of the project; Kathleen Kopp, ProgramAssociate, for co- authoring this monograph; Bettina A. Lankard, Program Associate, forhelping to concep- tualize the project; and Jeanne Thomas, for word processing themonograph. Apprecia- tionisextendedtotheNationalCentereditorialand media servicespersonnelfor editorial review, graphics, and production of the documents.

Ray D. Ryan Executive Director The National Center for Research in Vocational Education

ix EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The primary intent of The School's Choice:Guidelines for Dropout Preventionat the Middle and Junior High School isto present a wide variety of program optionsso thatthetargetaudience--teachers,counselors,andprincipals--candeterminewhich onesarebest suitedforaparticularclassroom,school,ordistrict.The readeris askedto"sortout"the many choices or alternatives and determinewhich apply and which appealtothem. A second purposeistostimulate aseries of dialogues among teachers,counselors,principalsinthesameschool,district,andotherschoolsand districts.Stillanotherpurposeistoencourageintrospectiononthepartofthe reader.Inshort,the guidebookisintended toprovide information andinsights, spe- cifics, and action planningguidelines so thatfull-fledged strategies can be developed.

The guidebook addresses a number of questionsbeginning with major dropout issues, the primary relevant researchfindings, and possible solutionstothe problems. Three additional concepts are then presented: bonding,basic skills, and youth advocacy.

The followingtopics,relativetobonding,are exploredindepth: classroom and school climate, various school policies(attendance and truancy, suspension,nonpromotion and retention,discipline,tracking andtesting),andtherolesofparents,families, and the community.

The followingbasicskillstopicsarediscussed:curriculumconcerns,instruc- tionalinues,teaching/learningstyles,careerawarenessandeducational cooperative planning, learning,peertutoring,and--mostimportant--therole ofvocational education.

A number of specificissuesarefeaturedinthediscussionof theconcept of youth advocacy including adolescent behavior,expectations of youth, earlyidentifica- tionofpotel'al dropouts;buildingself-esteem,guidanceandcounseling,and related concept of accommodation. the

The monograph concludes witha probing discussion of planning and evaluation niques,staffing tech- patternsandstaffdevelopment,theroleofadministrators,andan overviewofthe choices--options--whichteachers,counselors,andprincipalsshould consider in developing dropout preventionstrategies. PROLOGUE

What Are the Purposes of This Guidebook?

Our primary purpose,isto present a wide variety of dropout Prevention strategies and tohelpreaders determine which strategiesare best suited for a particular classroom,school,ordistrict.Thisiswhy we havecalledtheguidebookThe School's Choice.

A second purposeisto stimulate dialogue among teachers, counselors, and princi- palsinthe same school, within a district, and in other schoolsand districts and to encourage themtoreflectontheirroles,collectivelyandindividually,inactively addressing the dropout problem. The guidebook is designedto provide information and actionplanning guidelinesthatwillleadto dropout preventionstrategiestailor-made for the school or school district.

We have attempted to be realistic in our recommendations- -not adopting an overly optimisticorpessimisticstance.Further,wehaveattemptedtosynthesizeagreat amount of research on thistopic while focusing on areas that school personnelhave some controltofacilitatechangeataviable,locallevel.Globalissues,therefore, are downplayed.

The sheer mass of information written about the dropout problemis staggering. We hope,however,thatthissynthesiswillstimulate groupdiscussion,promote creative solutions, and encourage readers'further exploration. Because we desireto make this guidebook a useful tool, numerous lists and exhibitsare included to allow easier cus- tomization of strategies to complement effective schoolprograms.

For Whom Is the Guidebook Intended?

The guidebook isfor everyone who works and lives withyoung adolescents, specif- icallymiddleandjuniorhighschoolteachers,counselors,principals,parents,and others in the community who might be involved indropout prevention programs. Because of the needed articulationwith otherlevels, discussions with elementary andsecond- ary school teachers are recommended. The primary audience, however,is school personnel who work with young adolescents. Poor attitudesand behaviors often become firmly established and "potential"dropouts begintobecome "real"statisticsamongthisage group. WHAT ARE THE DIMENSIONS OF THE DROPOUT PROBLEM?

o The Major Issues 3

oWhat the Research Says 5

oPossible Solutions 6

oDiscussion items 12

1ti WHAT ARE THE DIMENSIONS OF THE DROPOUT PROBLEM?

The Major Issues

Individual dropout patternsarewell developed before studentsrc ichthe 9th or 10thgrade.Dropoutpreventionstrategies,therefore,must beginduringtheperiod when young adolescents are making choices thatwillgreatlyaffecttheirability and desireto remain in school. Before we can keep our students in school, we must look closely at the motivation and methods for doing so. In order to plan our strategies effectively we must consider four basic problems: disparitiesinfunding between poor andaffluentcommunities,theachievement gap between white and minority students, the inadequacy of currentprograms that prepare students for work, and the large numbers of students who drop out or fail toprogress (Edelman 1986).

Thereislittleconsensus amongstatisticiansregardimgthedropoutrate.Esti- mates range from15percent to50 percent. For example, Sechler and Crowe (1986) report that atleast 25 percent of the approximately 14 million students in high school will drop out.In some schools, they note,the dropout rateis 40 percent or higher. Although the statistics vary, one of the most shocking comes from the Education Commis- sion of the States (1985), which reports that every year approximately 700,000students drop out. Nationally, one of four students does not graduate;in innercities approximately one of two fails to complete high school. For Native American andsome Hispanic students, the dropout rate is higher--about 85 percent of urban Native Americans and 70 percent to 80 percent of Puerto Rican:-

The U.S. General Accounting Office (1986)alsoreports estimates. They indicate thatvariousnationalsurveysprovide educationalprogressinformation from different youth samples. School district records must be viewed withsome skepticism because the information is not always complete. For example, the GAO report cites,from the Cur- rent Population Survey, that in1985 there were about 4.3 million dropoutsages 16-24. Of these about 3.5million were white, about 700,000 black, and about 100,000were other races. Fourteen percent of youth ages 18-19 were dropouts-- 16percent were young men and 12 percent were young women. Another survey--High School and Beyond--shows that the dropout rate for youth from households with low-income, low-skillwage earners with limited educational backgrounds was about three times the rate of youthfrom the highest end of the socioeconomic scale (22 percentvs. 7 percent). Table I shows the state-by-state dropout rate for 2 recent years.

The costs--financial and otherwise--and the consequences to youth of droppingout arestaggering.Sheppard (1986)reportsthatthecostof high schooldropouts,ages 25-34, conservatively amounts to $77 billionevery year: $71billion inlosttax reve- nues,$3billionforwelfareandunemployment,$3billionforcrimeprevention.

3 TABLE 1

STATE-BY-STATE DROPOUT RATES

State 1982 1984 Rank State 1982 1984 Rank Alabama 36.6 37.9 3 Montana 21.3 17.9 44 Alaska 36.5 25.3 27 T* Nebraska 18.1 13.7 50 T Arizona 36.6 35.4 11 T Nevada 35.2 33.5 12 Arkansas 26.6 24.8 30 T New Hamp. 23.0 24.8 30 T California 39.9 36.8 8 New Jersey 23.5 22.3 38 Colorado 29.1 24.6 31 New Mexico 30.6 29.0 17 Conn. 29.4 20.9 41 New York 36.6 37.8 5 T Deleware 25.3 28.9 18 N. Carol. 32.9 30.7 15 D.C. 43.1 44.8 1 N. Dakota 16.1 13.7 50 T Florida 39.8 37.8 5 T Ohio 22.5 20.0 42 Georgia 35.0 36.9 7 Oklahoma 29.2 26.9 21 T Hawaii 25.1 26.8 22 Oregon 27.5 26.1 23 Idaho 25.6 24.2 32 Penn. 24.0 22.8 37 T Illinios 23.9 25.5 25 Rhode Island 27.3 31.3 14 Indiana 28.3 23.0 35 S. Carol. 37.4 35.5 9 Iowa 15.9 14.0 48 S. Dakota 17.3 14.5 47 Kansas 19.3 18.3 43 Tennessee 32.2 29.5 16 Kentucky 34.1 31.6 13 Texas 36.4 35.4 11 T Louisiana 38.5 43.3 2 Utah 25.0 21.3 40 Vaine 37.9 22.8 37 T Vermont 20.4 16.9 45 Maryland 25.2 22.2 39 Virginia 26.2 25.3 27 T Mass. 23.6 25.7 24 Wash. 23.9 24.9 28 Michigan 28.4 27 8 19 W. Va. 33.7 26.9 21 T Minnesota 11.8 10.7 51 Wisconsin 16.9 15.5 46 Miss. 38.7 37.6 6 Wyoming 27.6 24.0 33 Missouri 25.8 23.8 34 Average 30.0 29.1

*T = a tied ranking

SOURCE:Ortlovensky 1986.

Approximately $240 billionislost in earnings and foregone taxes over the life of each year'sclassofdropouts.Billionsarespent on crimecontrol,welfare,healthcare, and other social services.Itisestimated that every $1spent on early prevention and intervention can save $4.75 in the costs of remedial education, welfare, and crime further down the road (Education Daily January 1987). Dropping out, therefore, does not end the problems for students who are not suc- ceedinginschool.For highschooldropouts,labor market opportunitiesare exceed- inglypoor.Theirunemploymentratesarehigherthanthoseoftheirgraduating co.interparts, and they arelesslikelyto seek work. Dropouts who are employed have

1`1 lower earnings are more likely to be in semiskilled jobs and are in lower quality jobs with poorer working conditions.

The employment situation for black dropouts apparently is even more bleaknow than it was 20 years ago. The unemployment rate for black youth has risen since the 1950s aad continues torise. In 1972, the unemployment rate for black youthwas 35 percent; it rose to 43 percent in 1986. For white youth, the unemployment ratewas much lower- - 14 percent in 1972 and up only slightly to 16 percent in 1986 (U.S. General Accounting Office1986). The problemaffectseveryone. How we respondwillhelpdetermine whether or not we create a permanent second class of citizens.

What the Research Says We are fortunate to have a growing body of research on both dropout prevention and middle-leveleducation.However,Johnston and Markle(1986)callattentiontothe problem that practice oftenis "squarely at odds" with what research claims should be done. This occurs because no systematic mechanism exists for putting research findings into the hands of school personnel. Moreover, the findings are seldom ina form that can bereadily used. Also, when the findings are presented, theyare often given as prescriptions foi- behaviorratherthan as informationtoaidgoodprofessional judgment.

Johnston and Markle also recognize that itis the practitioner who must ultimately decide what isto be done on a daily basis and that those decisions are best made with attention to what we know as a profession, even if what we know isnot consistent. Nonetheless, they argue that even though research may yield nonconclusive information and even though some findings may seem toconflict,this does not detract fromits value. They citeotherresearchthatsuggeststhattherealizationthat some findings may conflict enhances the fact that all these findings must be viewed as a whole and that decisions must be made about the kinds of things thatare most likely to impact locally.

Thereis no single factor that will predict who islikely to drop out. However, the two most critical variables appear to be low academic achievement andbehavioral problems.

One veryinterestingfindingisthat some limited evidence existsthat dropping out has a positive effect on the psychosocial functioning of dropout-prone adolescents. Elliot and Voss (19'.4) found that although youths who eventually droppedout of school were more delinquent than nondropout youths, the dropout youths' delinquency decreased once theyleftschool. From this,theresearchers suggest that negative experiencesat school may have contributed tothe delinquency of dropouts while theywerestillin school.

An interesting dichotomy can be seeninthevariousresearchanalyses,namely, whether the focus for dropout prevention should beon "school improvement" or "student correction"strategies. We needto work on bothdimensions.Nevertheless,theillu- sion often persiststhat thereissomething grossly wrong with someyoung adolescents today--lackofmotivation,discipline,properattitudes.However, we oftenoverlook

5 theinstitutionstheyattend.Areoursc,hools,responsive,oraretheyassaultime, rejecting?Also, we haveto to alertto"educational reforms" tnat divert our attention from unjust social and economic arrangements. Since the problemsare multidimen- sional,thesolutionsalsoneedtobe.Transitiontothefuturebeginsasyoung adolescents leave our middle and junior high schools and continue through high school until workisestablishedasamajorlifeactivity. A most importantbarriertoour effectivenessinhelpingstudentslaythefoundationsforfuturetransitionsisthe lack of systematic strategies that enable students to make these transitions smoothly. Major findings from the research and the literature relating to the dropout issues are presented in exhibits 1, 2, and 3 and table 2.

The actual reasons for dropping out of school are manifold. Thereasons for dropping out in Appalachia, for .example, are summarized in table2. These findings appear to be applicable elsewhere as they are the reasons that show up in the research.

Ingeneral,thereasonsoftenare low academic achievement,dislike of school, expulsionorsuspension,economicreason,pregnancy,andmarriage.Academically relatedreasonsincludethe factthatdropoutsoften finditvirtuallyimpossible to compete; often there is dissonance between their learning styles and the teaching/curriculumstyles;theenvironment hasalienatedthem; theysee theschool climateashostile;and often a value conflict exists between them and their schools. Moreover, often there are inordinate academic pressures on them. Family-relatedrea- sons point toward such mattersasfamily pressures,negativeattitudes toward education,and economics. The work-relatedreasonsoften include support.ofone'sbirth family or one's own young wife and child. Research also shows thatvery intensive work involvement is associated with higher rates of dropping out. In addition,some observ- erssuggestthat minoritystudents particularly dropoutathighratesbecause their experience in poverty leads them toreject the widely held beliefthatgreater education leads to employment and a guaranteed income.

Fine and Rosenberg (1983) conclude that empirical data demonstrate thatmany who leave schoola.e "keenly aware of the contradictions between their academic learning and lived experiences,criticalof the meritocratic ideology promoted intheirschools, andcognizantofrace/class/genderdiscriminationbothiLschoolandinthelabor force" (p. 259).

Dropouts,theybelieve,eitherare"resisters"(thatis,youth who areunwilling to accommodate a "hidden curriculum" thatfailsto meet their needs) or "informants" (thatis, ,:th who also are aware of the contradictions of one ofour major social institutions -- schools).

Possible Solutions The National Foundation for the Improvement of Education .(1986)--a unit of the National Education Association--postulatesthat(1) the sooner we intervene with studentsat-risk,thebetteraretheirchances of success and (2) the classroomlevelis theessentialfocalpoint for .effective dropout prevention programs. The U.S. General Accounting Office (1986) also reports that students who drop out before the 1.0thgrade are less likely to return or enroll in supplementary or remedial programs.

6 EXHIBIT 1

MAJOZI FINDINGS ABOUT STUDENTS, CLASSROOMS, AND FAMILIES AND COMMUNITIES

About Student Noncompleters are characterized by their having lower expectations, lower achievement/ability, and lower grades than completers. Non,:ompleters differ from completers in terms of their inability to function adequatelyin the social context of schooling (i.e., high truancy, discipline problems, tardiness). Dropouts are characterized by greater feelings of powerlessness and meaninglessnessthan students who have remained in schools. Major correlates of dropping out include being 2 or more years behind grade leveland having relatively little knowledge of the labor market. Higher levels of educational aspirations reduce the likelihood of dropping out of school. Dropouts have poorly defined goals and generally lower occupational aspirations than other youth their age. Dropouts lack self-esteem, especially as related to school performance, have generally lowfeel- ings of personal efficacy, have a low need for self-development and improvement,and lack a commitment to social values. Helpingadolescentssetrealisticgoals,monitor progress, andachievesignificantrecognition fortheirimprovementareactivitiesthathavebeenlinkedtoa reductioninschool dropouts. About Classrooms Dropouts tend to be resentful of authority and see the institution's disciplinesystem as both ineffective and unfair. In addition to such factorsas low classroom grades, grade failure, and negative school attitudes, delinquent behaviorinthe junior high school years was a powerful predictionof dropping out. Academic classes that used minimal structure and high flexibility, coupledwith individualized teaching and counseling to improve self-image and academic achievement, havebeen shown to reduce the dropout rate. Students tend to absent themselves from classes that were high in competitionand teacher control and from classes that they perceive as low in teacher support. Apparently,classes that are more rule-oriented than person-oriented have more school truants. Other students who leave school have a history of academic failure, truancy,poor attendance, and suspension from school for behavioral problems. Learning stylepreferencesof dropoutsrevealthatthese studentswere stronglypeer- and teacher-oriented but alsopreferred varietyinthelearning environment, required mobility and were unable to sitstillfor long periods of time, were easily bored by daily routines and highlystructuredlearning requirements, and viewedtactile,kinesthetic, and auditory perceptions as the strongest modalities in the learning process. Characteristics commonly found among youth who are potentialor actual dropouts are the lack of participationinextracurricularactivities,isolationfromschoolpeers,theirfriendsare notschool-oriented,socialisolation, and the lackof school integration(socialtiesthat contributeto members' attachment to a group and willingness to conformto norms and expectations). The major instigating forces in dropouts are academic failure and alienationfrom the school. About Teachers Teachers whoareflexible,positive,creative,andperson-centered,ratherthanrule-and procedure-centered, stand a better chance of interrupting '.he cycle of failureand alienation that leads to dropping out. Many dropouts tend to perceive littleinterest, caring, or acceptance on the part of teachers and are even discouraged by the school's frequent signals thatcondemn their academic failures. Different value structures often operate within the classroom: the values embeddedin the cur - ricilum, the values transmitted by the teacher, and the values of thestudent, developed from their life situations. About Families and Communities Poor communication between home and school seems to be relatedto increased probability of dropping out. The general dropout process is dependent on the youth's integrationinto the community social structure, particularly the level of continuity among the demands of theschool, family, and community contexts.

7 EXHIBIT 2

FACTORS INVOLVED IN DROPPING OUT

Academic Dropout! -- oare low achievers. oare 1 or 2 years behind grade level. oare unable to tolerate structured activities. olack definite educational goals. oare enrolled ina general course of study rather than vocational education or college prepara- tory programs. o have lower occupational aspirations than their peers. o have difficulty in abstract reasoning, generalizing, and forming relationships. o do not read at grade level. o experience difficulty in mathematics. o have low perceptual performance.

Behavioral Dropouts-- o have a high rate of absenteeism and truancy. oexhibit discipline problems in school. o do not participate in extracurricular activities. oassociate with friends who are outside of school, usually older dropouts. o have frequent health problems. oare inclined toward physical rather than mental activities. o are impulsive deelion makers. o work more hours per week on a job than do completers. o are overrepresented among chemical users and abusers, delinquents, adolescent parents, and persons who attempt suicide or self-mutilation.

Family Dropouts-- o come from single parent homes. o come from low-income homes. o experience little solidarity with their families. o have more older siblings than friends. oare exposed to a dropout at home. o come from families that are more mobile than other students' families. obelong to a minority group. o lackcultural and economic experiences which oftenrelatetosuccessintraditionalschool pro grams.

Psychological Dropouts-- ofeel rejected by the school. o have negative attitudes toward school. o do not identify with school life. ofeel that courses are not relevant to their individual needs. o lack incentive for achievement in traditional school activities. o are socially isolated or socially and emotionally disturbed. oare loners who are unaccepted by their peers. o have a poor self-concept and lack a clear sense of identity. o have experienced some form of trauma including abuse. ocannot relate to authority figures. oare attracted to outside jobs, wages, and experiences.

8 la EXHIBIT 3

OPTIMUM ENVIRONMENTS

Classroom climate characteristics that best help dropout-prone students are these: o A positive atmosphere and supportive peer culture o A discipline system that is both fair and effective oPerson-oriented rather than rule-oriented oDecision-making opportunities for students oOpportunities to develop self-esteem and self-c:-nfidence o Instruction and opportunities to help students develop a commitment to social and life values o Opportunities to orient students to the broader world outside school, showing the correlation between education and work o Opportunities for students to become aware of their potential as workers oParents and community volunteers as mentors oMinimal structure and high flexibility oIndividualised and small-group instructional materials and practices oInstructional methods that involve tactile, kinesthetic, and auditory perceptions o Peer teaching and cooperative learning techniques oInstructional activities that build group cohesiveness o Promotion of cooperative behavior among students oBasic skills development, integrating the use of basic and vocational skills o Time on task for repeated practice

School environmental characteristics that best help dropout-prone studentsare these: oHigh but flexible expectations for students oDivsrse opportunities for achieving success oRscognition of students' achievements o Opportunities for students to define their goals clearly and realistically oOpportunities to help students monitor their own progress in achieving their goals oMotivational instruction and activities to heighten students' occupational aspirations o The early identity of at-risk students o More extensive guidance and counseling services for at-risk students oSpecific education plans for dropout-prone at-risk students oProgram, that help students address the conditions and stresses that place themat risk o The promotion of students' sense of belonging to the school oClear, fair, and consistent disciplinary rules o A high degree of student participation in extracurricular activities oIntimate and caring work environment for staff and students alike oClose adult-student relationships

9 TABLE 2

REASONS FOR DROPPING OlJT (APPALACHIA)

Reasons Percentage

Academic achievement/incompatibility with school--lack of motivation, 58.6 dislike of school, age requirement was met

Financial--including employment and economic 14.0

Marriage or pregnancy 3.6

Behavior problems--poor pupil-staff relationships, poor relationships 3.1 with fellow pupils, immaturity, and expulsion

Court action/correctional institution 3.0

Health -- including illness, physical disability 1.8

Home responsibility--including needed at home and parental influence 1.8

Military 0.4

Mental or emotional 0.1

Other reasons or'reason unknown '13.6

TOTAL 100.0

SOURCE: Cox et al. 1985.

Many educators believethatthe middle schoolisthe proper time to implement dropoutpreventionstrategies.Both ed,:ators and layleadersarebeginningtostress the relevance of the middle and junior high school experiences. Many assert thatthis isthe time to begin focusing on such concepts as "options" or "choices"; to make young adolescents aware thatlearning experiencesleadtotangible consequences; andtohelp positionyoung peopleto"connect."Italsoisthetimetobegintolookattradi- tionalpathwaysthatareavailablewithintheschool,thetimetobeginbuilding bridgestoavocational education,toan academic curriculum,toatechnical curriculum, to a 2-year or 4-year college, and to the world beyond. In exploring the concept of program articulation, the National Commission on Sec- ondaryVocationalEducation(1984)recommendsthattheearlystagesofcareer development--awareness and exploration--bewell underway before students enter high school so they can make informed choices. The National Council on Employment Policy (1984) recommends thatallyouth be provided job search assistance and afirst work experience,ifneeded,intheirearlyteens. The NationalAssociationof Secondary School Principals' Council on Middle Level Education (n.d.) identifies a number ofcru- cialinstructionalgoalsfor young adolescents,includingthe needtodevelop adaptive skillsuseful'throughouttheirlifetime;toexploretheiraptitudes,interests,and talents;andtodeveloppositiveself-concepts. The InstituteforEducationalLeader-. ship (Sheppard1986) suggeststhatif junior/middle schools appear to be thelevelat which at-risknessbegins,resourcesforthosegradescould and shouldbeincreased.

2 Educational attitudes developed during early childhood appear tobe integrated by age 14into behavioral patterns associated with school success (Rumberger 1983).Itisat thisperiodthatyoung adolescents make decisionsaffectingboththeirperJonal and educationalfutures. Morkow (1986) estimatesthat6 percent ofalldropout occurin grades K-8, 39 percent in grades11-12, and 55 percent in grades 9-10. These data indicatethatifthe dropout rateisto be reduced, preventive efforts must focus on youth identified as dropout-prone during early adolescence and must continue through graduation.

Thereareanumberofobstaclestoeffectivedropoutpreventionstrategies: (1) some youth may lag so far behind in academic skills that theymay not catch up in a reasonable time to graduate or may become discouraged; (2) inadequacies in schoolwide conditions, such as large class size and overcrowding,sothat dropout programs alone may be insufficient to prevent youth from dropping out; and (3) initial implementation difficultiessothatitisunrealistictoexpecteffectiveoutcomesuntilaprogram becomes fully operational (U.S. Government Accounting Office 1987). An example of the latter are youth in middle school programs who are removed from regular classes for supportservices,thusdisruptingtheirinstructionaltime.Also,some dropoutstrate- gies may be inappropriate for students who are too young for jobs, too bright forreme- dial work, or too talented for regular programs.

We must discover what will impact at the local level. Programsmust offer multiple interventions and, although not every youth needs thesame interventions, most will likelyrequire some type of basiceducation,counseling, and other support services. Certain program elements are strongly related to programsuccess: a caring and commit- tedstaff,asafeandsecurelearningenvironment,personalizedinstruction,a low student-teacherratio,andprogramflexibility,suchasinhoursandcurriculum. Although the taskisdifficult, we simply must break through the barriers--attitudinal andinstitutional--tomakethepolicy,program,andresourceallocationdecisions needed to improve our schools. Many different program strategies havebeen presented. Here are some brief examples:

oNevYork City generally combines two systemwide strategies. One isto make miidle schools and high schools respc Isible for academicperformance levels and dropoutrates;theotheristodirecta mix of support servicestostudents most likely to drop out, as exhibited by their poor attendance (Employm"nt and Training Reporter 21 October 1987).

oRumberger (1983) suggests four broad elements: differentprograms designed for different types of dropouts; an appropriate mix of educational andnoneduca- tionalservicesineachprogram;accurateandtimelyidentificationofhigh risk students;andprogramsforearlyprevention,lateprevention,and recovery.

oThe U.S. General Accounting Office (1987) lists 6 primaryprogram objectives, 8 program factors, and 12 program services:

--The sixobjectivesareimproved academic performance,attitudinalchange, reduced absenteeism, placement backinschool, job training/placement, and prenatal care/parenting support services.

11 - -The eight factors are caring and committee staff, nonthreatening environment for:earning,lowstudent-teacherratio,individualizedinstruction,program flexibility,linkswithsocialserviceagencies,involvementofparentsin students' development, and links with employers.

--The12servicesare personal counseling,basic education, careercounseling, parentalinvolvement,assistanceinobtainingsocialservices,-jobsearch assistance, job skills training, part-time employment placement, pregnancy/parental counseling, GED preparation, day care, and Englishasa second language.

Dale Mann (1986a) of Teacher's College, Columbia University,isprobably correct when he observed that although virtually ever: thingisbeing done, we are not always certain to whom and with what effect. In fact,It. speculates that there may be as many as71 logicallypossible approaches todropout prevention and/or remediation. He also categorizeshislistinto what hecallsthefour Cs--cash (thelinkbetween learning and earning), caring, computers, and coalitions.

Although we,too,identifymyriads of specific school choices, we categorize the guidelinesofferedinthistextintothreeprimaryareas:socialandpsychological bonding, the basics--curriculum and instruction--and youth advocacy. In the "bonding" section, we explore a number of specific policies and practices thatcan help connect and reconnect students so that they can reach their potential by staying in school. In the"basics"section,we presentanumberofpracticalwaystohelpstudentsby desci ibing avariety of experiences through which they can learn basic skills.In the "advocacy" section, we explore ways to promote and support students activelyse that they have successful schoolexperiences.Itishardtoseparatethethree approaches. Everything we suggest ultimatelyisintended to strengthen bonding with the classroom, school, and community. Everything we recommend is done so from the position of youth advocacy.

Discussion Items

1. Isdropping out a serious problem in our sc1ool?in our district? Whatisthe extent of the problem in each? 2. How do we calculatethedropoutrate?Isitrising?falling?remainingthe same as it has been for the past three years? 3. Have we attempted to estimate the local financial cost. of dropping Out? 4. Should ourprimaryfocusbe on "schoolimpry- "lei&or"studentcorrection" strategies?Can we doboth?What areourp, lies?ourshort-termgoals? our long-range objectives? 5. Who actually is dropping out of our schools? What are the primary reasons? 6. When should we begin our interventions? How early can we begin? 7. How can we articulate with the elementary schools? What can we do to improve linkages with our senior high schools? 8. What are our primary obstaclesto developing effective dropout prevention strategies? Conversely, what are our most obvious facilitators? 9. What do we believe is the "proper mix" in determining our strategies? Howcan we justify our decisions?

12 HOW CAN W.' PROMOTE BONDING? oWhat /s Bonding? 15 oMaintaining Good Climate Control 19 oSchool Policies to Consider 23 oRoles of Parents and Families 43 oRoles of the Community and Community OrganIntions 47 oDiscussion Items 54

13 HOW CAN WE PROMOTE BONDING?

What Is Bonding?

Young adolescents have a strong need to feel they belong,to be accepted as they are, and to play an activeroleinthelives of their family,friends, classmates, the "schoolfamily," and the community. Those who feelthis sense of belonging generally develop an emotional attachment and commitment oftenreferred to as social and osycho- logical bonding.

It isimperativethat we cautiously evaluate our attitudesand prejudicesinany discussion of bonding. As educators,we are often predisposedto expecting the mani- festation of certaintypes of bonds(i.e.,those with school), and we reward students forthese choices. Other bonds studentsmay form(i.e.,witha drug-consuming peer group) are equally valid and must not be disregardedhowever much we disagree with the methodology. Attempts to dissuade student's from spendingtime with such a peergroup may instead be interpreted as an attempt to breaka bond they have formed; unless a significant alternative as offered, further alienation isat risk.

Many of our youth are disconnectedin one way or another--thatis,they have failedto form the bonds deemed "desirable." When lookingatresearchfindings and dropout statistics,itisnecessary to keep in mind any prejudices researchersmay have held and the researcher'sethnocentricityin evaluatingresearchfindings.Further, we must realize our own ethnocentricity and valuesas we are met with researchresults. At issuetheniswhether students move intoproductive adultlivesorfallinto patterns of chronic failure. Thee are manyways to categorize at-risk youth; the following will provide a common langth;ge for discussion:

oThe alienated. These young peopleare uninterestedinor dissatisfied with the values represented by school and work.They often lack motivation to succeed, have poor school and work attendancerecords, and do not perform nearly their to potential. Some arepassive,othersdefiant. Economic resourcesarenot at issue: many alienated studentscome from the middle classes. Nor isalien- ation an urban problem; alienate,' studentsare everywhere.

o The disadvantaged. These young people often have familysupport and motivation tosucceedbutsufferfromvariouseffectsof economic deprivationand/or racialdiscrimination.Althoughtheyarenotyetalienated,theyare of atrisk becomingsoandatriskofnevermovingintosatisfying,long-term employment.

oThe disadvantaged and alienated. Theseyoung people exhibitallthe symptoms of alienationbut,inaddition, have problems associatedwith being economically disadvantaged. A disproportionateshare of these young peopleare minor- ities,a factthatcomplicatestheirproblems and community effortstohelp them in school or the workplace. Manylack basic social and academic skills, family support, useful networks, andself-esteem. (Education Commission ofthe States 1985)

15 .-.. e,.1 Undoubtedly,alladolescentsexperiencesomedegreeofalienation.Forsome, alienationis more acute, and, for them, dropping out of both school and society isthe finaldisintegrationof abondthat may have onceexisted,albeitloosely.Drooping outusuallyisnot a single event but rather a culminating point in a more extensive disengagement. Some youthrebel. Some withdraw; some feel safernottoparticiple, so they quietly disappear.

Brofenbrenner (1986)suggeststhattheforcesthat causeyouthfulalienationare growing, that the best way to counteract them is by creating connections throughout our culture, and that schools can help build such links. The most important links must be between the home, peer group, and school. Students need to bond with adults as well as peers as they shift from childhood to adulthood. The conceptsocialization comes up ofteninthe dropout literature.Adults oftenmistakeearlyphysicalgrowthasanindicatorthatastudent hasearlysocial maturity.But,ineffect,"childreninadultbodies"needmore,ratherthanless, socialinteraction with adultsto gain the socialmaturity necessarytodeal withtheir precariousgrowthpatterns.Socialization isextremelycriticalindevelopingsocial maturityduringthemiddle schoolyears.Socialmaturationduringearlyadolescence depends on how realistically the youngster can chal with physical growth and transfor- mation toward biological adulthood (Arth et al. 1985). Many experts in dropout research suggest that the dropout process depends on the youth's integrationintothe community social structure. Weidman and Friedman (1984), forexample,believethatthegreatertheyouth'ssocialintegrationintonondeviant social groups and contexts (both academic and community), and the more congruent the rewards of significant otherswithin thosesocial groups and contexts,thelesslikely the youth will be to exhibit deviant behavior (dropout and/or delinquency).

They also suggestthatitisnotfailurein academic achievement alone but any failurewithintheschool systemthat may precipitatea"tactfullyvoluntaryretreatist act."Interestingly,they recommend that because dropping outisa symptom of larger problems, interventions should occur when social, economic, and family influences can be overcome--and that this intervention should be significant.

Anotherrelatedconceptisnormlessness.ElliottandVoss(1974),forexample, believethestrongestpredictorsof dropout areacademicfailure,schoolnormlessness and social isolation, exposure to dropouts in the home, and commitment to peers. Expo- suretodropouts, whetheritoccurs inthe school or home, isgenerally conducive to dropping out. This further exemplifies the power of bonding to impact on a student's choices.

Glasser,citedin an interview with Gough (1987), alsotalks about bonding even though he doesn't use the term as such. He believes thatif a student feels no sense ofbelonging,thatstudentwillpaylittleattentiontoacademicsubjects.Instead, theyoungster often searches desperately for friendship and acceptance, sometimes not always from "proper" sources. Glasser feelsthat even good students do not always feel importantinschool.Students whoreceivepoorgradesfeellessimportant.Glasser speaks of the "need for power" or a sense of personal importance. Glasser has developed a veryusefultheorythathecallsthe control theory.It isbased on the concept that we allareinternally motivated by needs builtinto our biologicalstructure.To theextentwe cansatisfythoseneedsregularly,we gain effective control of our lives. One suchneedis a sense of importance andone way it can be met by studentsisthroughtheirparticipationinschoolsituationsallowing them tofeelsignificant.Glasser concludesthatjuniorhighismuchlesssatisfying than elementary school be:ause junior high studentsfeelso unimportant. He also says that we have to focus particularlyon the middle and junior high and "thenmove these ideas up '.-4s well as down," that is, to other gradelevels.

Some students fail to form thenecessary bonds to keep them in school. Such youth arereferredtointheliteratureas"disconnected." The various concepts of "disconnection" must be presented fora thorough understanding of bonding.

Disconnection from School

About 700,000 students drop out of school eachyear; another 300,000 are chronic truants. Many experienced school personnelcan predict reasonably well who might drop out even before thestudentsreaches middle or junior high school. Disconnection"is not a tragedy becauseit happens; itis a tragedy becaltse many peoplesaw R coming for years and d;d nothing about it (Education Commission ofthe States 1985, p.1 1).

Disconnection from Work

Disconnection from work canoccurinseveral ways. The firstisphysical; students may not live where thereare sufficient jobs. Though complex, this problemis solvable:transport the youthtothe jobs. Other disconnectionsare more problematic. Some youth,particularlyminorities, aretrappedin jobsthat offer low pay, minimal benefits,and littleadvancement. Solutionstothisprobleminvolvebuildingbridges between entry-level jobs,schools, and professional,technical, and managementoppor- tunities. A third type of disconnectionoccurs when young people lack the basic skills todothe availablejobs. We mustbear primaryresponsibilityforthat.Las, many alienated youth are not very interested inwork. They show little ambitionon tie job. Their behaviors keep some employers fromhiring them and force otl.crs to firethem. It may be 0:at our most important contribution for theseyouth isnot the academic skills they acquire, but thehabits and values that we impart. Wemust do a better job at instilling ; senseofresponsibilityandreliability(EducationCommissionof States 1985, p. 12). the

Disconnection from Society There are broader symptoms that suggest "underlyingproblems withthenation's integrative systerns." For example,teenage pregnancy and childbirthrates among teens have grown,regardlessofethnicity and socioeconomicstatus.More than 1 million teens become pregnant each year andmost of C.ese teenagers do not marry (Education Commission of the States 1985).

17 The Education Commission of the States has. compiled a chart that gives some shocking data on these types of problems, as shown in exhibit 4.

EXHIBIT 4

INDICATORS OF GROWING YOUTH PROBLEMS

Children in poverty - Up from 16 percent in 1970 to 22 percent in 1985. About 14 million chil- drenliveinpoverty;almosthalfofblackchildrenandone-thirdof Hispanic children live in poverty. Teenage pregnancy - Up 60-fold since 1960. Unmarried mothers - Up from less than 1 percent in 1970 to over 6 percent today. Female headed households - Up from 12 percent in 1970 to 23 percent in 1984. Teenage homicide - Up more than 200 percent for whites; 16 percent for nonwhites since 1950. Teenage suicide - Up more than 150 percent since 1950. Teenage crime - Arrests up from 18 percent in 1960 to 34 percent in 1980 (18- to 24-year olds). Teenage unemployment - Up 35 percent for nonwhites; 60 percent for whites since 1961.

SOURCE: Education Commission of the States 1985.

We do not want to oversimplify bonding and make it sound like the panacea for all our disconnection problems.In_ thepast, we "lured" youthintoschool by structuring assortedactivitiesfor them. Butinthe1980s,accordingto LeCompte (1987),nearly 70 percent of allteenagers worked during the school year, had no time for sports or clubs, and often were too tired to do their homework. As schools lose their centrality in their lives, we also lose our capacity to hold students until graduation.

To briefly summarize our discussion of bonding, we know that--

omeaningful participationin school and community lifeisvitalfor bonding to occur. For example, we can try to engage students by involving them in realistic,authentic(thatis,nonphony) school improvement and community service activities.

opositivesocialinteractionwithpeersandadultsiscritical. We cantryto involve students by providing small-group learning activities and by providing space for students to congregate informally.

oour relationships with students do not have to be "gushy," in fact, they should not be. Rather they should be based on trust and mutual respect.

18 In figure I, we have adapted a chart originally presented by the Northwest Regional Education Laboratory that summarizes the concepts of bonding quite well.

Student 1

acquisition of:

Feelings of Skills Rewards involvement I

leads to

attachment to school, family, and peers Personal commitment to learning beliefinpotencial to succeed in the system

which is followed by

BONDING

to school to teachers to peers to parent to the community

resulting in

ISOCIALLY ACCEPTABLE BEHAVIOR (i.e., dropout prevention)

Figure 1. A social development model of dropout prevention

SOURCE: Adapted from Northwest Regional Education Laboratory

Maintaining Good Climate Control

Almost everyone who writes about the dropoutproblem agrees that the overall climate that we generate in the classroom and schoolismost important. Everything that happens in the school, and theway it happens, adds to or detracts from the environment. As educators, we have the power to determinethe quality and quantity of the messages we convey tostudents. Unfortunately, schools sometimesare perceived asa hostile environment where studentssee themselves as chronic failures. Often thetypi- cal climate is one of order, control, and competition.

19 "U Joan Lipsitz (1984), one of the most thoughtful writers on middle schoolprograms, has some keeninsightintotheissuesof schoolclimatethat she correctlyfeelsis made up of myriad factors which, when added together, determine the school's culture. "The individual decisions made by each school reflect one school's thoughtfulresponse tothe developmental needs of the age group and the particular needs of that schools' clientele." ToLipsitz,themostimportantfactorscontributingtoaneffectivecli- mate are--

othe physical setting, the means by which order is achieved;

oteachers' working conditions;

oteachers' beliefs and expectations;

othe acknowledgment of reciprocity in human relations;

othe quality of leadership;

othe clarity of purpose.

Two other researchers in middle school education-- Johnston and Markle (1986)--sim- ilarly maintain that effective middle schools have asocial climate thatfostersexcel- lence. They suggest the following eight characteristics of such a climate:

1. A clear, schoolwide set of goals are evident for social behavior and academic achievement.

2.Teachers,students,parents,andadministratorsagreeon basicrulesof conduct.

3. Teachers and administrators hold high expectations for students.

4.Teachers believe that they can teach all of the students in their charge.

5. Students know that teachers care when they express concernover incomplete assignments and when they show happiness for a job well done.

6. A system of clear,public rewards for achievementisevident. Although the systemrecognizesallformsofachievement,thefocusisonacademic performance.

7. Principals--aswellasteachers -- createaclimate whereinlearningisvalued, is not subject to interruption, and is a collective enterprise.

8. Parents and other community members frequently are involvedinmeaningful school activities.

Johnston and Ramos de Perez (1985) discuss four general aspects of school climate: physical,academic,organization,andsocial-emotional.Inthephysicalarena,effective middle schools,despitetheir age, are welllitand bright,well maintained, uni- formlyclean,andgraffitifree.The academicclimateischaracterizedbypeople talking about academics; academic achievements are recognized and rewarded; academics

20 form the basisforleisurepursuits;expectations are high--but reasonable--and failure istolerated.Withregardtoorganizationalclimate,effectiveschoolshaverules--but they are clear and reasonable; a student council serves inan advisory capacity, butit also performs as a service club in that it undertakes projects that improvethe quality of school life; students feel confident that they couldgo to the principal with a concern or problem; and teachers have a major voice in decision making. As faras the social-emotionalclimateisconcerned, schoolsare encouraging, welcoming, supporting, secure,andtrustingplaces whereanticipatestudentneedsareanticipatedand ful- filled without fuss or fanfare; the focus is on what studentscan do, not on what they cannotdo;and,last,theschoolisacivilplace where studentsarenot"hassled" and, in return, do not "hassle" others in order to feel better about themselves.

Johnston and de Perez alsooffer specificsuggestionsforassessingand,hence, enhancingschoolclimate.Thisisdonebypresentingthreeinterestingnotions:the idea of leaders and heroes, the idea of the network, and the idea ofrituals and cere- monies. They suggestthat we askourselves several questionsin each area: Who are the "heroes" of the school?, How did they get to be 'heroes?",What are the "stories" that circulateintheschoolnetwork?, What values areportrayedinthese"stories?" What behaviors do we engage in on a regular basis?, Into what kinds ofevents do we put most of our energy?, and What message is being conveyed byour behavior? In addressing these questions, we not only assess school culture,we also give ourselves several more ways to meet the needs of young adolescents.

Another important aspect of climateisthe nature, and extent, of "teachertalk." In a massive study of schooling conducted by Goodlad (1983b),one of the many implications for school improvement is the finding that "teacher talk"is by far the most dom- inant classroomactivity. The studyfindsthat,ingeneral,teachersrarely encourage student-to-studentdialogueorprovideopportunitiesforstudentstoworkcollabo- rativelyin small groups or to plan,setgoals, or determine different ways of achieving theirgoals.Another of Goodlad's findingsisthatin some schools theprincipal and teachers do not unite to address school problems. Whereasthe principal, teachers, students, and parentsoftenareconcerned withthesame problems,oftentheyare unaware of the concern of the other group, and, thus, problemsare left to fester. Rutteretal.(1979)usestheterm"ethos"intalkingabout climate. The key ingredientsof "ethos"aresuchthingsasthepervasivevalues,theprincipal'streat- ment and views of teachers, qualitative elements in teacher-student andteacher-teacher interactions,contact with parents,theabilityof thefacultyto manage school problems, and so on.

Appropriate school sizeisanother important element.Although schoolsizedoes not help explain the sense of community that effective schools establish,according to Lipsitz(1984),thesizeofthestudents'"frameofreference"does.Shedescribes middleschoolswith a population of over1,000students who belongto"teams" of approximately 150. In another school, students belongto small advise wy groups within "wings" of about 140 students. Other places have"houses" with approximately 155 students;within them, studentsidentify with singleclasses,blocks,orteams. The idea isthat the unitis small enough for students to identify withyouth their own age and the schoolasawhole. Dividing intosubsetshelpstostrengthen and stabilizepeer groups by extending the time students remain together both during theday, and in some instances, over a period of several years. Lipsitz (1984)adds this thought:

21 (...) u Antisocial behavior thatresults from the randomness and brevity of student groupingsinmost secondary schoolsissubstantially reducedinthese (middle) schools. (p. 182) Popular wisdom tells us a school has to be big to offer diverse opportunities forstudents.These schoolsaresmallorfunctioninsmallunits,yet they offer many roads to rewards. Diversity and intimacyare not mutually exclusive. As a result,large numbers of students who might otherwise be indif- ferent or alienated become bound to the school culture.(p. 183) In a realsense,allof thesepointsdeal with bonding and school climate. Not surprisingly,researchersfindthatschools with high dropout andtruancyratesalso have high rates of student disorder and discipline problems. Onereport suggests' that perhaps the most obvious way to create an orderly atmosphere isto be available and visibletostudentsoutsidetheclassroom,inthehallways,beforeschool,between classes, and after school (Rawers 1984). NVehlage and Rutter (1984) suggestthat there is some evidence (the Youth in Transition study ofa relationship between disciplinary problems in school and dropping out) that the school itselfmay be contributing to negative sc'nool experiences leading to dropping out.

A related conceptisgovernance. Several researchers emphasize the importance of clearrulesandtheirconsistentenforcementasessentialtomaintaining anorderly environment which, in tt...n, appears to be crucial to high academic achievement.

Stillanother componentistheacademicrewardsystem.McDill,Natriello,and Pallas (1985), observe that since potential dropouts typically have obtainedpoor academic grades,theylikelydiscountthevalidityorlegitimacy oftraditional academic evaluation systems. Therefore, teachers working with such students often findituse- fulto employ a variety of alternative reward systems, for example, learningcontracts thatspecifybotheffort and proficiencyrequirements,token economies, and grading systems which base evaluation on individual effort and progress. This notion, inmany ways, fitsclosely into what Fine (1986) concludes are different valuestructures operating ina classroom. The values, often embedded inthe reward structure, are trans- mittedbytheteacher.Thesevalues,asstatedbefore,mayconflictwiththose developed from the students' life situations.

Some educators (Beane, Lipke, and Ludewig 1980) distinguishtwo types of school climates:custodialandhumanistic.Beaneandhiscolleaguesindicatethatstudents in"humanistic"schoolsdemonstratehigherdegreesof"self-actualization"thanthose inschools with custodialorientations. The latterare characterized by preferencefor autocraticprocedures,punitivesanctions,andimpersonalness;thehumanisticclimate is characterized by studentparticipation in decision making, interaction,and flexibility.

Fine (1986) arguesthat schools are by no means monolithic,forthey are "rife withinternalcontradictionandthereforethepossibilityofchange"(p. 10).She observesthatin many schools she visited (aspart of an ethnographic study on dropouts) schooling forthe most part"isstructured sothat student opinions, voices, and criticalthoughts remain silenced by teachers and ultimately by theirown inhibitions. Thisisespeciallytrueinclasses from which studentsare mostlikelytodrop out.

22 Classrooms are organized more around control than conversation,more around the authority of teacher than autonomy of students, andmore around competition than collaboration. When studentstalkto each other or cooperate,itoften provokes accusations of cheating from their teachers" (p. 11).

In summary, we know that in schools witha poor climate, teachers are relatively isolated from each other, tend not to receivepeer support, and feel impotent to affect schoolwide decisions.Inschools witha good climate,theinternalstructure must be one thatrelievesanonymity, promotes a sense of community,and "bonds"allof us together--student,teachers,counselors,administrators,andparents.Wealsoknow that academic achievement and attendanceare higher in schools where students feel the climate is comfortable and pleasant.

School Policies to Consider

School pglicies obviously have a tremendousamount of relevance to dropoutpreven- tionin generalandtotheconceptof bondinginparticular. Some policies(e.g., statepolicies)areonlyindirectlyinourcontrol,thatis,tothe extentthat we as voterselectourstaterepresentativesand ourprofessionalunionsandorganizations influencing state policies. We, of course, needto operate in both of these democratic arenas.

Many statesareconsideringlegislationofvarioussortsthatdeal with dropout prevention, retention,andrecovery. Many statesareforminginterdepartmentaltask forcestogatherinformationandtorecommendlegislationandprogramdirections. Illinois, for example, has developed a statewidedropout definition, mandateda1-250 student-guidance counselorratio, and funding for alternative highschools and summer and after school programs. New York has allocated $28million to improve attendance andretentionprograms,encouragingcollaborativeeffortsofschooland community organizationstoprovide counseling,in-schoolsuspension, work experience, andother efforts (Center for Dropout Prevention 1987).

Some policies are developed and put into practiceat the local level where educators have more direct control. Focusingon these policies involves the answersto some policy questions:

oWhat istheextentoftheprobleminourdistrict?inourschool?(This informationmust beaccuratesowe canunderstandthe dimensionofthe problem.)

oAt which grades should we beginour efforts?

oWhat strategies should we pursue? Whatresources do we need? What resources are available in the community?

o How can services be coordinated effectively? Althoughwe do can provide all available services, we must be at thecenter of the referral process, forexample, pregnant and parenting youthareless likely to drop out ifsomeone provides them with access to health and social services, employment services,day care, and the like.

23 32 o Howcanparentsbeencouraged tobecomeinvolvedintheirchildren's education?

o Howcan wetailordropoutpreventionprograms toourownsetsof circumstances? o How can our resources be allocated effectively to serve our dropout-prone students? (Although these students are more expensive to educate,do we feel the moral responsibility to provide them with the best money can buy?)

According to Anne Wheelock of the Massachusetts Advocacy Center (1986a), although schoolscannotchangestudents'socialoreconomicbackground,therearechoices regardingtheofficialresponsestoschool-basedfactorsassociatedwith dropping out. Forthisreason,theresearchofgreatestvaluetopractitionersaddressesthe impact of school policiesassociatedwith school performance inthreeareas: attendance, nonpromotion, and suspension" (p. 8).

The researchto which Wheelockisreferring indicatesthat policies and practices adopted in response to student performance in attendance, academics, and behavior have asignificantimpact onstudents'decisionstostayorleave.Shecitesthevarious work of Wehlage who, for one, docun:.Ints that as students' negative experiences accumu- late, they often develop problems with which they cannot easily cope. That may be why Wheelock uses the phrase "from pushouts to dropouts." She also adds that the dropout literaturehas begun tofocus more and more on researchthat deals with effectively teaching low economic statuschildren. According tothisresearch,itisnot the students' background as much asitisthe schools' response that determines their success inschool. Also, the research has begun to focus on those interactions between schools and studentsthat put thelatteratrisk.Wehlage,particularly,studiesthe ways students' negative school experiences add up to a point where some students "take leave." Incidentally,Wheelock alsonotesthat Wehlage and another researcher,Michelle Fine, both report that leaving school resultsin short-term improvement in self-esteem among dropouts compared to noncollege bound students who stay in school. She concludes that thisfact alone shouldtellus something about the school experiences of our dropouts and thataslong as schoolpractices continue to communicate rejection to students at risk, school leaving will continue. The Massachusetts Advocacy Center is a member of the National Coalition of Advo- cates for Students (1985), which has devoted much of its time and energy to exploring schoolpoliciesthatput studentsatrisk.The coalitionidentifiesthefollowingpol- icies as barriers to excellence:

oSuspension of students for truancy or tardiness

oInappropriate placement of students in special education

oRigid nonpromotion policies

oRigid d;sciplinary policiesimposed without student, parent,or teacher consul- tation ai,d that students perceive as unfairly administered

oTeaching approaches emphasizing rote or passive learning

24 ;6 o Departmentalized curriculum focused on subjects taught in 50-minuteblocks oTracking and ability grouping

oMinimal counseling for problem students

o A "back-to-basics" approach with no room for music,art, or group activities o Limited physical education

o Lack of relationship between school and community environments

They conclude thatthesepolicies and practices areguara.iteedto contributeto poor attendance,discipline,andachievement, allclassic symptomsofdropout-prone students.

Also Wheelock (1986a) sums up the dropout's situationas shown in figure 2.

SCHOOL FAILURE AND LOW TEACHER EXPECTATIONS

4. "I must be too stupid to learn."

OUT OF SCHOOL REPEATING SUSPENSIONS %ilk 1 ,,irA GRADE "I don't belong "I can't do what in school."Slb,./ other kids can do."

STUDENT DISENGAGEMENT AND ALIENATION "Teacher's rules are unfair." "School Is not IN-SCHOOL TRUANCY for me:* 'IN? POOR ATTENDANCE (CUTTING CLASSES, (BELOW 85% OF ANY DISRUPTION) "The school has QUARTER) given up on me." t REPEATING A GRADE

Figure 2.The at-risk merry-go-round

Reprinted with permission of the Institute for Responsive Education, from "Dropping Out: Whatthe Research Says," by Anne Wheelock in Equity and Choice,Volume 3, Number 7, FE.11 1986. Copyright 1986 for Responsive Education. by The Institute

25 Attendance and Truancy In general, the middle school students with whom Wheelock (1986b) spoke during the course oftheirresearch werenot convinced thattheirschools hadarealstakein their education or well-being. This finding leadsthe researchersto speak in terms of "school-basedexclusionpractices"and,even more strongly,"rejectionpolicies." Some teachersfeelthat "one lesskidis one lessproblem." Dropping out or truancyisseen as"relievingtheburden." One juniorhighadministrator,infact,wasreportedto have responded tothis issue in the following way: "When the truant comes back in, he isnot school-oriented, he has a very poor attitude, he may be disruptive...I am won- deringif we dobringallofthesedropoutsbackintoschool,can we affordit?" (Assembly of Office Research n.d., p. 74).

The challengeisclear: we mustidentifythebarrierstoschoolattendance and develop programs to reduce them. We need not build on lack of knowledge, for we do know that poor attendanceiscorrelated with poor academic performance and that both are signals that a studentisatrisk of dropping out. When a school has a firm commitment toall students for the completion of their education, we would expect to see theresourcesmobilizedtopromote improved attendanceaswellasimproved school performance. We know that a connection exists between attendance and dropping out. Truancy and nonattendance are strong predictors of dropping out. Attendance problems often lead to schoolfailureasstudentsfallfurther andfurtherbehind.Wheelock (1986a)asserts that, in Boston middle schools, attendance problems have been found to be school-based. Shecitesa5-yearstudywithfindingsthatsuggestthatattendanceproblems were "powerfullyassociated"withstudents'statusasoveragedfortheirgrade.Wheelock's point is that school policies may aggravate rather than ameliorate the problem.

Itis helpful to know why some students do not attend classes. For some, family problems discourage them from attending. For others,schoolisthreatening when students see the costs of attending to be greater than the rewards. Although many students whom Wheelock interviewed spoke warmly about their teachers who helped them learn, too often the negative experiences outweighed the positives (Wheelock 1986b). Also, many truant students learnat a slower pace or differently than other students and thusfeelfrustrated--especially when teachersdon'texplainthingsclearly, when these students feel teachers ay; "picking on" them, or when they are embarrassed fornotunderstandingthelessons. Some truantsreportedracialtensionsasamajor problem. Wheelock and her colleagues (1986b) were convinced that students skipped school to meet developmental needs that were not being met in schools, particularly the need for socialinteraction.Duringinterviews,suchstudentsspoke of exploringthecity;one spent time helpingtocleanalocalBurger King--without pay. The latter"volunteer service"ledWheelock's research teamto conclude that perhaps "when students choose theseactivities,they may be choosing them because opportunitiesforlearning about the larger world and for experimenting with adultrolesarenot availableinschool" (Wheelock 1986b, p. 33).

Inshort,thesefindingsledtheresearcherstoconcludethatcertainpolicies needtobethefocusforchange--atleastintheirdistrict.Schoolconditionsthat

26 contribute to truancy must be the target for reform. Schools that accommodate the students' need for socialinteraction and exploration of new experiences could go a long way toward convincing many students that the benefits of attending school far outweigh the benefits of truancy.

As far as attendanceis concerned, then, Wheelock and her colleagues (1986b)recommend a number of significant policies, including the following:

oNonpromotion as a responsetopoor attendance must be eliminated. Academic punishment (whether nonpromotion or reductioningrade) for poor attendance does not address the causes of truancy. Changes in classroom placementas well asservices that emphasize ongoing communication with parents (in the parents' language) should be considered.

oThere must be early and immediate response. Each absence shouldtrigger an immediate call to the student's home. There should be no time lapse;moreover, alternative phone numbers should be available for parents whoare not at home, cannot be called at work, or do not own a phone.

oSchools should respond totardiness in ways that discourage further attendance problems;forexample,"tardyrooms" oftenresultinstudents'missingclass- work that they can ill-afford to miss. We need to explore ways to correcttar- diness that do not have academic consequences.

oIndividualized assessments should be developed for persistently tardy students.

oWe need to devise reward systems that acknowledge improved attendanceso that students don't fall back into poor habits.

Although we can'tbegintolistallofthespecificrelevantpracticesthat are going on throughout the country, we can give some examples. One community-basedpro- gram in Boston has students and parents sign a "contract" that includes both personal attendance and academic goals. Each morning a staff person callsthe school to check attendance;ifstudentsarenotthere,acallor home visittakes placeimmediately. Another agency offers a Homework Center that provides tutoring for 2 hours in theeven- ing. In this way, the school program isproperly extended into the community. Another program, Back to School, serves students ages 13-15 who have left the public schools. Here thebasis of the interventionis an individualized learning contract that includes attendingclasses20hoursa week plusindividualtutoring,group activities onlife- coping skills, career awareness, and drug or alcohol education.

Many other places have established various incentive activities includingthe publication of a monthly attendance motivation bulletin; awards for schools,teachers, and classesfor high attendance; and team attendance competitions (Coxetal.1985). Mid- dleschoolsaremorelikelytomonitor students andinvolveparentsineffortsto improve attendance than any otherlevel of schooling. The most common activitiesat thislevel,accordingtoClark andIrizarry(1986),dealwithcontactingparentsby computerized phone dialing systems, home visits (usually by counselorsor family workers), and parent workshops, conferences, and/or letters.

27 .1S Personalcontactwithfamiliesbyprofessionalsisaneffectivestrategy,asare incentivesoffereddirectlytogroupsand/orindividualstudents.Otherapproaches that have been used are outings recommended by students, fast-food vouchers, free movie tickets,T-shirts, school supplies, and soforth.Also, jobsin and around the schools serve asincentives. Another promising practiceisa peer or buddy systemin which class members follow up on absent classmates with a phone call or note.

One finalimportantpoint:accordingtoWillis(1986),some schoolsthathave startedattendanceincentivestrategiesreportthatthetraditionalattitudesof some schoolstaffabout"attendingschoolforits own value" may present an obstacleto intervention. To Willis,theexistenceofthisvalue,orlackofit,isthecore of the problem. Since the quality oflifeinthe classroomisthe ultimate challenge,in thecontext of dull,boring,or "antilearning" environments,incentives may nothave lasting power. Inother words, on ascale of 1-10, "climate control"is more significant than "extrinsic rewards." . Suspension The policy issues of attendance, suspension, and nonpromotion are closely related. Attendance ratestellonly part of the story since, normally, student absentee data do not count students out of school due to suspension. The Massachusetts Advocacy Center appearstobeatthe"cuttingedge" onthisissue.Much of whatitascertainshas II application far beyond Boston.

Suspensionislikelyto have powerful impact on marginal students.Ittransmits a loud and clear message that they do not belong in school. Some of the facts surround- ingthisissuearequitefrightening.For example,Bostonhighschooldropoutsare more than twice as likely to have been suspended the previous year than students who stayed in school (0-out 15 percent compared to about 7 percent). National data support II thisfinding. Wehlage and Rutter (1983) find that suspension (or being put on probation) distinguishes school dropouts from noncollege-bound students who do graduate; 44 percent of black dropouts and 31 percent of Hispanic dropouts had been suspended or put on probation at least once compared to19 percent andI 1percent of their respective stay-incounterparts.Also,minoritygroupstudents -- especiallyblackandHispanics- - are suspended about three times as often as white students. .1 According to Wheelock (1986b), the increasing rate of Hispanic students suspended from middle schoolsisespecially alarming giventheirhighdropoutrates.Data on these groups alsoare quite similarin Boston and throughout the country.In Boston, I the percentage of black students suspended has ranged during the past 3 years between 11and12 percent compared to the 8.8-9.6 forall middle school students. In Boston, approximately 41percent of allsuspensionsinmiddle schools are repeat suspensions. The intent hereisnot to single out one city's problems, but tocallattention to the dimensions of the problem. Suspension places students in an at-risk position; the next step often is dropping out. The Massachusetts study also presents some other relevant findings. For example, suspensions do not appear to be necessary for maintaining order in middle schools. In fact,they mayreflectafailuretomeetthedevelopmentalneedsofadolescents. InWheelock (1986b), Kaeser estimatesthat perhaps 80 percent of schooldisruptions result from the way theclass or a schoolismanaged. The Children's Defense Fund indicatesthatalmost 11 percentoftheout -of- schoolyouthinanationalsurvey

.3 indicated that suspension triggered their decisionto drop out.

Exclusiei from school, Wheelock and othersargue,is no solution. In fact,it may exacerbate the problem. Recent researchon middic schools identifies aspects ofa positive school climate that contributesto improved discipline and reduces theneed for out-of-school suspension.AccordingtoLipsitz(1984),middle schoolswitheffective disciplinaryclimates commit themselvestothestudents'personal and social development as a worthwhile goal. An orderly climateemerges when school rules are "owned" by student and staffalikeand not because nonconforming studentsareexcluded. This "out-of-sight, out-of-mind" philosophy shouldnever be one of the cardinalprinciples of education.

Many middle school students whoare suspended have been "convicted" because they have been disruptive. Yet, as teachers andcounselors, we know that disruptionmeans different thingsto different people. A disorder thatone teacher cannot handle might bemanagedskillfullybyanother.Also,abehaviorconsidereddisruptiveby one teacher may be viewed as acceptable behaviorelsewhere.It's all quite subjective.

The Massachusetts report presents severalrecommendations to whichwe need to give careful thought. For example:

o Out-of-school suspension should be used only forstudents who carry weaponsor usedrugsinschoolorwhereassaultivebehaviorwillresultincriminal charges. Suspensions for otherreasons may indicate that we ourselvesmay be doing something improper.

oAlternativestosuspensionshouldemphasizeconflictresolutionand problem solving. Teaching new behaviors and skillsshould replace old and tired exclusion policies.

o Schools should be required toreport the number of students referred forsus- pension from each teacher. Thepurpose ofthisisto support our colleagues who leay need additional training inclassroom management techniques.

o Schools should be required toreport data--on both the number ofsuspensions and the number of students suspendedin each school--in sucha way as to indi- catethe distributionofmultiplesuspensions. This approach would showthe numbers of students at risk and the severityof risk due to suspension. oSuspension data by special educationstatus should be collected and the Indi- vidualized Educational Plans of specialeducation students should be reviewed after three suspensions. (Wheelock 1986b)

One alternativetotraditionalsuspensionisthepossibilityof in-school suspension. In-school suspensionisdesignedfor students who need otheropportunitiesto developtheself-disciplinerequiredtotake advantage of theschool's academic program.Itprovides them withassistancein examining theirbehavior and the consequences of their actions. Following are some objectives ofsuch programs:

29 et 0.., .1 V oTo provide a learning environment for students with problems which normally would lead to suspension

o Toidentifycausesofstudents'maladjustmentwithconsequentreferral for assistance to proper personnel and/or agencies

oTo coordinate efforts with administrators, counselors, and teachersinorder to aidinlesseningorresolvingthestudent'slearning and adjustment problem ("Dropout Prevention" n.d.) A number of approaches have been suggested in the "Dropout Prevention," materials from North Carolina. For example:

oIn-school suspension teacher and counselor should--

- -maintain contactwiththestudent'steachersregardingthe student'sadjust.. ment, assignments, and progress;

--exchange information with student servicesstaffinordertodeal withthe causes underlying the student's behavior;

- -work with appropriate student services stafftoinitiate and maintain contact with parents.

oTeacher,counselor, and principalshould collaborateeffortstodevelop procedures for daily program activities.

oPlacement should be made solelythroughactionof theprincipalorhis/her designee based on suspendable offense on the student's part.

The recognitionthatout-of-schoolsuspension may be harmfulisthebasisfor in-school suspension programs. Because these programs aim to keep studentsinschool, they are a step in the right direction--as long as tney address the roots of the problem. As long as the goalisnot one of reducing the number of out-of-school suspensions, such programs areworthwhile. Of course,large numbers of kids may stillbe excluded from clssrooms--if not the schoolitself.Hence, we needtoguard against making the program a dumping ground. Nor do we want to assign school work as punishment. That practice onlyreinforcesnegativemessages.In-school suspensions canalso hide other problems, such as theracialproportions or disproportions of students who make up the in-school suspension population. As with other types of suspension,itis at best a short-term solution that may or may not correct other conditions contributing todisruptivebehavior.Itshouldnotcreateadditionalproblemsforstudentsor createpermanentisolationbooths fromtheirpeers.As withany otherprogram,it should be carefully monitored. We must ensure that such practices are not overused and do not encourage discrimination. Program goals,for example, should not be simply to keep students off the streets or out of the recordkeeping books. Here are a number of proposed guidelines for in-school suspension programs:

oWrittenproceduresshouldbedevelopedthatclearlystatehow studentsare referred and assigned.

==11=2:7_ oAn administrator should be responsiblefor determiningifthe assignmentof studentstothe programisappropriate. This person should have the authority andresourcestopursueotherappropriateactionssuchasreferraltoother agencies.

oAn academic component should be provided that allows studentsto keep up with regular classroom instruction.

o A guidance component should be present with counselors or others whocan help students explore alternative classroom behaviors.

oProvisions areneededfor notifying and engaging parents without requiringa conference as a condition for the student's return to the regular classroom.

oProceduresareneededformonitoring andfollowingupindividualstudent progress.

oProvisions should be made for collecting information summarizingthe numbers of students assigned by race and referring teacher. (Wheelock 1986b,p. 6)

"ediationisanother possiblealternativetosuspension. A school mediationpro- gram ypically provides trainingfor both students and teachersin conflict resolution. The Massachusetts Advocacy Center believes that theconcept (sometimes called "school- yard mediation") has a proven track record in reducingschool conflicts and improving schoolclimate.Apparentlystudentsasyoungasfourthandfifthgraderscanbe trainedas"conflict managers." Some administratorsfear sucha program takes up too much staff time; on the other hand,lessstaff time isused on discipline. Moreover, teacherstrainedinthese approaches have increased confidence intheir elassroom3 and schools.Ofcourse, asupportiveprincipal,interestedstaff,students,andparents areessential.Evaluationsofsuchprogramsindicatethatmostschoolsthathave implemented them report reductions in truancy and dropoutrates (Wheelock 1986 b). Mediation through conflict management requiresproblem-solving analysis and lis- teningskills,benefitsthatlikelyspilloverintothe academic area.Last,mediation providesstudentswithopportunit'estoparticipatemeaningfullywiththeir"school family." Clearly, it is a promising tool about whichwe need to learn more.

Nonpromotion and Retention

We know from the research that students whoare older than others in their class are more like" leave school even though theymay have adequate reading scores (Neubauer 198 rhus, a policy aimed at keeping students inaparticular grade until they have mas the subject may have negative repercussions.It was found thatif middle grade students repeat a gradeonce intheir school years, the chances ofdrop- ping outincreased 40 to50 percent; holding students backput an annual estimated 1,700 students (1984-85 data)atrisk oflater dropping out (Wheelock 1986b). Ona nationallevel,itisestimatedthatifstudentsareheldback a secondtime,their chances of leaving school before graduation increases byabout 90 percent (Mann 1986).

31 40 This finding may sound surprising to many of us who view nonpromotion as a primary way of responding to students who are not meeting academic (and also attendance) standards. The threat of nonpromotion traditionally has been used as a means of motivating those whose performance fallsbelow acceptablelevels. Standards are important,to be sure, and have been looked upon as a means of restoring meaning to a diploma. The policy of nonpromotion also has been viewed asa catalyst intendedtobring additional servicestostudents;thatis,itisintendedtotriggerservicesthatwould bepro- vided during therepeated yearingrade. Accordingto Wheelock and her colleagues, sometimesitdoes and sometimesitdoesn't.Intheirview,thiscatalyticactionhas been mainly "wishful thinking,"thatis,promised remedial services and smaller classes havenotalwaysmaterialized.Theresultisthatwitheverygraderetention;the chances of these students' graduating decreases. There islittle doubt that a "complex web of factors" contribute to low academic achievement and, hence, to nonpromotion. We need totry to"sort out" school policies and practicesthatinreality may serveas unrecognizedbarrierstostudent success. We obviouslyarenot consciouslytryingtoput astranglehold on our "kids";if we were, we would not be teachers or principals. But sometimes our policies inadvertently may cause problems. The Massachusetts study also contends that nonpromotion costs money, an estimated $3,900 for each student repeating a grade. At that rate, nonpromotion of middle grade students approached $7millionin1984-85 alone. Retentioningrade,theresearchers stress,seems to dolittleto enhance student achievement. On the contrary,itappears to increase the likelihood of dropping out.

TheNationalCoalitionof AdvocacyforStudents(June1986)hassynthesized research on student retention and promotion. The followingisa summary of their key findings (pp. 1-3). Repeating a grade does not usually result in improved student achievement. Several studies show that about one out of every three students held back learned more during the second year in grade than during the first. Up-to-40 percent of students kept back learnedless and scored lower on standardized achievement tests during the second year. Given findings that retention does not improve student achievement, not one writer of the six major literature reviews published in the past 12 years has come out in support of retention. Retained students who make some progress the second year in grade learn less than equally low achieving students who were promoted. According to a study inTexas,readingachievementincreased0.8ofa gradeequivalentfor retained students and 1.1 grade equivalent for low-achieving students who had been promoted.In math,the difference was even greater, showing average gains of 0.6 grade equivalent for retained stHents compared to1.1for similar students who were promoted. Researchers conclude that once students have been held back, the achievement gap between them and other students never closes.

Students who receive remedial help with promotion make greater gainsin achievement than students who were held back or "socially" promoted. Also, low-achieving students who are promoted show bettersocial adjustment than

32 41 those who repeat a grade. Students who make the most progress are those who are promoted and receive remedial instruction. Retention in grade has even less benefit once a student reaches sixth grade. The olderthechild,thelesslikelyisthe chancethatrepeatingagrade willhaveanybenefitatall.Infact,evenafterfirstgrade,educational value becomes less and less apparent. In one study, although 80 percent of boysrepeatingfirstgrade achievedatasatisfactorylevelafterrepeating gradeone,lessthanhalfofthesecondandthirdgradersdidsoafter repeating their grades. Students retained in grade are more likelyto have serious attendance problems beginning at the middle school level. One study concludes that students who were frequently absent from school were more likely to have been retained in grade than students who attended regularly; whereas 20 percent of allstudents with attendance problems were placed attheir appropriate grade level, 30 percent of the students with excessive absences were 1 year behind, and 47 percent were 2 years behind.

Students retainedingrade are at greaterriskof dropping out of school. Holding students back by definition means thatthe most vulnerable students are put at risk by extending the number of years needed to complete 12 grad and graduate. One researcher reports that by age14, being older than average for a grade was a strong predictor of dropping out. Also, a long-term study of school dropouts, reports that being held back one grade increases the risk of dropping out later by 40-50 percent, two grades by 90 percent. Even children who repeat one or two elementary grades may experience theconsequences of that decision more acutely when they reach adolescence. Repeating a grade has the most serious effect on low socioeconomic, minority, and disabled students. Because low socioeconomic, minority, and handicapped children tendtoscore lower on standardizedtests,these already vulnerable children are most likelyto be retained ingrade, especially when promotion depends on scoring at a specified level on such atest. The consequenceis increased educationalinequality sinceretentionleadsto undermining further theeducationalachievement andincreasesthelikelihoodof droppingout. Low-achievingstudentsfacespecialproblemswhenpoliciesonretention intersect with the special education system. On one hand, some handicapped students may be held back rather than identified as disabled and referred for evaluationforspecialeducationservices. On the other hand, low-achieving students who are not disabled may be misclassified in special educationas a way of "protecting" them from the impact of retention.

The financialcostsof retentionpresent enormous burdens tolocalschool systems. The greatestfinancialimpactisfeltincitieswithhigh percent- ages of low socioeconomic and minority students where tough promotion standards can trigger retel.- of up to half of the students in one grade. When large numbers of students are held back, school systems must shouldertwo typesorcosts:retentioncosts--providingstudentswithanextrayearof education--andremediationcosts--providingstudentsheldback withaddi- tionalinstructionalsupport.Thispracticecanbe veryexpensivewithno guarantee of improved achievement, Since research has shown that retention

33 I with remedial helpisa questionable solution, paying combined retention and remedial costs is poor value for the money.

"In summary," theresearchers conclude, "holding students back asa strategyto improve student achievement is suspect at best and damaging at worst. Beware ofany promotion policy which results in increased numbers of students repeatinga grade. The greater likelihood of slowed academic progress, coupled with increased chances of dropping out,putsthesestudentsatrisk"(NationalCoalition of AdvocatesforStudents June 1986, p. 3). ' The NationalCoalitionof AdvocatesforStudentsprintedashortquestionnaire (June1986)titledDoes Retention Ever Make Sense?Thisschool self-assessmentis shown in exhibit 5. The Massachusetts Advocacy Center presents several relevant recommendations for reducing student dropout that are summarized here briefly:

oNonpromotion should be eliminated as an optioninthe middle grades; instead studentsshouldbe placedinage-appropriategrades andprovidednecessary remedial assistance to acquire basic skills.

oStructural changes in middle sc!-ools should be instituted (for example, multi- age grouping within clusters) that reduce the stigma of students who are over- ageforgrade. Acontinuousstudentprogressplanandintroductionof cooperative learning approaches can reduce student isolation.

oAll students age 16 or older in middle schools should be immediately offereda place in an alternative program; these students are clearlyin imminent danger of dropping out.

oAnnual "schoolprofiles" should be prepared thatindicate the number of students who are behind their age-appropriate grade for 2 or moreyears in each middle school.Publicationofthesedata canbenefitthoseofus who are designing programs for high-risk students. Fortunately, we have choices when it comes to nonpromotion. In Los Angeles, for example, holding students backisviewed asa"lastresort,"used only when other optionsprovenottobeinastudent'sbestinterest.Theirlocalpoliciesrequire parentalconsentforretentioninkindergartenthroughsixgrade.This - -andrelated changesin grading policies--puts theresponsibility on the teacherto explaintostu- dents and parents the reasons for unsatisfactory performance and what needs to be done toprevent failing grades beyond the second grade. The intent of each of these poli- ciesisfor students to arrive at the middle school level witha strong self-image and without a history of repeated failure.

Other middle school practices view organizational reforms as options tononpromo- tion,forexample,organizationofstudentsby"clusters"(ratherthangrades)and multiagegroupings.In"clusters"or"streams,"studentsprogressatapacethatsuits theiruniquelearningstyle;callit a"ContinualPupilProgressPlan." Itstill reflects what we learned in Teacher Education 101, namely that 90 percent of thestudents can learn similarmaterialsifschools allow slowerlearners more timetolearn (Wheelock 1986b).

34 EXHIBIT 5

DOES RETENTION EVER MAKE SENSE?

While holding students back is clearly not usefulas a strategy to improve general student achievement, it may work in helping individual students. Someresearch findings show that certain children can benefit from repeating a grade. If you can check "yes" to the followingstatements about your child or a student in your class, you may be able to keep thatindividual child in the same grade second year with some success. a

The student is in the early grades (K-2).

The student made some progress during the year. (Ifyour child has had serious problems with school work, special services, not retention, may bemore appropriate.) The student has social skills appropriate for hisor her age, has a good self-concept, and has adjustedveell emotionally to school. (Again,if your child has behavioral problems, helpcan either be worked into the regular classroom settingor special services provided; retaining him or her is not likely to be helpful.)

The student's parents think retention is a good idea andare willing to work with the student and the school.

The student's teacher has had a good relationship with thechild during the year. (Research shows that retention is most likely to work when the the child.) teacher recommending retention also likes

The program to be offered the student during the secondyear is different from the prcgram previ- ouslyoffered. (The teacher and principalshould be abletodet,:ribeexactly what willbe offered and why they think the new program--includingdifferent materials, smaller ch new teaching approach--will help the students.) 3es, or a

If you cannot answer "yes" to these standards,you should strongly consider alternatives ta second year in grade, including special services or promotion with remedial help.

SOURCE: National Coalition of Advocates for students June1986. Reprinted with permission of the National Coalition ofAdvocates for Students from Steps, Volume 1, June 1086. Nu:nber 5,

The bestalternativeistoprevent studentfailurethrough avarietyof reform strategies.Such strategiesincludeearlychildhood educationprograms,especiallyfor poor,minority, anddisabledchildren;an"effectiveschools"approachfocusingon building-level improvementsthatemphasizesafety,highexpectations,andfrequent checks on student progress; delayed schoolentry or a "readiness first grade" forchildren who have had minimal schoolpreparation; and the option ofa second year of kin- dergarten for children with fall birthdays.

Policies and programs thatare immediate alternatives also must beconsidered--for example,researchclearly showsthatpromotionplusremediationpromotesgreater achievementthan holdingstudentsback.Remedialinstructionshouldusedifferent approachesfromonesthathavealreadyfailed,forexample,promotion well-thsigned summer program plusa that emphasizes enrichment and remediationinsmaller classes. Such a program could offeran alternative approach to learning. Theemphasis should be on more than passinga particular achievement test and shouldnot require the

35 passing of a test at the end of the summer for promotion (National Coalition of Advo- cates for Students June 1986). There are two other relevant concepts: double promotion and academic acceleration. The RE-CAP program in Bostonisa middle -grade alternative for retained students(NationalCoalitionofAdvocatesforStudentsJune1986).Theintentisto motivate these students to meet school standards and stay in school. Theprogram first identifies middle school students who are up-to-4 years behind their appropriate grade. With parents' approval, these students sign an individual contract that commits themto meetingallschoolattendance,academic,and behavioralrequirements. The contracts also contain a community service component requiring students to volunteer ina human serviceagency.Ifthestudentsliveuptotheterms,they are promoted twiceinI year: one grade at midyear and the next grade atthe end of the year. Schools or human service agencies provide part-time staff who monitor attendance and behavior and advocateonbehalfofindividua:supportservicesincludingcounselingandactivity groups.

The conceptisbased on therealizationthat most studentsin the program can, with encouragement, do the work required to pass their courses. The promise of catch- ing up with peers motivates them to meet standards. Because RE-CAP isnot a "pull-out" program but instead offers support for vulnerab:c students within the mainstream, students do notfeelstigmatized. Moreover, a"no-fail"provisionisbuiltin;even students not promoted inmid-year are not retainedingradea secondtime. RE-CAP, however, does not have a 100 percent success rate, In part because it works withstudents at substantialrisk and in part because the high schools do not offera parallel support structurefor RE-CAP students entering ninth gradeinmidyear. However,it does represent a promising model for middle schools who must reengage older at-risk students. (For more information about RE-CAP, including a sample contract,contact the RE-CAP Director, District B Office, 60 Hawthorn Street, Boston, MA 02131.)

According toWillis(1986),the concept of academicaccelerationincreasinglyis being used as an alternativeto "remediation." The substitution connotesa more positive ;signationfortheprocessofassistinglow-achievingstudents.A morebasic reason,however,i3thefactthatinorderfor youthtoincreasetheir performance, academicaccelerationisactuallyrequired.Theessentialingredientsareincreased engagement time forstudents on significant academictasks,sufficient repeated prac- ticeformastery,carefulmonitoringbyteachers,andrecognitionofacademic performance.

Computer-assistedinstructionalsocanbeanaidtoacademicacceleration.If coursewareisselectedcarefully,students maylearnbasicskillsatanaccelerated pace. the absence of demonstrations of adult impatience during periods when students are engaged with the computer is significant. For many students who have become hostiletowardadults,periodsofcomputer-assistedinstructionmayalleviatethese tensions.Incombination,these approaches have the promise of aoceleratingthe academic performance of in";.erforming students. However,itisessentialthat adequate planning and evaluation accompany the approach in order for successful accelerationto occur.

36 Discipline and Orderliness

When we spoke of climatewe touched on discipline. Since itis somewhat inevitable that normal adolescent development willresult in increased conflict betweenteach- ers and students, we can make conscious choicesregarding our preferredresponses. We can, on one hand, focus on direct disciplinaryactions to correct and control misbehav- ior. On the other hand,we can intervene with extra sum artfor individual students, realizingthatdisciplinaryproblems may reflectastudent'semotionalneeds and/or learning problems; in other words, we can increase school improvement efforts andmobi- lizeservicestohelp studentsadjusttoschoolrulesandcontroldifficultimpulses. As with other issues, undoubtedly thisisnot an either /or situation. We have at to look in-schoolfactorsthat may be causing problems.These,afterall,arethe factors that we can control. We need to.top sending negative messages thatleave students with only two choices: either continuingin an unwelcoming settingor leaving. The application of discipline policy, ifnot carefully monitored, can bearbitrary and subj,ctive and can result in theexclusion of our most vulnerablestudents. One of the problemsisthatdisciplinarypoliciesoften contain suchvague terms as "disruptive" or "disrespectful." Theseterms are subject to interpretation and distinguish may or may not violent behavior from "upsetting" behaviors(e.g.,beinginthehallwith- out a pass). When we are unable to deal withdiscipline as an integral part of tiveenvironment, we often a posi- fallback on repressivemeasures. The clearestmessage, perhaps,is thatdisciplineisnot a goalinitself'Nutratherisachieved through a combinationof goals--academic,organizational,andinterpersonal. cited Waysonetal.(as by theCenterforEarly Adolescence1984)findthatwell-disciplined share these common goals: schools

o To improve the ways in which school staff worktogether to solve problems

o To reduce authority and status differencesamong all persons in the school oTo widen students' sense of belonging

oTo improvethephysicalfacilities and organizationalstructureof the school that reinforces other goals Rutter and his colleagues (1979) find that behavioris1-.).3tterin schools charac- terizedby consistentvaluesagreeduponandsupportedbystaffacting ratherthanleft together for individual teachersto work out for themselves. Effectivemiddle schools,Lipsitz(1984) observes,shareaclarityofmission,haveaclosestudent- adultrelatioaship,provide an intimate-caring environmentfor both students and staff, have a high degree of studentparticipationin high the "workings" of the school,reflect butflexibleexpectationsforstudents,andprovidediverse .thieving success. opportunitiesfor

National Institute of Educationstudy cited by Dorman (1985), sing,, mostimportant reveals that the differencebetweensafeandviolentschoolsisastrong, dedicated principal whoserves as a role model for both students and institutes teachers and who afirm,fair,andconsistent system of discipline.Moreover, clearlimitsareessential. structure and Dorman andhercolleagues(1985)maintainthatschools which areresponsivetothe adolescent'sneed for structure have clearlystatedrules and expectations that are acceptedand understood by studentsand staff. One way of ensuring acceptanceisto involve studentsinestablishingrules and theconsequences

37 4 forfailingto observe them. Adolescents need the security provided by clear limitsin ordertolearnduringatime of pervasive change. Schools,however, needtoavoid rigidstructure andexcessivelimits,fortheseonlyinvitedependency,hostility,and withdrawal. Although schools use a variety of corrective measures to achieve student compliance with adult norms,littlesystematicresearchhas exploredtheeffects of various methods of direct discipline--what results are achieved, with whom, under what circumstances, and for how long. Rutter etal.(19'9) found that the few studies undertaken about patterns ofdisciplineemphasize thatdisciplineand punishment shouldnot be seen as synonymous. Improved behavior appears to result from reducing the number of rules combined with increased monitoring and enforcing of the remaining rules. How- everiasRutter and hiscolleagues conclude,itseems possiblethatdifferentpatterns of discipline may be needed for children of different ages.

Wayson etal.(as cited by the Center for Early Adolescence 1984) point out that well-disciplinedschoolsneedr tattempttoeliminatealldisciplineproblemssince some may be healthy responses of students needing totesttheir environment, protect their self-esteem, or vent emotions. The consensus seems to be that improved climate in middle schools can improve dis- ciplinewiththeaddedbenefitofreducingdropoutrates.Lipsitz(1984)identifies numerous aspects of middle school climate that support improved discipline. Although shepromotes nosinglemodel,sheneverthelessnotesthateffectivemiddleschools share a number of common characteristics. Exhibit 6, adapted from her work, presents a checklistthat can be usedtorat'spotentialfor promoting discipline and orderliness in a way that effectively coniplements the developmental needs of young adolescents. A number of alternative approaches are being used by teachers throughout the country. The following are just a few more choices to consider:

oProvidinginservicetrainingin communicationsskillsbasedon approaches of reality therapy, teacher effectiveness training, or transactional analysis

oitssigning staff responsibilities for developing creative discipline programs

oUsing effective teachers who have few discipline problems as models for newer teachers

Other program delivery options include the following:

oThe self-containedclass,anin-schoolmodel designedfordisruptivestudents thatemploysbehaviormodificatiOnprograms,incentives,counseling,and remedial or tutorial services. o A separate school or center,a more comprhensive alternative, that often uses tokensorpoint systemstoimprove studentbehavior,identifyprogress, anJ determine when a strident should exit the program.

38 EXHIBIT 6

DISCIPLINE CHECKLIST

Physical Setting

Students care for the school by contributing to its upkeep as part of their learning. Space is planned so that students are not crammed into classrooms.

To school visitors,it appears there are fewer students thanone might expect from enrollment figures. Order

Order is based on students and teachers liking each other and sharinga sense of community.

Students have more independence than in elementary school but operate within thestructure of a support group (house, cluster, wing, advisory group).

Students have the opportunity for an ongoing relationship with at leastone adult.

Students are grouped in units small enough so that the staff know the students'moods. Studeht groups are stabilized by extending the time students stay togetherduring the day and over a period of several years.

Every student has the chance for success in some activity. Students participate in setting their own rules. Teachers' Working Conditions

Teachers see the administration as concerned about themas individuals. Level of motivation and mutual support is high. Teachers are not isolated from each other. Beliefs and Expectations

Teachers have high expectations for themselves and believe theycan make a difference. Members of the school ..,ommunityadults and students--expecttheir day-to-day experiences to be positive.

A sense of personal mission and collegiality are central.

School staff recognize that a mutual give and take in human growthand development is the basis for the school community.

Teacher expectations of students are not tied torace, sex, or social class.

SOURCE: Adapted from Lipsitz, 1984, pp. 167-203. NOTE: A more detailed checklist, the Middle Grades Assessment Program by Gayle Dorman, can be obtainedfrom the Center for Early Adolescence, Carr Mill Mall, Suite 223,Carrboro, NC 27510.

o Telecommunicationsalternativeto(xpulsionanalternativedesignedforstu- dents who areexpelledfrom schoolwes atelecommunications networkthat links a teacher by telephone to studentsat home; students periodically meet at

39 4V theprogramsitetotaketests,turninassignments,andreceivematerials. (Florida Department of Education 1986)

Stillother optional program components includethe coordination of such support servicesas mental health, family counseling, and health and economic services;a high degree of coordinationwithlaw enforcement, juvenilejustices,andtherehabilitative services; and delinquency prevention or law education programs to help students understand the consequences of delinquent behavior.

Inaddition,thereisone extremely unique and inventiveclassroom management techniquethat,althoughitclearlydeals with discipline and school climate,goesfar beyondthatinitsattempttocreate student teamwork for superior classroom morale. This techniqueiscalled"Learnball." The approach was developed by Earl Bradley, a. classroom teacher in Pennsylvania who, with the help of many other 'oachers, has "fine tuned"itover severalyears.Learnballhasbeendescribedas'ast. -. educational medicine mixed with just enough sweetener to make it palatable" (Marwooc, McMullen, and Murray 1986,p. 56).Themedicineprimarilyisdiscipline--alongwithcooperation. Learnballteams areestablishedthatarehighlycohesive,family-likesupportgroups. The "sweetener" is a modified sports format--individualized participation and consensus--thatappealstoallstudents.TheLearnballapproachusespeersocial approval as a reward. A foam !mil and hoop are used (sparingly) to create the sports format. Classroomrules become the rules of thesport. This produces positive behav- ioralchanges,especiallyinstudentswho haveacquirednegativehabits.Classwork becomes a cooperative endeavorin which fastlearners earn peer e-teem for superior effort and slower students are rewarded for learning attempts. An important featureis thatallstudents,regardlessofability,receivelearningreinforcementfromtheir peers. (Theapproach,incidentally,isconsistentwiththerecognitionof "heroes,"as discussedearlier.)Inessence,Learnball isbasedonseveraltheoretical/operational precepts:

oGivingstudentsopportunitiestoleadlearningactivitiesprovidessubstantial reinforcementbenefits,sincestudentsocialapprovalismore valuedby students than teacher approval.

oContests provide opportunitiesto combine social and task communications; such acombinationfacilitatestheestablishmentofasatisfactorysocial-emotional equilibrium.

oSeparating individual achievement from team achievement isin accord with the culturalexpectationsofdistributivejusticeinherentinthiscountry'ssocial fabric;a student can go all-out scholastically without being rebuked by other students for working too hard.

oSmall prizes provide a meaningful pay-off in intergroup contests and are a tan- gible symbol of theresults of group cooperativeefforts;forthis reason, they re valuable in the strengthening of group norms.

oStudents who choose their own groups and leaders can form atronger consensus with the teacher; giving students a voicein decision making resultsin greater support of whatever agreement is finally reached.

40 oMaintaining permanent subgroups makes it easier for students to solve the problems of group structure; the stable subgroup presents aless complicated set of socialrelationshipsthanasingleclassroomgroupor subgroupthatchanges members frequently. (Bradley 1986, p. 17)

AccordingtoLearnballusersthebenefitsarenumerous:increasedtime-on-task, greater student involvement, and more positive attitudes.Itisnot uncommon tohear such expression:,as "unprecedented enthusiasm" and "new found excitement"to describe what takes place in the classroom.

Bradley and his colleagues have formed Learnball League Internationalto dissemi- nate the model thatisdescribed in three resources. Teamwork Handbookisa learn- bydoing manual. Tobegintheprocess,studentsfollowthehandbook anduseit throughouttheyearasareference guide toprocedures. Because Learnballisalmost totally performed by the students and because itis a management technique, the teacher continues toteach in the same manner using the same materials as before. The second manual,131'sicPrinciples of Learnball, explains the origin and dynamics ofLearnball. The StaffDevelopmentGuideoutlinestheteacher-to-teacherdisseminationactivities that are anintegralpart of theprocess. The lefgue alsolends supportto ;achers through a telephone#;otline and a quarterly newsletter. (For more information and for descriptivematerials,contact Learnball League International, P.O. Box18221,Pleasant Hills, PA 15236-022(.)

Tracking and Testing The National Coalition of Advocates for Students (1985) conducteda series of hearings in10 citiesto explore the problems facing at-risk youth. Among other findings,theNationalCoalitionconcludedthatabusesoftricking andabilitygrouping have been widespread; that the benefits have been questionable; andthat the students who aro nLt at risk because of their race, sex, class, language,or handicapping con- ditionare the primary victims. Their report cites G'oodlad's thought-provoking finding that minority students and thosfrom the low-socioeconomic groups are found in dispro- orn tionate numbers in classesat the lowest track, whereas children from upper socioeconomic levels are consistent('verrepresented in higher tracks.

The Massachusetts Advocacy Center callstracking and ability groupir"the most pernicious"practicecontributingtoschoolfailure,apractice--theycull:endthat beginslong before the middle grades but wh:)se effects are clearlyapparent inthose grades. The experience, we know, of being labeled inferioris not new for many young adolescents.For many, opportunitiesforsuccess have been severelylimitedfor most of their short lives.

Thisisaverycomplexissuebecause,astheNationalCoalitionobserves,if tracking and ability grouping were used--as proponents claim--tomatch instruction and resources more effectively,schools would be offering students more flexibility,rcino- diation, and chancesto change tracks. In other words, they argue that schools would assignstudez.storelativelyfluidlearning groups on the basisof their understanding of and achievement in a subject at a given time (National Coalitionof Advocates for Students1985).Schoolsalsowould evaluatestudents'skillsand knowledgeatmore frequentintervals. According totheirrate of progress, students showing gains would be moved to another group. The National Coalition statesthat"if this were the case,

41 vJ schools which assignstudentstodifferentlevelabilityandinterest groups fordif- ferent subjects would he the norm" (p. 43).Itis not now the norm, according to the 1 National Coalition--which also claimsthat most schools use tracking orability group- ingto group studentsatthe same levelinallsubjects.Inpractice,the groups tend to stay fixed. Even when curriculumis shared across groups, the nature of instruction often differs for each group.

Research inthisareaisenlightening, foritshows thatabilitygrouping often determines the content of what teachers teach, what studentslearn, the amount of time deVotedto learning, and the quality ofteaching. As the year goes on, students in the lower groupfallbehind students inthe higher group. Good lad (1983a, 1983b) reports that even in the span of 1year, students inlea.,t advanced groups may have 'learned at a rate five times slower thanthose in the most advanced groups. He also stresses that students in low groups gradually becomeisolated within a school--just what we don't want to happen. In one of the most comprehensive summariesof research on tracking to date, 'Oakes (1985) reports the lack of evidenceto support either the educational orsocial bene- fitsoftracking. She indicatesthat by the time students reachadolescence,tracking appearstoresultinloweredself-esteemandaspirations.Studentstrackedintothe lower/slower groups experience higher suspension ratesthat,as we know, subsequently contributetoalienation and withdrawal.Moreover, these studentsarenot"dummies;" they understand both their rank in thehierarchy and their marginal status. As Goodlad indicates,studentsplacedin s'mwet groups not only advance moreslowly butalso develop problems of greater misconduct in school,greater delinquency out of school, and higher dropout rates.

Because trackingisnot inevitable, we need to explorealternatives. For example, Goodlad reports the success of the inasterylearning approach in which students learn cooperativelywith more able students helping slower studentsinheterogeneous small groups. Cooperative learning teamsalso provide low achievers the chance to feel successful, whereas, at the same time, studentswho learn more quickly deepen their understanding of the subject matter by explaining it toothers.

The nationalcoalitionof AdvocatesforStudents (1985),however, points outa troubling Catch22.They observethatatrendtowardgeneralizingthepractice of for trackingisemergingwith"option"or"magnet"programsdesignedspecifically higher-achievingstudents.Their openhearingsrevealevidencethat,although some magnet programs have been used topromote desegregation, a resegregation effectalso appearstobe associated with them.Ifthisisthe case, we must weigh our options very carefully. The Massachusetts Advocacy Center reportquotesthr.:director of an alternative middle school who cogently sums up thisissue when he says our major jobisto "unlabe!" youth--and "unless we create somebonding, we're not going to go anywhere" (Wheelock 1986b, p. 46).

Testing(orthemisusesof testing)iscloselyrelatedtotracking.Althoughas teachers,counselors,andprincipalsyouareimmersedintestingeveryday, ,several policyconsiderationsareappropriate. M theNationalCoalitionreportpointsout, norm-referenced standardizedtestsare part of the "yearlyritual."Also,ina number

42 of states, such tests have been adopted as the basis for assessing students for promotion and graduation. One of the problemsisthat the overreliance on such testing may harm students whose scores are low or who attend schools where competency testsare used for promotion. Indeed,allchildren suffer when testing narrows the content of curriculum and encourages "teaching to the test."

One of thewitnessesin the National Coalition of Advocates for Students (1985) hearings touches on the important point that competency tests, although often justified asa means of ensuring remedial help, do not guarantee that such help will be forth- coming. Neither do schools take sufficient precautions toprotect students (who do not meet the standards) from being stigmatizedasfailures. The National Coalition report (1985) also declares that schools have been ,;!ow in making a substantial commitment of resources tothose students who have experienced the most school discrimination inthe past. Without this commitment, competency tests often become exclusionary devices. Tests do not (cannot) measure enthusiasm, energy, and progress or whether students have learned to ask probing questions; often the resultisa narrowing of the curriculum, a narrowing which threatens students' development and undermines their motivation. When testing replaces teaching, we can no longer respond to students' individual needs znd the students no longer feel encouraged in the tasks of learning.

Roles of Parents and Families

One issue that educators atalllevels agree about isthe importance of parent and family involvement. The often-quoted A Nation At Risk report of the National Commis- sion on Excellencein Education (1983)callsforactiveparentalparticipation,assert- ingthatitisaparent's right to demand the bestin their children's education. Few would disagree that we need to have more active home-school communication in orderto providemutual supportfor young adolescentsinhandlinga very difficultperiodin theirlives.Theincreasedcommunication canassistbothparentsandeducatorsin establishing solid ground for bonding students more firmly to the schools. Educational sociologists point out that changing family patterns have loosened the bonding with schools. Even among economically sound families,the changing patterns appeartocontributetotheinclinationtowardtruancy and dropping out (Johnston, Markle, and Harshbarger 1985). There islittle doubt that the employment of both parents adds inordinate pressures on young adolescents. The challenges of pr'ssing home tasksoftentakeprecedenceoverthefamily'seducationalandnurturingroles (Bronfenbrenner 1986). For usto have more effective parental involvement, we need to believe that such involvementisessential. Our commitment must be more thanlipservice. Also, there is littlequestionwheretheresponsibilityrestsfortakingthefirststeps.Parents generally await our guidance; they need to know what to do and howto do it. According toSattes(1985),they do not always need 3 clearly defined rolefor their participation; simply being informed about their children's progresscan make a difference.

The benefitsofincreasedparentalinveivement have beenreportedwidely. For example, Sattes(1985),in documenting thebeneficialeffects on attendance,achievement, motivation, behavior, and self-esteem, finds that parental involvement inalmost any form improves student achievement;thehighertheinvolvement,thegreaterthe

43 achievement. The Committee for Citizens in Education (1986) also has developeda program ofparentalinvolvementthattheycallDrawingaLargerCircle.The notion implies an expanded role for parents and families. Indeed, although the notion of "drawing a larger circle"is very appe:::ing, a number of barriers must be overcome. Some of the major obstacles are summarized below:

oMany parents lack training, especially if we ask them to teach children whomay have severe learning problems.

oLack oftrainingaffectsteacherschoicesabout developing andimplementing parental training programs.

oLack of trust and mutual support.

oLack of time and energy (this holds for both teachers who would need the time to prepare special program materials and for parents who also are limited by their own long list of responsibilities).

oDifferencesin goals, expectations, and values as well as differences in education and income.

oFear of the unknown.

oTeachers and principals being reluctant to become involved as they resent any interference.

oSchoolssayingtheywanttoworkwithparentsbutnotprovidingany opportunities.

oTeachers involving parents only when a problem comes up.

oThe lack of a firm system for involvement.

Nevertheless,we can do muchtoovercometheseobstacles.Althoughthelist sounds overwhelming, we are convinced that thepositives outweigh the negatives. The basic ingredientsfor a successful program include thefollowing: commitment, ongoing trainingforteachersandstaffincommunicatingwithparents,andavarietyof options--carefully chosen--that make the most sense tothelocal school. Both teachers and parents need to see meaning in their involvement so that their joint efforts make a difference in the lives of students.

A number ofinterestingpossibilitiesexistforstaffdevelopment andtraining. For example:

oWorkshopsthatwillenablestafftoevaluateanddeckleonstrategiesfor respondingtoparents'concernsaboutdruguse,pregnancies,influencecf gangs, and so forth, and how these relateto a student's decisionto drop out of school

44 oTraining programs which willincreasestaff understanding andskillsby sug- gestingconflictresolutionstrategiestodealwithday-to-daydisagreements between dropout-prone students and their parents

o Teams of school personnel and parents that wouldassess how dropout prevention efforts are working and how they might be improved (NationalCommittee for Cit- izens in Education 1986)

With regardtostaff considerations, we also should considerestablishingaposi- tion (either part- or full-time) fora "parent involvement coordinator""'hose job would be to involve parents in all aspects of the life of the school.

Parent education and/or parent developmentprograms can also be implemented. Not onlydoesthestaffneedtraining,:Jutparentsalsoneedopportunitiestodevelop skillstobegoodpartnerswiththeschool.Sattes(1985)illustratesaninservice workshop approach where parents learn howto help their children accomplish learning objectives; parents receive individualized help in workingon program goals and eventually share in the benefits as a result of enhanced pupil achievement. Various parent educationactivitiesarefeasible. The National Congressof Par- ents and Teachers suggests that the following activitiesare valuable:

oConducting surveys determine parents' needs and interests

oOrganizing parent centers or workplaces in the school

oConducting a series of How to Help Your ChildLearn sessions that include topics on discipline, basic skills, and thinking skills

oOrganizing a "family reading" night

Perhaps the most important consideration in improvinghome/school communication is toconduct anassessment ofthebroader community context,thatis,determinethe influences present in the community.

oWhat are the prevalent attitudes?

oWhat are the resources?

oWhatarethepercentagesofworkingmothers,singleparentfamilies,and "second-time-around" families?

We must beparticularlysensitivetothefamily'sneeds,especiallyas we plan father-son and mother-daughter events. In addition,we should learn from parents what theybelievetheirfamily arefortheirchildren.Whatever we dotobuild parents-as-alliesrelationships,we needtoconveyrespect,providerealisticopportu- nities for involvement, and tryto understand the family's viewpoints. We also needto bealerttowhat Lounsbury(n.d.)calls"non-conditionalcommunication."Tradition- ally, there almost always has been a condition attachedto communication with parents, that is, we usually ask for something (e.g., "cometo a con' ,r1.,.ceso we can tell you that your childisn'tdoing sowell).Instead, Lounsbury suggeststhat we try sharing

45 .) a poem, an a.ticle,or a description of a culmination unit activity. Sending home an audiotape of a child's oral report, plus a tape player, would be a delightful twist.

Otheractivitiestoenhance communicationincludeinvitingparentstoorganize socialgatheringsforstudents,offeringschooltoursforparents,providingaschool informationdirectory,holdingconferenceswiththestudentpresentandactively involved,assigningeachparentacontactpersonintheschool,andestablishinga "homework hotline" (Bergmann March-April1986).We should use the mail and the telephone to communicate both when there is and isn't a problem. Whatever the case, communication should be conducted in a nonthreatening manner and should be two-way with opportunities for parents to communicate with more than just their signature.

Other specificpracticescan be employedtoinvolveparents. One of the I most important tasksisadministrative support to provide staff freedom from excessive ' non- professionalduties.Thissr wort must includearespectfortimeteaching,plartning, orpreparing (Lounsburyn.d.).Intermsof information sharing,theNationalParent Teachers Association suggests sending home monthly classbooklets containing students' work, highlights of recent units of study, a calendar of plans for each month and over- views of topicstobe studied, and also preserving student accomplishments on videotape.Parentsalsoshould be involved as classroom resource persons and as volunteers in areas where extra personnel could make a difference.

Home visits,particularlyearlyinthe schoolyear, can help laythe groundwork for communication throughout the year. Some schools provide release time anda,. bsti- tuteteacherstofacilitatethisactivity;somesetuphalf-daysforthispurpose; stillothersallocatefulldays when thereareno classesscheduled. Sometimes inter- ventionspecialistsvisithomes andcounselparentson howtohelptheirchildren become more motivated. Some have even employed "Welcome Wagons" of school staff and parentsvisiting newcomers. Thisisan important form of "bonding" foradults. Spe- cialattentionmust befocused on theneedsof workingparents. Some possibilities include arranging fieldtripsto the workplace, if appropriate, and seeingif employers would donate needed resources, as appropriate.

Contractsbetweenteachersandparentshavealsobeentriedsuccessfully.The contractisaformal agreementtocompleteasetofactivities(Becker andEpstein 1981). Aswithothercontracts,theseareperiodicallyreviewedandmodified. Although they are not widely used, they have been successfulin improving academic achievement and strengthening home-school bonds (Lounsbury According to Lounsbury, such contra..ts may callfor specific pledges with signa- turesfromthreeparties--students,teachers,andparents.Typically,theycallfor specificresponsibilitiesoneveryone'spart:forexample,parentstoseethatthe child goesto school each day on time unlessrealillnessprevents, teacherstonotify parents as well as students of grading and homework policies, and students to complete assignments ontime.Individualteachersoran entireschool may establishaformal contractprogram.Ineithercase,carefulplanningisessential.As Lounsbury cautions,theuse of contractsentailconsiderable effort and should not be enteredinto lightly.BeckerandEpstein (1981) alsoidentifytwocontracttechniques.Inone, parents are asked to provide or withhold privileges or punishments to the child based on school performance and behavior patterns that may be determined jointly by the parent,teacher, and student;inthe second, parents are askedto supervise orassistthe

so- students' homework or other projects.Inaddition, advisory committees can assistin a number of areas:

oHelping to set program goals and assessing their attainment

oHelpingtodeveloppoliciesasappropriate(onsuchconcernsasdiscipline, suspension, or retention)

oHelping to revise report cards

oProviding input on the evaluation process for teachers and administrators Home-based parental involvement programs are another option. Such programs could include homework assignments involving parents. However, care must be taken not toput parentsinan awkwardposition.Detailedinstructions,providingstepstofollowor questionstoask can involve parentsin nonthreatening ways. Also, the parent-as-tutor model caninclude reviewing homework or practicingdrill-typematerials. Last,itis important to equipparentswithobservationalandinstructionalskills including instruction for parents inteaching and making learning materials that can be used to supplement work at school; classroom observations to see how teachingoccurs in school and how children respondtopart aularmethods; and parentalresponsestoteachers' qu-lionnaires to evaluate their own child's progress or problems.

Establishedcriteriaforassessingtheeffectivenessof parentinvolvement activi- tiesisimperative. Signs of changed attitudes,increased home-school cooperation. and increased student motivationare examples. There should alsobe signs of alessening of alienation among students.Further, researchevidence of declinein dropout rates and evidence of improved performance are recommended (National Committee for Citizens in Education 1986).

The Home and SchoolInstituteisan outstandingresourceforassistingschuols with- developingbetterrelationshipsbetweenschoolsandfamilies.(TheInstitute's Special Project Office, located at 120116th Street, NW, Washington, D.C. 20036, can be of great service.)

Roles of the Community and Community Organizations

Victor Herbert, assistant superintendent for Dropout Prevention in New ork City, contends that the presence in schools of community-based organizations (CBOs) offersa step toward freeing the schools to do their job ("Case Management" n.d.). Herbert sub- mitsthat since schools cannot doitall,school-community partnerships promise some remedy. In fact, he notes that the "case management" approach has begun to demonstrate itseffective,ss.As Herbert observes,involvingtheprivatesector enhancesthefor- mula comp°,ied to ease the pain of suffering that stops so many children from attain- ingsociety'sminimumentrancecredential,thehighschooldiploma.Incidentally, "case management" isa comprehensive approach that bolsterstheability of schoolsto dealwithhigh-riskstudents.Theapproachbringstogetherteachers,otherschool staff,andhumanserviceproviderssoth tstOnnts canreceiveassistance --atthe school--indealing with amultitudeof problems (educational,medical,legal,financial) that might otherwise contribute to their dropping out.

47 The New York City guidelines in this area suggest that when deciding 'how best to provide dropout prevention program components, schools will find thatsome of the targeted students requirea type of servicenot commonly offered in schools.In these instances, schools may find that a CBO (defined as a public or not-for-profit private agency, citywide, or neighborhood-based organization) may be a more suitable provider. Many CBOs are ableto offer servicestolimited-English proficient students in their native languages more easily than schools. Undoubtedly, the broadest possible "human- centeredsupportbase"enhancesyoungadolescents'senseofbondingwiththe community. There islittlequestion that community involvement is an essential ingredient for preparing students with both academic and employability skills. By combining efforts, the school and community can realize goals that are mutually beneficial. Schools bene- fitby having the traditional classroom environment take on new life;the community benefits whenitbroadens the focus of educational programs so that educational and employment needs of the community can be met. Both benefit when students are motivated to work--in school and later on the job--to become productive members of society.

As with other potentially valuable programs, there are barriers that must beover- cometoachievesuccess.For example, one survey on stateeducational commissions (Smith and Hester 1985) rer,Tts that only a minority of these commissionssaw any reason to involve the schools with other public agencies that have p-ograms and expertise designedtodealwiththeexternalproblemsofat-riskyouth.Only 2 ofthe54 responding commissions saw any roleforsocialservicesor employment and training linkages; only 1 checked law enforcement and mental. health; none saw a role for substance abuse agencies working with the schools. Ato, the Appalachian Regional Commis- sion (1987) reports a significant lack of awareness both of the scope of thedl opout problem and the role the community can play in reducing that problem.

Identifyingpotentialobstaclesisthefirststepinovercomingthem.Fortu- nately, many way: exist tofacilitate school-community involvement. The following factors, identified by Bhaerman (1987), should aid in identifying the major barriers:

oAccessSuccessful involvement does not occur unless groups haveaccess to one another and open lines of communication.

oAwareness--Involved organizations must be familiar with the characteristics and needs of the groups with which they hope to become involved.

oIncentives -- Anticipatedrewards andothervisiblebenefitsshouldcreatean inducement to establish ties.

oSystematicplanning--This canonlybe done when organizationstakeclearly defined steps to consider a range of options, and gradually build aconsensus that all can support.

o Team building--Team buildingrequires definingrolesandresponsibilities and preparingthoroughly.Italsorequiressensitivity,mutualrespect, and creative leadership.

48 o Time investment--A continuous investment of time oftenisneededto make involvement work. Only when groups realize that involvementisto their mutual advantage can sufficient commitment of time andresourcesbe generatedto ensure success.

oTrust--A variety of means can be used to build trust, includingensuring that all information exchanged is accurate and unbiased.

The potential community groups with which wecan work are extremely diverse. The community, in effect,is composed of many subpopulations thatare not mutually exclusive. We can create a "community yellow pages" beginning withthe following: oBusiness and industry--large manufacturing corporations andservice and utility companies,businessandtradeassociations,chambersof commerce,business- sponsored civic groups, Private Industry Councils in the JTPAsystem

oCommunity-based organizations--national ethnic advancement organizations; nationalclient-orientedorganizations; localmultipurposecommunityaction agencies, cooperatives, and economic development agencies;local private community organizations

oCivicandquasi-politicalorganizations--UrbanCoalition,Leagueof Women Voters,Kiwanis,Lions,lodges,fraternalorganizations,andotherservice clubs

oCivil rights groups--National Association forthe Advancement of Colored Peo- ple,NationalUrban League,localcivilrightscommissions, human relations boards, Opportunities Industrialization Centers, American Civil Liberties Union

oGovernmentagencies - -city,township,orvillagegovernmentagencies;county social services departments

oLabororganizations--AmericanFederationofLabor-CongressofIndustrial Organizations, state and local affiliatesas well as central labor bodies

oProfessional groups--American Vocational Association, American Medical Association

oReligious organizations--local clergy associations, individual congregations, regional denominational offices, national and regionalgroups

oServiceclubs(andotherspecialinterestgroups)--businessaridprofessional clubs, fraternal organizations

oUnited Way- or United Fund-sponsored organizations (including youth organizations)--healthagencies,socialserviceagencies, YMCA, YWCA, Boy Scolits,Girl Scouts,Explorers, Campfire Girls, Boys Clubs of America,Girls Clubs of America, 4-H Clubs

49 ..)..*.) There are three points to consider when identifying community resources:

(I) Decidewhethertousea"top-down"or"bottom-up"approach.Top-level endorsements from an organization may open many doors but--at leastat the outsetmay not be absOitely essential.

(2) Use a combination of approaches when collecting needed information about community agencies, for example, personal interviews supplemented with telephone interviews and/or a mail questionnaire to reach a large number of groups in a short time.

(3) Compilea comprehensiveresourcedirectory.Suchadirectorytypically includes the group's previous experience in school-community involvemerit, as well as services offered by community organizations.

The New York City guidelines (New York City Public School System1986)listed a number of specific servicesto enhance each school's instructional and supportive capacities,forexample:outreachservices(e.g.,familyoutreach/referrals,outreachin family'snativelanguage);guidanceandcounseling(e.g.,familycounseling,inter- generationalactivities);healthservices(e.g.,drugabusecounseling,crisisinter- vention);andalternativeeducationalprograms(e.g.,tutorialandhomeworkhelp, capacity to provide services in the student's native language).

The Appalachian Regional Commission(1987)adds to our list of options a series of "adoption programs":

oAdopt-a-Child--teachers, senior citizens, Big Brothers and Sistersprovide special support for an at-risk student

oAdopt-a-Family--stablefamilies;church, synagogue, and mosque organizations, and civic clubs work with less-stable families to help students stay in school

oAdopt -a- Plan -- local,county, and thestate governmLat coordinateresourcesto address dropout prevention

oAdopt-a-Program--civic clubs, chambers of commerce, and the like provide recreation, social, and service opportunities for at-risk students A brief notealso should be added on theuse of public relations techniques to generate community support. In New York City ("Case Management" n.d.) a number of techniques apparently have proven to be effective, for example, an ad campaign of bus and subway posters and spot radio aanouncements, as well as incentives to students in dropout prevention program schools (e.g., Random House provided80,000dktionaries to students entering the ninth grade; McDonalds provided 30,000 T-shirts for good atten- danceandachievement; and Sanyooffered10,000calculatorsforstud9ntswitha perfect--passingallsubjects--reportcard).Suchactivitieswerereportedtohave thesepositiveeffects:studentsfeltadultswereinterestedintheirstayingin school, the focus was on students as "winners not losers," and other community groups became involved (Schneider1986).

50 Further,therole of youth groupsindropout preventionisalitoo often overlooked. As Phelps(1980)pointsout,earlydolescence alwayshas beenaperiod of challenge foryouth-serving organizations. The truthis, many youth groups have long had programs designed for our school-aged youth. These groups are in a favorable position to offer badly needed supportive services. At a time when these kids are spending more time with their peers than with their parents, many youth organizations provide a home-away-from-home where youngsters can be with friends and receive support from adultsotherthanparents.Thisparticularlyistrueof "building-based"organizations suchasGirlsClubs,P ysClubs, YWCA, and YMCA. Thesegroups--aswellas "nonbuilding-based" gro...psprovide recreational facilities needed by young adolescents.

Withinthepast few years,asPhelpsindicates,programsincreasinglyare being developed outside the building, wherever ,t need demands, in housing projects, commu- nitystorefronts, andthelike.Thisprocesshas encouraged more small-groupactivi- ties and one-to-one counseling. A number of new delivery systems have been developed, for example, peer counseling by teen leaders in sex education programs, a central city drop-in center, and weekly rapsessions. The decisiontoreachallyouth populations has brought traditionally rural organizations such as 4-11 into cities and prompted traditionally suburban organizations such as Girl Scouts into working with migrant youth. These new departures have stimulated youth groups to increase their linkages with other social organizations, including welfare departments and courts. Other new depar- turesincludealternativelivingsituations - -suchas,homestoprovideshelterfor youthinneed of supervision--and satellite schools for youth having a wide range of difficulties.Phelps (1980) alsohighlightsspecialprogramsforyoungadolescent women inanefforttoexpand theirhorizons about theirabilities,careers,andlife opportunities. She also notes the collaborative effortsof a number of youth organizations that have come together to form the National Collaboration for Youth in order to speak collectively on policies affecting young people.

Thorough planning of dropout prevention in youth programs iscritical. O'Connor (1985)listsseveralstepsinhisdescription of amultischool system cooperative pro- grt m and howitwas developed. The firststep wastogather people interestedin reducing the dropout rate. This was done by placing an announcement in a localnews- paper serving fourdistricts. The assembled group formed a commission (the San Luis Valley Commission) thatdrafted a mission statement and goals. The second step was finding sources of support. Preferringtochannel financialresources throughaclear- inghouse, the commission solicited funds and services from several sources--nearby col- leges,thestatealcoholanddrugabusedivision,regionaldesegregationassistance, and similar groups. The third step was to find out what actually needed to be done. Here the commission scheduled public meetings to discuss the causes of dropling out. To get students involved, the commission planned a workshop to give stuaents time to developspecificprojectswithintheirschools. The studentsoptedforpeertutoring so that anyone having school or home problems could talk about it with another student. Last, each school system provided support for the student program. The National Education Association's National Foundation for the Improvement of Education(1987)recentlydistribute-',their second A Blueprintfor Success document. Thiseditionfocused on "communitymobilizationfordropoutprevention." Thefirst publication, A BlueprintforSuccess:Operation Rescue (NationalFoundationforthe

51 C Improvement of Education 1986), addresses a number of essential principles for success- fuldropoutpreventionprograms,includingthefollowing:collaborationtoprovide comprehensiveservices, student-centerededucation, traininginvolving theentire school (and community), and the empowerment of collaborators and students, for example, the sense of ownership of their dropout prevention program. The second blueprint (on community mobilization) resulted from a conference of representativesfromeducational,professional,minority,andbusinessorganizations together with experts having experience at mobilizing communities on various social and educationalissues. The publishedresultprovides many theoreticalaswellaspracti- cal suggestions about how to begin, how toproceed, and with whom to work.Itasks that each one of us take part, assume responsibility, and become 'enders in an offen- sive thrust (National Foundation for the Improvement of Education 1987). The four major blueprint components are mobilizing the individual (e.g.,takihg a leadershiprole),mobilizingcoalitions(e.g.,findingresourcesand movingforward), mobilizing thepublic(e.g.,selectingtheproper channels),and mobilizingthe agencies(e.g.,changingattitudesandrestructuringthesystem).Theblueprintisliter- ally packed with one good idea after another. Some examples are as follows:

oTailor the vision to the community ethos- -don't use the same cookie cutter for every community's plan.(p. 8)

oStopthe finger-pointing and join togetherin sharingthe control,the blame, and the credit--we must build and mobilize coalitions for dropout prevention. (p. 13)

oFind the sharks--listen--look for areas of agreement--discover some activity of jointinvolvementwhichcouldbegatheringdataaboutthedisagreement. (p. 17)

oBringthe adversarytothetable--at every conference or meeting involve the adversary...thisisthepersonorgroup we havetochange...opposing views are needed to shape the debate.(p. 17)

oForm aninteragencyplanninggrow.),includingsocialserviceagencyunits- - health,welfare,recreation,mentalhealth,substanceabuse,lawenforcement, employment, and training.(p. 26)

The finalsect'onof the document, "Acting on the Vision,"isparticularlyrele- vantinthatitis..ancernedwith "checkingthecautions" and "chartingthecourse." Some of the "cautions" noted are constraints on achieving object:7es, startingthe program with staff who can pullitoff, watching for language difficulties,and soon. "Chartingthecourse"talksaboutoptions. Thelistincludesnine"routes"tofollow:

oThe events route (suggestions such as issue focus groups, teleconferences)

oThe funding route (suggestions such as a public education fund, corporate contributions, public funds)

oThe legal route (suggestions such as contracts with parents and students)

52 oThe peer supportroute(suggestions suchaspeer counseling for dropoutsto learn from each other)

oThe policies/procedures mute (suggestions such as numerical or percentage tar- getsfordropoutreduction,improveddatacollectionandreporting,regular identification of potential dropouts)

oThe political route (suggestions such as resolutions, demonstrations, lobbying)

oThe recognition/incentivesroute (suggestions suchasrewards for schoolsthat significantlyreducethe dropoutratesovertime,studentrewards and recognition)

oThespecialpopulationsroute(suggestionssuchasusingspecialpopulation adults as role models and establishing business counseling programs)

oThe program route (suggestions such as curriculum reforms and IEPs) As the program routeis more closely allied with our discussion, the following items (a partial list) are included:

oReform thecurriculumwithparticularattentiontotheneedsofthelow- achieving, alienated students.

oMatch students and speed of learningcreate individualized programs.

oPush for comprehensive compensatory programs for all students who need them.

oEst a community-based schoolsurvivalclinic designedtoservepotential drop. _tsby providing indi,dual and group counseling,linkagetosocialser- vices,strategiesintesttaking,tutorialassistance,computer-assistedbasic skills instruction, linkage to youth activities. Although it may sound anticlimatic, two final points need to be mentioned briefly: evaluating school-community involvement and establishing a position of school-community coordinator.In evaluating school-community involvement projects, we need to be concerned with bothprocesses and outcon,.es.Because expectations tend exceed results innearlyall new undertakings,itisimportant to develop procedures that enable the best job tobe done with the resources at hand. The outcomes then can be judged in relationto the resources and quality of the effort. The two broad types of evaluation tobe considered are formative and summative. Formative evaluation allows "midcourse corrections"toensurethattheprogramisdevelopingasitwas conceivedandis designedto provide continuous information in redirecting goals and procedures. Summa- tiveevaluation allowsforplanning effectivefutureeffortsandisdesigned withthe endresultor"bottomline"inmind.Itdistinguishesaprogramassuccessfulor unsuccessful cornoaredtoasetof preestablishedcriteria ortotherelative success or some other program.

53 C, I The school-community involvement coordinator takes the lead in making involvement happen. No matter who coordinates this important process, he or she will need to perform the following nonmutually exclusive roles:

oBroker. Intheroleofa"go-between,"coordinators needtofind theright conditionsthat permit each group to be involved most efficiently. They need to monitor the process and at times intervene to resolve problems that arise.

oCatalyst. The role may simply be to ask the right question of the right person atthisright time,or make theright suggestion.Coordinatorsinitiatediscus- sions and precipitate the involvement of others.

oFacilitator. Coordinators need to "make things happen." They must keep activ- itieson target and on schedule.Inshort,theyareresponsiblefor planning, developing,andimplementingtheprogram.Fortunately,they do notshould not,haveto"goitalone."Coordinators workwithinanactivecommittee structure,especiallyastheyassessthelocalclimateforschool-community involvement. (Bhaerman 1987)

Discussion Items

1. Consider those bonds formed by our students and determine which we, as educators,holdto be desirable and undesirable. Review cultural,ethnic, economic, and other factors and attitudes we hold, individually and collectively, that may impact our judgement. Further review our list and determine which "undesirable" bonds may actually work to enhance the students' bond with school. 2. When (inthe student's development) doesit seem most likely that social, economic, andfamilyinfluencesmight be overcome? What typesofsignificant intervention might be established to. take advantage of this "ripe" time? 3. Enumerate the important characteristics of climate at our school. What are some of our strengths?weaknesses? 4.Review Johnston and de Perez's list of questions (p. 21) and answer them for our school. 5. What"rules"existforourstudents?Howaretheseclearlyimpartedto students? 6.What is ou. school's academic reward system? 7.How close do we come to achieving what Johnston and Markle indicate are the right major characteristics of a good climate? Also, who are our "heroes?" How did they gettobe the"heroes?" What arethe"stories"thatcirculate!nour school network? 8. Answer the questions posed on pp. 23 and 24. 9.Whatschoolpoliciesdowemaintainthatmay,infact,be"barrier'sto excellence?" 10. What conditions exist in our school which promote truancy? 11. In what form and to whom is our suspension data reported? 12. Review and discuss exhibit 5. 13. How can parents and families be more involved in our schools? (How can we "enlarge thecircle?") What arethebarriers we face? How can we overcome these barriers?

54 14. What staff development programs do we fee! we need to consider withregard to "enlarging the circle?" 15. What parent education/parent development programs mightwe consider? 16. In general, how can we improve home-school communication? 17. What roles can community-based organizations (CBOs) legitimately play? 18. What roles can business/industry/labor groups legitimately play? 19. What arethevariousbarriers and facilitatorswithregardtoboth CBOs and business/industry/labor groups? 20. With whom should we primarily focus our community linkages?What should determine our decision? 21. Whatisour "blueprint for success" with regard to community mobilization for dropout prevention? On which of the "nine routes" shouldwe concentrate? What is our rationale? 22. How can we evaluate our school/community linkages? 23. Who should be responsible for school/community involvement? Dowe need to establish a coordinator position?

55 HOW CAN WE IMPROVE TEACHING OF THE BASICS?

oThe Relevant Curriculum and Instructional Issues 59 oTeaching and Learning Styles 63 oRelevant Career Awareness and Educational Planning Issues 69

oRoles Cooperative Learning and Peer Tutoring Can Play 73 oVocational Education: Content and Process 78 oIndustrial Arts and Technology Education 83 oDiscussion Ite-is 89

57 HOW CAN WE IMPROVE TEACHING OF THE BASICS ?

The Relevant Curriculum and Instructional issues

Curriculumandinstructionarecloselyrelatedtothedropoutissue:dropout rates aredirectlyrelatedtomeasures of student achievement,particularlytoreading scores (Hess1987). Nearlyallindicators pointto lowering dropout rates by improving reading scores, although waiting until students are on the threshold of high schoolto concentrate on improving their achievement apparentlyistoo late and will leadto more dropouts (Rice et al. 1987). Willis (1986) citesa study of dropouts' suggestions of ways the system could have served them better; nearly one-fourth of the respondents indicatesthat the curriculum shouldhavebeen more practical. Many educatorsattributea considerable amount of youth'salienationtothe emphasis on subject matterthathaslittlerelevancetothe students' present or perceived future needs. Middle grade students should be challenged intellectually through theuse of mul- tipleinstructionalstrategiesandabroadeningofinstructionaltechniques. We have allheard thecallforindividualizedcurriculum andinstructioninordertoprevent the sense of failure and low self-esteem in dropout-prone students. Yet, dropouts frequently complainthattheirteachersdidtoo much lecturing and incorrectly assumed thatallstudentsare hungrytolearn(Grocsnickle1986). Then,too,thepractice of groupingstude-tsbyabilityforinstructionalpurposes is notsupportedbythe research;studiessuggestthatthepracticehas harmful effects on teacher expectations andinstructionalpractices(especiallyforstudentsinthelower-abilitygroup),student perceptionsof self and others, and academic performance of studentsof lower ability.Itinterfereswithopportunitiesforstudentstolearnfrom--andlearnto acceptpeers of different socioeconomic backgrounds and also may perpetuate notions of superiorandinferiorclassesofcitizens.Thepracticeisespeciallyantitheticalto thegoalsandobjectivesofthemiddleschool,accordingtoJohnston and Markle (1986).

One of the discoveries to emerge from Goodlad's *(1983a) researchis what he calls "the sa.reness of form"inthe curriculum. Adding a few subjectslikethearts and physicaleducation"creates someirregularitiesbut does notfundamentallydistortthe symmetry" (p. 467). He seesagreat amount ofp.....iveactivity with studentshardly even speculating on deeper meanings, discussingalternativeinterpretations,orengag- inginprojectsthatcallforcollaboration.Moreover,heobservesstudentsrarely planorinitiateanything,readorwriteanythingofsubstantiallength,orcreate their own products.

Arth and his colleagues (1985) content that the reform movement completelyover- looks the problems contemporary youth face in terms of the dramatic shifts in nurturing and rearing patterns tour society. Moreover, the absorption primarily with academic ends overlooks theself- esteem needs of youth.Natrielloetal.(1985)alsonotethat thereformistrecommendationsfallintothreecategories:coursecontent(increased number ofrequired academiccourses),increasedtimeforinstruction,andstresson student achievement (measured by grades and/or standardized tests). P zcordingtotheir analysis,theassumptions on whichthese recommendationsarebase ifailtoconsider dropout-prone students. They argue that implementing new curriculum requirements will

59 rest-fictthevariationinthestudents'schoolexperiencesandcurtailtheirchoices. These students may havetoface repeatedtailure with few chancestoparticipatein schoolactivitiesin which they might succeed. The researchers maintain thatasstan- dards are raised and at-risk students do not receive needed eradicating, they will more likely be frustrated and drop out. As far as increased length of school days and years are concerned, such demands may create added burdens for potential dropouts, many of whom arelikelytohave assumedincreasedjob and/or familyresponsibilities.The increased time also may have the effect of preventing many youth from participating in extracurricular activities, again cutting off opportunities to bond with others.

The main problemisnot thatincreasing time on school tasksisineffective, but rather the problemismotivating stuck Asto. spend the additional time on task. How- ever, with regardtostress on student achievement, Natriello and his colleagues(1985) cite'theresultsof researchthat r,_/vide some hopethatraisingstandardswilllead some studentsto work harder and thatgreater effort could leadto somewhat higher achievement. They recommend the following: thatthe effects on potential dropouts be considered in any assessments of the reforms, that educational servicesbeoffered with flexibletime options,and thatservicetopotential dropouts include special programs which havebeenproven successful,including individualized curricula and instructional approaches.

Middle school educators (such as Arth et al.1985)call for a core curriculum that dealswithmajorsocialissues,persistentlifesituations,andproblemsofliving. Two of the major concepts on which they focus are extremely relevant to dropout prevention: integration and explora;.ion. Integration implies that effective learning should combine a solid program in content and skill areas (with eradicating as needed) andtheintegrationofintellectualandsocialskillsintothestudents'repertoireof learningbehaviors.Explorationimpliesthatthecurriculumshouldallowyoung adolescentstoexploreneeds,interests,talents,andskillsinnumerous subjectareas andtouse them asabasisforattainingtheireducationalgoals.Itisone of our jobstohelp them do that.In spite of therelatively short-terminterest on thepart or many youth,a curriculum of exciting exploratory courses would be based on their developmentcharacteristics, such as trying out, risk taking, curiosity,self- exploration.

Curriculum and instructionineffective middle schoolsisnoted for high academic learning time, frequent and monitored homework, coherently organized curriculum, vari- etyofinstructionalstrategies,andopportunitiesforstudentresponsibility.Effec- tiveschools emerge froma complex set of factorsthatfocus attention on academic performance, support academic growth ina manner consistent with the developmental stage of the youngster, and build an intellectual community that rewards and reinforces academicpursuitsinits publicritualsand inprivateinteractions(Johnstonand Markle1986).

Johnston and Markle(1986)also suggest that the use of a diagnostic/prescriptive model with specificinstructional objectiveswill improve middle schoci instruction and thatstudentcapabilitiesandprescribinglearningactivitiesrelatingtothoseobjec- tives apparently has been shown tofacilitate learning. Wehlage, Rutter, and Turnbaugh (1987) develop an even more focused program model for at-risk students. Although itis intended primarily for high school students, the modelissufficiently generic to adapt toourlevel. The model can be describedinfour categories:(1) administration and

60 organization(e.g.,ideally 25-100 students working with 2-6 faculty),(2) teacher culture(e.g.,jointdecisionmaking and cooperation),(3) studentculture(e.g.,program isvoluntary,students apply butnotallare accepted,those who are accepted,those who must explain why they feel attitude and behavior changes are needed), and (4)curriculum.The modelassumesthatcurriculumandinstructionmustbesubstantially different--individualized,promptfeedback,concreteevidenceofprogress,andan activeroleforstudents.Drop-sutpreventionliteratureisrepletewiththefollowing specific curriculum strategies intended to enhance teaching of the basics:

oAlternative curricula--Such approaches are based on thebelief that sor, students need alternative environments in order to succeed.

- -Alternativeclassesaredesignedtohelpstudentsinspecificareaswhile permitting them to remain in the overall mainstream.

- -Alternativeprograms.or"schoul-within-a-school,"areprogramsdeveloped tomeet the specialneedsofidentified groups of students. Such programs includesnecialpopulationprograms,singlegradeLiternativeprograms,and alternate schedule programs.

- -Alternativeschoolsconstituteamore comprehensivealternativeandusually maintain separate ruilities and staff (Cox et al. 1985).

o Behavior modification -- Comprehensive behavior modificationor management programs oftenarerecommended for students who havehistoriesof disruptive behavior.The environment isstructuredinsnchawaythatthestudent receives frequent feedback regarding behavior and academic performance (Florida Department of Education 1986).

oContinuous progress--A :,ystem that enables students tomove through a learning program on thebasis of successful completion of objectives at theirown i without skipping or repeating a grade (Arth et al. 1985).

Environmental programs--Such programs emphasize physical,experientiallearning,andsurviva'activitiesasa waytobuildself-confidence andmotivate Ftudentstoachieve.Basicskillsinstruction,community involvement,student volunteerprograms, andinterdisciplinarycoursesaretypi 11components (Florida Department of Educat:^n 1986).

oIndependent study or contract learning--Theseare learningactivitiesin which the studentislargely self-directed, although the teacher offers adviceon the 1: choiceof goals,topicsof study,methods, and evaluationoftheexperience (Arth et al. 1985). i oIndividualizedinstructionIndividualizedinstructioncaneitherhelpthestu- dent concentrate on other areas in which additional help is neededor provide enrichment where proficiency already has been established (Arthet al.1985). oInterdisciplinary programs--These instructionalprograms combine subject matter ordinarily taught separately (Arth et al. 1985).

61 oInterdisciplinaryteams--Twotofiveteachersrepresentingdifferentsubjects form ateam thatuses common student groupstoorganizetheirinstructional program. The team shares the same students, schedule, areas of the school, and occasionally the responsibility for teaching more than one subject (Arth etal. 1985).

oMagnet schools- -These schools often emphasize an accelerated academic program oronethatconcentratesonaparticularacademicareaorspecialtalent (Florida Department of Education 1986).

oModular schedule--This scheduling strategy uses small amounts of time that can be linked together to form periods of various lengths. Course times and activ- itiesareassignedvariabletimeperiods depending onthekindsoflea-nipg activitiesthathave been plannedtomeet learningneeds onparticular days (Arth et al. 1985).

oMinicoursPsThese short-termcourses,oftennonacademic andusuallyinan exploratory program, may last 4-12 weeks. Examples include computer literacy, electronic music, and other interests common among young adolescents (Arth et al. 1985).

oSchoolswithoutwalls--Instructiontakesplaceatvariouslocalesaroundthe community. Teachers make extensive use of community resources and professional services; students mayspendlittletime in traditional classes(Florida Department of Education 1986).

oStreetacademies - - Locatedinnontraditionalfacilitieswithinthecommunity, streetacademies offer programs designedforalienatedstudents and dropouts (Florida Department of Education 1986).

o Theme schools--The curriculumiscentered around a particular theme such as sports,space, animals,orart.Teachers plan as teams and develop interdisci- plinaryunitsthatteachacademicconcepts byrelatingthemtothetheme (Florida Department of Education 1986).

oUnified arts/alliedarts This c(Audinated program provides exploratory opportunities in the humanities, practical arts, and fine arts (Arth et al. 1985). A number of relevant curricula also have been developed that relate to life-coping and livingskillsthat are related to some of the problems of young adolescents,particularly those who are dropout prone. The Adkins Life Coping Skills Model (Adkins 1974)is both a program area and an innovative method of teaching. Theprogram area isdefined by the setsof normal vocational, soda', and personal problems that individuals experienceatallstagesoftheirlives and that,ifhandled effectively,lead tothefullsatisfyinguseoftheirtalents.However,iftheyareunresolved,they couldimpede normaldevelopment. The program -- basicallyacurriculumforteaching problem-solving ski'lsemploysa combination of methods. A ptlblem-centered struc- turedinquiry method provides a series of preplanned. open-ended, structured learning experiences with ntaterials that can be implemented by teachers and counselors.

Another exciting program has been developed by Quest International Centerin Granville,Ohio. Quest In.Jrnationalisbased ontherealizationthat schools must be

62 I

1 concerned with many aspects of the young adolescents' socialdevelopment that complement cognitive development. For example, some of the aspects e:the former include learningtoappreciateone's own talents'nd potential;learningtosetpersonalc.nd I intellectualgoals,todevelopplansfor achievingthosegoals,andtopersevere;and learningtoacceptresponsibilityforone'sbehavior(Crisci1986).QuestInterna- tional was formed a decade ago to equip youngsters between theages of 10 and 18 with skillsforsuccessfulliving and learning. Over theyears,awide range ofteachers' I manuals, student workbooks, and textbooks for grades 6-12,inservice teacher training workshops, and parent seminars have been developed. I We cannot overlook the role extracurricular activitiescan play in dropout prevention. Many middle school educators (e.g., George andOldaker 1985-1986) point out that effectivemiddleschoolsprovideextracurricular andintramuralathleticactivitiesfor allstudents andthat suchactivitiescanbeusefulinestablishingschoolspirit.As i longas they do not createinordinate, divisive competition, we must look closelyat ourvariousintramural programs,clubs, and exploratoryclassestosee how we can involve dropout-pronestudents. The keyisnottoexclude anyone. Young at-risk adolescentsneedsocialexperienceswithadultswhoexemplifycharacteristicsof responsibility,the work ethic,and theabilitytobuildpositive human relationships. Those qualities can be taught through planned experientiallearning programs (Wehlage, I Rutter, and Turnbaugh 1987). In such programs, students typicallyare involved as volunteers at day care centers,elt. mentary schools, or centers for the handicapped.This places them in meaningful work, in jobs that needto be done, and in settings that are real.Olderstudentscanbeinvolvedininternshipsinhospitalsandwithvarious socialservice agencies.It may be possibleto adapt--as well as adopt--some of these ideas for our younger students.

CaughtintheMiddle(n.d.)isaverycomprehensivereportoneducational reform for yo'ung adolescents in California that dealswith a broad array of recommended practicesfor middlegrades.Instructionalpractice,thereportpointsout,should emphasize active learning strategies consistent withthe goals of a core curriculum and the developmental characteristics ofyoung adolescents. This type of learninginvolves studentsintellectuallyandphysicallyinvariedlearningtasksincontrasttopassive learning and oneway communication. The middle gradesshould reflect thoughtful classrooms with plenty of opportunities for student questioning and talk andstudent responsibility and accountability for completing their assigmAts.

Teaching and Learning Styles

Research findings suggest that the difficultysome students have inlearning basic skillsmay beattributedpartlytoadifference betweenlearningstylesandteaching styles(SechlerandCrowe1986).Thoseaffectedincludedelinquents,poorreaders, youth from certain etlmic groups, many youth ofthe majority population, and school dropouts. Addressing teat ning styles improves attitudes and reduces discipline problems- -two importantissuesindealingwithstudentsstrugglingtolt. Tribasic skills.Learningstylestheoryandresearchhavethreeimportantimplicationsfor basicskillsachievement:ho. weinterpretstudents'failuretolearnbasicskills, what we do aboutourstudents'difficultyinlearningbasicskills,and how basic skills can be achieved (Sechler and Crowe 1986). s i 63 L One of the most highly relevant dropout studies (Gadwa and Griggs 1985) on the implications for counselors reportsthat17 or 23 variables of a Learning Style Inven- torydifferentiatessignificantlyamongthreestudentgroups,thussupportingthe hypothesisthatdifferencesexistinthe learningstylepreferences of dropouts,alter- nativestudents,andtraditionalstudents.Learningstylepreferencesofthedropout samplerevealthatthesestudents were motivatedtolearn; were strongly peer- and teacher-oriented,butalsopreferredvarietyinthelearningenvironment;required mobility and were unable tosit for Ion- periods of time; were easily bored by daily routines and highly structured learning requirements; preferred evening asthe optimal time for learning and had difficulty functioning well during the morning hours: and viewedtactile,kinesthetic,andauditoryperceptionsasstrongmodalitiesinthe learningprocess. The same methodsthatsuccessfullyteachone student mayfailto reach another.

Apparr ,tly,certainbasicpatternsinfluenceaspectsofone'spersonalbehavior. Generally, thesearecalledpersonalitystyles. When they affect learning, we referto them aslearningstyles; when thepatternsarereflectedinteaching, we call them teachingstyles.Sechler and Crowe (1986)indicatethat"style"referstothegradual development and dynamic nature of an individual's learning behavior and that learning stylesareoverallpicturesofindividuallearningproceduresandpreferences.Also, these patterns are rather stable but are capable of adjustment, depending on she learning task and teaching ,aethod used. As individuals mature, their learningstyles normally tend to deaf better with abstractions.

Cornett (1983) suggeststhatlearningstylescan be defined asa consistent pattern of behavior--but with acertain range of individualvariability,thatis,they are "overallpatterns"thatprovidedirectionforlearningbehavior.Shedistinguishes betweenthecognitive,affective, andphysiological aspects: cognitive--howthe brainreceives,processes,stores,retrieves,andappliesinformation; affective - -how emotional andpersonalitycharacteristicssuchasmotivation andsociabilityinfluence thelearningsituation;and physiological- -how thesenses,environment, and timeof day enhance or impede the learning process. Sechler aA Crowe (1986) suggest that several basic observations can be supported, forexample.(1) secondaryschoolteachersappeartoimplementfewerinstructional practicestin', do elementaryteachers;(2) schoolsettingstend tL,favor students who are analytical, task-oriented, comfortable with abstractions and verbal and vco have a long attention span; (3) since the human brain constantly grows and changes, environ- mentalstimulation anda wide rangeof experiencesareneeded for optimum brain functioning. Sechler and Crowe also report that atleast two relevant concepts appear to have had a major influence on teaching and learning. The first con .ept,individual differences,traditionallyhasmeant thatstudentsdisplaydifferentaptitudesby achieving atdifferentlevels. The second conceptismastery learning. Research by Bloom and others (cited by Sechler and Crowe 1986) conclude that students differ in their rate of learningratherthanintheirbasiccapacitytolearn.Bloom'sstudiesrevealthat (I) under favora le conditions, up-to-90 percent of the students can learn school subjects up to the same standard that the top 10 percent accomplish under usual conditions and (2) under favorable conditions,most students become similarinlearningability, rate of learning, and motivation for further learning.In other words, learning conditions rather than student capability appear to create individual differences.

64 Many differenttheoriesand descriptionsexist.For example, Guild and Garger (1985) provide the following four categories:

o Cognition: "How Do I Know?" Some of us perceive best what isreal, whereas othersclearlyseeposs'')ilitieswiththeirimaginations.Somepeoplesee parts of awhole, separatingideas from their context, whereas othersseethe whole--not unlike the difference between seeing thetrees or the forest.

o Conceptualization: "How Do I Think?" Some people are most typicallyconverg- ers,alwayslooking for connections, ways totiethingstogether. Others are more divergent--one thought, idea, or fact triggers a multitude ofnew directions. Some people order ideas, information, and experiencesina very linear, sequential way; others organize their thoughts in clustersand random'atterns. Some people think aloud. They verbalize ideasas a way of understanding them. Others concentrate on understanding concepts and experiencesprivately in their cwn minds. Some people think quickly, spontaneously, andimpulsively; others are slower and more reflective.

o Affect "How Do I Decide?" Some people are motivated internally;others seek externalrewards.Somepeopleactivelyseektopleaseothers--childrento pleasetheirparents andteachers,adultstopleasebossesandspouses--but some peoplearenotattunedtoothers'expectations,andstillAherswill rebelagainst such demands. Some people make decisionslogically,rationally, objectively,andwithcoolheads.Othersoftendecidethingssubjectively, focusing on perceptions and emotions--tneirown and others.' Some people seek frequent feedb4ck on theirideas and work, some are crushed by slightcriti- cism, miters welcome analytical comments,Id stillothers don't even ask an outside for a critique.

o Behavior: "How Do I Act?" Some people scan a situationto get the gist before tackling a problem; others focus (Ina certain part of the problem immediatLly and start withit. Some people approach a task randomly;others are very sy: tematic. Some people needexplicit structure;othersprefer and performbest in a more open-ended situation. Some people preferto work alone, others with groups, and some prefer working in certain physi ;a1 environments. (pp. 8-9).

One of the dimensions of learning style thathas received a great deal of atten- tionisthe concept of field-dependent/field-independent.Persons who areinfluenced to a large extent by factors around themmay find it hard to pick out spLcific informa- tionwithinthat frame of reference. The view perceivedislike a landscape snapshot that triestotakeineverything.Theselearnersarefield-dependent.Personswho focusonspecificinformationwithintheframeofreferencearefield-independent. Their snapshots do not attempt to take in everythingbut impose a logical order on what isobjectively meaningful. Although few studentsfunctiontotallyateither end of the continuum,mostdisplaytendenciesinone directionoranother(Sechler and Crowe 1936).Onetypeisasintelligentastheother;theircomparativelearningachieve- ment, however, may differ depending on the kind andcomplexity of the learning task. Thisisbecause--ifthe degreeof complexity;sequal--a learningtask Incompatible withone's learningstyletendstotakelongertodo. Exhibits 7 and 8illustratethe differences in this conceptualization:

65 :7 7, :ter EXHIBIT 7

HOW STUDENTS LEARN

Field Dependence Field Independence

Perceive globally Percei% . analytically Make broad distinctions among Make specific concept di-4nctions concepts Have a social orientation Have an impersonal orientation Learn material with social content Learn social material only ss an best intentional task Attend best to material relevant to Interested in new concepts for their own experience own sake Seek externally defined goals and Have self-defined goals and reinforcements reinf,n.cements Want organizations to be provided Can self-structure situations More affected by critkism Less affected by criticism

SOURCE: Guild and Garger 1985, p. 30.

EXHIBIT 8

HO tY TEACHERS TEACH

Field Dependence Field Independence Strong inestablishinga warm and Strong in organizing and guiding stu- personal learning environn , empha- dentlearning,emphasizecognitive size personal aspects of inst.Jction aspect

Prefer teaching situations that allow Preferimpersonalteachingmethods interaction such as a lecture Use questionstocheck on student Use questions to introduce topics and learning following student answers

More student-centered More teacher-centered

Provide less feedback, avoid negative Give specific correctivefeedback, evaluation use negative evaluation

SOURCE: Guild and Garger 1985, p. 31.

66 Not surprisingly,more thanonetheoristhas soughttodistinguishtherelatk, riiipsbetweendifferentlearningandteachingstyles.Gregorc(citedinSechier and rowe 119861) does sobyfocusing on how people perceive information (concretevs. abstract) and order information (sequentialvs.random). He usesthe same descriptors forfourlearningandfourteaching'tyles: ,ncreterandom (CR)--intuitive; con- cretesequential(CS)--experimental;abstractandom (AR) -- reflective;and abstract sequential(AS)--logical.Gregorcbelievesthatstudentsandteachershavestrengths inatleastone of these styles. The objective for teachers,then,isto develop skill in several stylesin order to better teach students whose learning style does not match theteacher'spreferredstyle.Undoubtedly, oneofthefirststepsinreachingthis goalisto attempt to make a personal assessment of one's own style. Exhibit 9 pre- sentsashortchecklistbased on Gregorc'sanalysisthatwillhelp identify which of the four styles we favor.

EXHIBIT 9

CHECKLIST ON TEACHING/LEARNING STNES

CR --Want to probe and examine --Desire students to think for themselves - -Like the discovery proach --Offer unexpected lesources CS --Favor highly structured activities --Use practical lessons -Value physical first-hand experience --Work under strict time limitations AR --Offer a personalized class -Foster spontaneity - -Cover material by themes --Like self-expression --Use media and discussion as primary teaching tools AS --Use logic and analytical approaches --Require testing of hypotheses, often through debate --Stress memory and comprehension of theory --Rely on lecture format and extensive reading assignments

Merely identifying our stylesis not enough. They need to be related to students' learning stylesin order tohave an impact on the process of learning basicskills.It isestimatedthat more than 30 learning styleassessment instrumentsexist.Neverthe- less, more neerls to be known about how matching works. Meanwhile, understandingour favoriteteachingstylecanhelpusguard againstusingitexclusively. To helpus move aheadinthisarea, Cornett (1983) has developed a self-administered instrument that you might finduseful. We have shortened and adaptedit.In order to complete it,place an "X" on the lineatthe point you .hink you fall with regard to the polar concepts expressed by the two words.

C7 EXHIBIT 10

INFORMAL LEARNING STYLE INVENTORY

Cognitive Style foccsing scanning separating integrating parts whole discriminate generalize sharpening leveling abstract concrete reflective impulsive deductive inductive convergent divergent -nalytic global logical rr-taphoric words images details and facts generalizations careful quick literal figurative outline summarize surface approach deep approach memorize associate/understand verbal communication nonverbal communication

Affective Style objective subjective practical theoretical reality fantasy subject-oriented people - oriented realistic imaginative intellectual creative close - minced open-minded conformist individualist concentration distr-ction reserved outgoing thinker intuiter rigid flexible competitive cooperative structured unstructured intrinsically motivated extrinsically motivated persistent give' ,' easily cautious risk-ta:- ig intolerant of ambiguity tolerant of ambiguity internal locus of control external locus of control leader follower does not like pressures likes pressuw likes working alone likes working in a group Physical Style (check your preferences)

Receiving Information Expressing Yourself

visual (reading, viewing) visual (writing, drawing) auditory oral kinesthetic (feeling, doing) kinesthetic (feelh,g, doing) q0IIRCE Adapted from Cornett 1983, pp. 16-18.

68 Cornettalsopresentsseveralteachingstraf I. e.s thatrecognizetheexistenceof different learning styles. The followingstrategic..may be especiallyusefulin teaching basic skills to students with learning difficulties:

oAsk questionsat alllevels of the cognitive domain that address several levels of thinking.

oHelp students engage new ideas through past experiences by providinga general overview of material.

oClarify the purpose before invo fing students in any learning experience.

oFacilitateskilldevelopmentthroughspacedpracticethatincorporatesmore than one sensory mode.

oHelp students process and retrieve information through multisensorytechniques (e.g., both written and verbal directions).

oBringclosure to learningthrough a varietyofreviewandreflection strategies.

In order toaffect learning stylesto make students more flexible, you also might wish to consider the following activities suggested by Sechler and Crowe (1986):

oHelp students understand their style through individual andgroup discussions.

oAvoid reducing stylesto merely another way of labeling students; alwayscon- sider contextual factors in a giver learning situation.

oForm a support group with other teachers whoare interested in teaching/learning styles.

We must to ba alert to the dangers in misusing learningstyle concepts and avoid turning these ideas into stereotypes that will be usedto pigeonhole incl. iduals.

Relevant Career Awareness and Educational Planning Issues We have many choices in designing dropout preventionstrategies, not the least of which iscareer awareness and exploration. Numerous writers focuson variou.: dimensions of thisissue. Bringing work intoa closer relationshipto education is becoming acentralfocusintheoverallthrustofconserving human resources. The concept includes planned coordination of schools withallof the important community sectors that have thepotentialfor providing significantlearning experiencesforyouth,that is,industry,agriculture,serviceagencies(bothpublicandprivate),andyouth organizations.Intheiranalysisofstateeducationcommissions,SmithandHester (1985) recommend that career exploration inthe middle years of schooling concentrate onstudents'awarenessoftheirpotentialasworkers.Also,Otte and Sharpe(1979) exploretheeffectsgenerallypositive--ofcareerexploration onself-esteem,achievement motivation, and occupational knowledge.

69 t''v I,^1, The Northwest Regional Education Laboratory (1982) devotesan entire issue of one of their "Ideas for Action" booklets on ways toprepare middle and junior high school students to study the concept of work. A flexible middle school curriculum,they maintain,is one of the prima y ways to help youthsee the relationships between school and work. The "work-as-a-topic-of-study" conceptisdividedintothreeprogressivelevels thataresequentiul,althoughnotrigidlyso. The threelevelsareasfollows:Level I,infusionofwork-as-a-topic-of-study,integratesongoingi'Ailylessonswithbrief referencestotheworld of work andcareers.LevelII,classroom-based experiential learning about work roles,presents;lassroom activitiesthat teach decision-making and teamingskillsinadditiontoproviding waysforteacherstohelpyouth learn from adults and from each other. Level HI, community-based learningabout work roles, pro- videsactivitiesthatteachyouththeskillstouselocalresourcestoreinforce coursework and, at the same time, se.-. as a basis forcareer planning.

Whatismost usefulabontthisapproachisthatitorganizesactivitiesintoa sequence that helps students seethe relevance of schk,o1 anditsrelationshiptotheir future. The logicalextension ofthisisanadditionallevel,LevelIV,thatprovides students structured experiences in using community resourcestogather accurate infor- mationforformulatingtheirpreliminarycareerpiano.Theauthorsof"Ideasfor Action" suggest that this apprcach provides a smooth transition from middle schoolto high school as well as from high school to work or higher education.Due to the intellectual and socialdiversity of 10- to14-year-olds, they suggest that Level IV is used most appropriately--and selectively--with youth who have developeda positive relationship with an adult mentor, have a specialinterest they could consider as a potential careerpossibility,are approachinta decision about enrollinginahigh school vocational program, and have difficulty learning in the traditional school environment.

A tremendous amount of materialsisavailable on career education. One of the best summaries of these materials can be found in Bailey's (1985) book. Hischapter on a developmental curriculum model for career educationismost valuable.Interestingly, Bailey reserves the terms "awareness" for grades K-3 and "explorationand preparation" for grades 9-12. He usesthe terms "accommodation" and "orientation" forthe grades that relate to us most, 4-6 and 7-8. For example:

oAccommodation--Grees 4-6 -- Developing greater self-knowledge -- Developing concepts about the world of work - - Displaying increased responsibility for own behavior -- Learning how to gather information and make decisions -- Showing awareness of the nature of group membership -- Accepting differences in work attitudes and values

oOrientationGrades 7 and 8 - - Clarifying occupational self-concept -- SurveyingthestructureandinterrelatednessoftheAmericaneconomic system -- Recognizing responsibility for own career planning - - Practicing information-seeking and decision-making methods

70 - - Participating in simulated, group work activities - - Appreciatingtheroleof workinmeetingsocialandindividualneeds (p. 98)

Bailey takes each of these broa .1goal statements for career education stages andpre- sents more specific goals and a detailed rationale for eachone. We cannot begin to speak ofcareer education unless we briefly acknowledge the !ong-term contribute of Dr. Kenneth Hoyt, formerly the director ofthe U.S. Office of Career Education. There are no career education issues thatHoyt (1976) has left unex- plored over the past15 or so years. We will only presentone brief item that is most relevant toour concerns, namely, the benefits of career awareness forour grade level students: o Grade Level 4-6 - - Students learn why they should study various subjects by seeing how adults use such subject matter to be successful in their jobs.

- - Students learn to respect all jobs and appreciate their societal contributions.

-- Students' self-concept improves - -being important through being successful.

-- Students gainrespectfortheirparents throughtherespecttheygainfor the work parents do. o Grade Level 7-9

- - Students learn, through practical experiences, their strengths and limitations.

- - Students learn adaptability skills needed inall kinds of work (such ascom- munication skills).

- - Studentslearnthat careerexplorationisimperative but that firm occupational decisions at this ageare undesirable.

- - Students, by the time theyleave grade 9,should be abletorelatetheir strengths and weaknessestoabroadoccupationalplan,theiroccupational planstotheireducationalplans, and their educational planstoa planned delivery system.

1..3lastpoint,occupational and educationalplans,bringsusto our next issue, individualized educatioralplanning. Some of thebestmaterial we have seen onthis topic was developed atthe Appalachia Educational Laboratory(W.lefordnerJ986). As Winefordner makes clear,theinitial need for students to developeducational planning skills occursatthe middle and junior highlevels where studentsarefirstprovided opportunities to makecurriculumchoices.Schoolsatthislevel,heobserves,are designed to provide experiences to helpstudents develop an understanding of themselves and their world. Through theirexperiences both at school and at home,these students develop anincreasedsense of self-identity.Inthetransition from young adolescence

71 to what might be 'called "full-fledged" adolescence, these young people are beginning to think about and plan for "what they want to do when they grow up."

Winefordner also emphasizes thatasstudents develop plans for high school,itis criticalthat they--and we toG--understand that high schoolisa period where interests arerefined,new onesdeveloped, andabilitiestested.During thefirstyearinhigh school,studentshaveopportunitiesto ass decisionsaboutthecoursestheyhave selected. Each year they need toreassesstheir experiences and modify their plansto reflectany chagesingoals. Throughtheircoursesandactivities,theyhave many opportunitiestocontinuetheircareerexploration. The guidance andtestingprogram should continue to provide information to help students with their planning and course selection. In order tohelp studen reach these goals, Winefordner and his colleagues at the Appalachia Regional Laboratory developed the Individualized Educational Planning (IEP) Unit. The unitisdesignedtoassiststudentsindeveloping aninitialplan by ana- lyzingandsummarizingtheirpastexperiences,identifyinginterestsandabilities, relatingthesetopotentialcareers, andtranslatingtheirtentativedecisionsinto meaningfulplans. Theactivitieshelpstudentslearntheprocess of educationalplan- ning, an important skilltolastalifetime. Although theunit was designed foruse primarily inthe eighth grade,it can be startedin the seventh grade, concentrating on career orientation and exploration and then concluded inthe eighth giado with educa- tionalplanning.Theunitmaterialsconsistofafilmstrip/cassette,"PlanningYour Education;"a student workbook, Selecting Courses for Your Career; and aninstruc- tor'sguide.Thefilmstripintroducestheunitandprovidesanorientationtothe importance of program planning and course selection. The workbook helps students focus theircareer exploration on developing individualized educational plans. Here, briefly,are some of the questions the educational laboratory suggest can be usefulin discussions with our students:

o What kinds of options are available to you when you graduate from high school?

o Why isitimportant to make decisions about high school coursesin the eighth grade?

oWhat do you need to consider in selecting courses if you don't know what you want to do after you graduate?

oIf your schooldoesnot offera program relatedto an occupation or career field you are interested in, what should you do when selecting courses?

oSome occupations or careerfieldsrequire further educationafter high school. What should be done for selecting high school courses for these occupations and career fields?

Our curriculumtoteachbasicskillsalsomust include "employabilityskills."In fact, the two can hardly be separated. Career awareness and individualized:ducational planning areas basic to a well-rounded graduate as anything else. The problem, however,isthat too many young adolescents are unaware of the "world of work," see few career options,2..nddo not plan beyond next week. And, of course, too many simply dropout.

72 Roles Cooperative Learning and Peer Tutoring Can Play

Cooperative learning and peer teaching or tutoringare approaches that have been foundto work particularly well for low-performing at-risk students. Bothsame-age and cross-age peer tutoring have worked effectively. One advantage ofcross-agetutoring isthat low-performing students in higher gradescan tutor students in lower grades and benefit from their"teaching."Also, Slavin (1983)findsthat avarietyof cooperative learning arrangements augments the learning of studentsplaced in heterogeneous groups. We will take a brief took at each technique and will begin withcooperative learning. Slavin (1983) ra..ies perhaps the most fundamental questionby asking How do we want to socialize our children? Many educators have attemptedto answer this question by exploringthenatureof one of theprimary approachestosocialization,namely, developingtheskillsofcooperation and cooperativelearning.Cooperationhasbeen definedasa form of relationship"inwhich participantsinatask gain benefitsfor themselves when they allrtso as to maximize the performance of the common task" (Runkel and Schmuck 198., p. 750). Accordingto Slavin (1077), the concept may have foursuitedistinctelements.Itcanrefertocooperative3ehavior,suchasworking with crhelpingothers.Itcanrefertoacooperativeincentivestructureinwhicha group of two or more individuals are rewarded basedon the performance of all group members. The term alsorefersto cooperative task structuresin which a group of two or more individuals can or must work together butmay or may not receive rewards based ontheirgroup'sperformance.Italsocanrefertocooperativemoi.ives,thepredis- positiontoactcooperativelyoraltruisticallyinasituationthatallowsindividuals a choice between cooperative, competitive, or individualistic behavior.

Cooperativelearningandcooperativelearningmethodsaretechniatiesthatuse cooperative task structuresinwhich students spend much of theirclasstime working in four- tosix-memberheterogeneousgroupsandcooperativeincentivestructuresin whichstudentsearnrecognition,rewards,or,occasionally,gradesbased on the academic performance of their group (Slavin1983). Generally, the programsare not overly prescriptiveinthat they can be--and have been--implementedat every classroom level and teachers can preserve many aspects of theirpreferredteaching style. Slavin estimates that well over 20,000 teachers are using various formsof cooperative learning.

The following isa brief overview of what we know about cooperative learningby brieflyreviewingthekeyresearchinthisarea.Severaleducators(e.g.,Slavin 1983; Johnson etal.1981)assertthat the research has demonstratedenough positive effects of cooperative learning ona variety of outcomes to force educators toreex mine tradi- tionalinstructionalpractict Theresearchindicatesthatcooperationhasproven potental forimriroving performance, mutual attraction,and self-esteem. The range of rmorted positive outcomesiswide. For example, Slavin (1983) observesthatregard- les:.o1 the paricular measzire involved, about two-thirdsof the studies finda signif- icantlypositive effect.Inhisearlierreviewof28researchstudies,Slavin(1980) presents a number of widely diverse conclusions, includingthe following: oCooperative learning techniques produce poorer academic achievement in only I of the 28 projects; in most,cooperationproducessignificantlysuperior learning.

73 3 ) oCooperative learning techniques do betterforlow-level learning(suchasrote knowledge) when thetechnique- arewellstructured and use a system, clearreward

oCooperative learning techniquesdu better for high-level learning lyzing problems and making (such as ana- judgments) when the techniquesuse"high student autonomy and participation in decision making."

oCooperativelearningtechniquesshowStrong favorable relations. effects on,racial

oCooperativelearning techniquesshowfairlyconsistentfavorableeffectson friendship and likingamong students.

oInsome studies,cooperativelearningtechniquesappearto self-esteem. increasestudents'

oStudentsinclassesusing cooperativelearninggenerallyreportlikingschool better than do students in traditionallytaught classes. Johnson etal. (1981) also conducted a meta-analysis of 122 studies comparingthe effectivenessofcooperation, cooperationwithintergroupcompetition,interpersonal competition, and individual (independent)work. They conclude thatthe use of cooperation instead of competitioncan make a great difference in academic also achievement. They find some evidence,however,that cooperation wasless simplerote effective withtasksof decoding and correcting. The benentsof cooperation showmost strongly with tasks of concept attainment,verbal problem solving, lem categorizationspatial prob- solving,retentionandmemory,motorlearningand predicting. guessing,judging, a

Stallings and Stipek (1986)observe that 4:though "packaged" able, programs are avail- teacherscanimplementcooperativelearningprinciples instructional byusingtheirown materials. They outlinethe following four majorpurposes of cooperative learning:(1) cooperative learningispresumedtoraisetheperceivedvalueof academic achievementamong students and to encourage themto support peers rather than compete against them; (2) cooperativelearning rests on the belief thatyouth can learn from each other and thatcooperation can benefit both high-and low-ability students; (3) from a motivational perspective,cooperative models arean vidual competitive 'a icernativetothe indi- model--characteristic of mostclassioems--that canhave devastating consequencesforthe motivation of slowerlearners; and (4) cooperative!earning programs were developed in part to improverace relations inthe schools. The assumption isthatif children from different ethnic griups work interdependently, they willlearn to appreciate eaci' other's strengths anddevelop interracial friendships. Ray Smith, an English teacher ina jun'or high school in Massachusetts wrote a stimulating recently article on"ateacher's view of cooperativelearning" (Smith 1987). Init,hesubmitsthat teachingcooperativelearningskillspaysoffinincreased achievement and better attitudes. Hecredits the approach for changing look on teaching.In his words, hisentire out-

74 Ihave been teaching junior high school English for 22 years. A decadeago, Iattended a workshop on cooperative :earning.... That workshop changed my entire approach to teaching; I think it even kept me from leaving thepro- fession.I am a strong advocate of cooperative learning for severalreasons. First,itplacestherc,ponsibilityforlearningwhereitbelongs:onthe students.Second,itincreasesachievement andimprovesstudents'attitudes toward school, toward learning, and toward classmates. Third,itmakes both teaching and learning more fun.( -. 663)

Smithpresentsthesefivestepsforteachingcooperation:helpstudentsbecome aware oftheneedforeachskill,help students gainaclear understanding of each skill,givestudentssituationsinwhichthe can practicesocialskills,giveeach student feedback onhisor her performance of theskill, and persevereinpracticing skill.His conclusions are simple and direct:

WhenIdescribe cooperativelearningtoother teachers,they often respond, '1 already dothat.'Butthereisabig difference between group work by students who have not been taught how to cooperate andgroup work by students who have learned how to contribute theirown ideas, encourage others to participate,express supportforothers,summarize, and coordinatetheefforts of all members of the group. Students who have not been taughtcooperative skillsare often unproductive ingroups, and theirinteractions are sometimes unpleasant. One common complaint isthat a few students do all the work. By contrast,studentswho havelearnedcooperativeskillshavelittletrouble staying on task. They enjoy their time together,care about other members of the ;coup, and turn out high-quality products. (p. 664)

Smith, a practicingteacher,feelsthattherequisiteskillsforcooperativelearning can be taught atalllevels and inallcontent areas. Althoughittakes time earlyin the school year, the payoffs come later in better attitudes and increasedachievement.

Incidentally,Slavinandhiscolleaguesat1 heJohnsHopkinsUniversityhave developed several prograrQ and many excellentmaterialsforteachers. Team AssLzed Instruction (TAI), for example,is .., comprehensive approachto mathematics instruction that includes a method of team study in which students workthrough curriculum units with feedback provided by partners. TheAv-,'eatapplication apparently has been in gradesthreethroughsix andin seventh- ae.1.eighth-gradeclassesthat are not ready for algebra. Also, a related program, TAI MATH isa systematic curriculum for grades threetosixthat combinesinteractiveinstructionwith cooperativelearning.Inthis case, TAI means "teamacceleratedinstruction." The TAI MATH cooperative Learning approachencouragesstudentstohelpeachother,freestveherstoprovidedirect instructiontosmallgroupsandindividuals,andallowsstudentstodevelopmore responsibility for their own learning.

Another valuable set of theirinstructional techniquesisthe Stuck.,:t Team Learn- ingproducts.Thesematerialsareintendedto(1) increasebasicskillslearningin many areas by making practice interesting and by making studentswant each other to do their best,(2) developpositiveinterstudentrelationsindesegregatedclassroomsor other heterogeneous groups by having students sharea common goal and help one another learn, and (3) improve self-esteem and feelings ofcompetence by encouraging students to value one another and see one another as importantresources.

75 Programs in which the skills of cooperation and cooperative learning are developed can teach young adolescents something they rarely experienceintraditional classrooms, namely, that learning can come fgm shared ideas and 'shared work to reacha common goal. From such team efforts, mutual respect for individual contributions hasa chance todevelop.Thesetypesofcollegialskillsarewellrecognizedasrequisitestoa successful adult work life.Cooperation and cooperative learning skillsinadult workers are essential ingredients of a productive workforce. Clearly, a wider door must be opened for teaching them to the workers of tomorrow. At present, however,we seemingly have not played a majr.)r role in developing either set of skills to the fullest extent. Before cooperation and cooperative learning%ills can be taught effectively, however,animportantfirststep.dustbetaken,thatis,thepreparationofteachers. Before we can use the available resources, before we try various approaches in different subject areas, and before we develop a variationthat works best for us and our students,we musthavethreeessentialingredients:commitment,clearrolepercep- tions, and--perhaps most importantknowledge of and traininginteaching these critical skills.

As faraspeer tutoringisconcerned, asWillis (1986) points out, both same-age andcross-agepeertutoringworkeffectively.Actually,therearemanytypesof tutors.Theycoulebeaprofessionalteacher,anadultaide,aparent,areired teacher, a community volunteer, or a peer.

Research, as noted,indicates that repeated academic failureisa major factorin a student'sdecisiontodrop out. Tutoring either on a one-to-one basisorin small groups sometimes can spellthe difference between success and failure. However, tutoring mIst be matched as much as possible with student needs.Italsoisimportant that i:ttors-- w;ioever they are--must be trainedtoteach atthe appropriate reading and/or ma.n levels, set short-term goals, and give praise for achievement and effort.

TheFloridaDepartmentofEducation(1986)suggeststhefollowingtutoring approaches:

oCareer mentors--Students who are doing poorly in a subjectare matched with a tutor who specializesinthatarea,for example, someone having trouble with math hopefully can be tutoredby an engineer or computer scientist.Inthis way, the student sees that math skills are essential on the job. o Computer tutors -- Students use computer terminalsto work on remediation of basic skills and other academic subjects. Success heremay not only help them improve their skills but also may regenerate an interest in school.

oParents as tutok --Parents of potential dropoutsare taught skillswhich enable themtotutortheirchildrensuccessfully.Studiesindicatethatparentalhelp may be one of the most effective means of improving achievement.

oPeertutors -- Students,includingpotentialdropouts,aretrainedtoserveas tutors. This approach can produce significant achievement gainsfortutorsas well as for the recipients.

76 oSenior mentors--Olderindividualswith expertiseincertainare volunteerto help students complete school projects or improve academic skills. These volunteers can benefit by feeling needed astht y continue to use theirskills.In addition, young adolescents gain respect for older persons, plus they learn how skills taught in school apply to the world. Because of its relevance to cooperation and cooperative learning, we would like to "zeroin" on peer tutoring and share several practicalsuggestions. Not long ago, several researchers at the National Center for Research in Vocational Education published ahighlyusefulresourceonthistopic(Ashleyetal. 1986).Literally,theyprovide "everything you always wanted to know" about peer tutoring--and then some! Forexam- r le, the monograph includes very detailed guidelines on program planning, development, and evaluation;13peertutoring program descriptionsatalllevelsincluding postsecondary; numerous resources, sample materials, and a highly instructive sectionon "tips f fr tutors."

Ashley andhiscolleaguesdefine peer tutoringas an instructional approach that has been used successfully with both youth and adults to achieve academic and social developmentgoals.Collaborativelearning,theynote,aspracticedinpeertutoring can bebeneficialfordisabledand nondisabledpersons.Benefitsthataccruetothe "tutee"includeincreasedindividualizedatter+ion,closenesstotheinstructor,and improved learning efficiency. Positive gains haw. been shown in academic achievement, socialintegration,andcognitiveskilldevelopment - -withvariousconfigurationsof tutoring,includingpeer,cross-age,adult-child,andnormal-handicapped,aswellas handicapped learners serving as tutors for nonhandicapped learners. In terms of program planning, the following tasksare involved in preparing a suc- cessfulpeer tutoringprogram:establishing a planninggroup, assessing student needs, developing program goals, determining facility and material equipmentneeds, determining personnel requirements, drafting a plan, and presenting the planto the administra- tionfor review. Ashley andhiscolleaguesreportdetails on each of theseessential planning elemeis.

As far as program developmentisconcerned, following approval of the program plans, the next phase ^uses on developing anc implementing the major program components. The necessary steps here are to develop an orientation program for students, `1,culty,andstaff;aninservicetrainingcomponentforfacultyandstaff;tutor rdcruits, 1,3ntandselectionprocedures;atrainingprogramforpotentialpeertutors; proceduresforstudentintakeandreferral;guidelinesformatchingandassigning tutor-tuteepairs;and coordinationofroutinetasks.Again,detailedsuggestions and guidelines are presented. We will focus on onlyone of these concerns that seemingly is of greatest concern to most of us, name',', the issue of matchingand assignment. With regard to matching and assignment, student selectionprocedures are planned and implemented to help identify students who bestme' tprograrig criteria for becoming tutorsandtutees.After participantshave been identified,guidelinesmust be developed for matching tutors and tutees. A number of points needto be consideredin matching. Compatibilityisamajorfactor. One of themost important considerations isselecting students who can work well together. This involvesmore than social com- patibility.Othercharacteristicstoconsiderincludetutor competencyinthesubject area,thetutee'spreference,culturaldifferencesthat may impede tutoring, and different learning styles. Ashley and his colleaguessuggest thatin some casesit may be

77 a good idea touse tutors who are slightly older than tutees since some students may resent help from a same-age peer.

Also,it oftenisbeneficial for a tutor and tutee to become acquainted during an informal meeting if they do not know each other. It may be necessary to introduce several tutorsto one tutee before a final matchismade. Observation of the interaction by the coordinator orteacherwillassistinensuring a compatible snatch. Tutors and tutees should be informed,atthispoint, about theirrightto end the match at any time if the relationship is unproductive. After the tutor and tutee have been matched, the time and place ui tutoring can be scheduled. In larger schools,it may be necessary to coordinate with the administrator in charpe of room scheduling when assigning tutoring sites in order to avoid scheduling conflictswithotheractivities.Arrangingfortutoringsessionstobeheldatthe same prearrangedlocation and selectingsitesnearthe subject-area classroom ensures that staff can assist with questions or problems that may arise during the session and that resource material will be readily available.

Iftutoringisconductedinacentrallocation,typicalplanningconsiderations include 41,e following:identifyingmutuallyagreeablefreetimefenthetutorand tutee;assigning space and time within the tutoring area; providinga monitor for the scheduled time; communicating the schedule totutor,tutee, anmonitor; and securing parental permission (for both tutor and tutee)ifthisisrequiredLlyschool policy. A number of othertasksalso are important,for example, monitoringtutoringsessions, supervisingtutors,and assessingtheprogram. However, no doubt one of the most important is communicating with parents. At the miodle and junior high schoollevel, policy may requireparental approvalfortutoring orbeing tutored and,additionally, forthereleaseof any information Lom astudent'spersonalrecordfile(e.g.,test scores and grades). The coordinator always should maintain communication with parents regarding students' progress or any problems.

Vocational Education:Content and Process Although we Lre focusing on middle and junior high schools, we should not overlook therolevocationaleducationplaysindropoutprevention. We would profitfroma close look atthe lessons we might learn from voc ed ct.itent and process. Thisisso particularlyinlightof Weber's (1987)findingthatthebasicskilllevelsof poten- tialandactualdropoutsoftenincreasesubstantiallywhentheyparticipateina vocationally-oriented program that has an inte:.,rated basic skills component. Hamilton (1986) states that voc ed--in a real sense--is a "huge dropout prevention program" and that the nearlyuniversalpresence of voc ed componentsinsuccessful dropout prevention programs strongly supports the claim that withoutit many more students would dropout. He also makesitclearthatthereal-li e,practicalquality of voc edismore comfortable and more effective for marginal students thanisabstract academic education. Voc ed can serveas avehiclefor teaching academic skillsand general--ratherthanspecific--occupationalcompetencies.Healsobelievesthatthe assumption in some of the recent "reform movement" positions that the aca'emic classroom is always the best place for learning is simply unsupported by research.

78 Good lad (1983a) reports that in voc ed one findsmore instructional demonstrations and production of products. He also finds thatDc cd students are considerably more involvedinsettingtheir own goals.Although Good ladfeelsthattheseclasseswere not markedly divergent from most academic courses, they did not have theevident "same- ness" of instruction found in academic subjects. Some middleschool personnel believe that voc-tech programs should be introduced priorto high school--in middle and upper elementary schools.

Some studies have begun to explore therelationship of voc ed andnon-voc ed experiencesandthedecisiontodropout (Weber1987). also,analysisby Mertens, Seitz, and Cox (1982) on data obtained in interviews with theNew Youth Cohon of the N.Itional Longitudinal Surveys of Labor Force Behaviorconfirmsthat--allelse being equal- -themorevocationalclassesstudentstook,thelesslikelythey wc:etodrop out.Researchevidencealsosuggeststhatthedropoutproblemcanbealleviated through targeted programs thatincludes voc ed (Weber and Mertens 3987).Instudies summarized by Weber and his colleagues,voc ed components are.riticalto youth who actuallyhaveleftschooland enteredJobCorpsorJob TrE-aingPartnership Act programs.

Research findings suggest that whenvoc ed is coupled with other critical comi. o- nents of a dropout prevention program, theprogram can be effective. Lotto (1982), for example, concludes that voc ed and work experienceare powerful components of a dropout prevention strategy but that they cannot function alone. Inher study, voc ed components are defined as instructionin occupational and employment skills; workexperi- ence components are defined asactual, on-the-job work experience. Lotto drawsthree major generalizations with regard to characteristicsheld in common across theprograms she studied. The first, whichisstrongly supportedinher research,isthat effective dropout prevention programs employ multiple strategiesintegrated within a singlepro- gram, thatis, not a single program usedvoc ed and/or work ex-ierience alone to retain probable dropoutsinschool. The secondgeneralization,which alsoisstrongiy ported,isthat effective dropout preventionprograms .;oncentratetheir resources on a relatively smalltargetpopulation. The thirdgeneralization, whichismoderately supported by herresearch,isthat effective dropout preventionprograms place youthin contexts thataredissimilartotraditionalschoolenvironments,thatis,inenviron- ments that provide a more supportive: personal,and individualized context for learning than those that youth perceiveor recei,a in their regular schools. Thesenew environments include schools- within- schools, alternativeschools,orcentersproviding a learning setting that is personal, informal, and caring.

The voc ed linkagealsoisclearinWeber's (1987)study. The resultsofthis study suggest that programs featuring threetypes of activities play an impouant tole in dropout prevention. When properlystructured, programs that identify dropout-drones students, provide guidance 'and counseling,and provide opportunitiestolearn occupational skillsthatdefinespecificcareersappeartobebeneficialinreducingthe dropout rate. Recognizing that althoughno magic formulas exist, Weber recommends the following:

oPotentialdropouts need toparticipateinvocational programs in a meaningful way for voc ed to have apositive impact on thedi opout rate. Schools with high dropout rates do not emphasizevoc ed as a curriculum alternativeany more than do schools with low rates.This suggeststhatifthepositive,retention-

79 relatedbenefitsfromparticipatinginvocedaretoberealized,specific steps needtobe taken toincrease participation of dropout-prone studentsin those programs.

o The existing rules governing entry into voc ed should be carefully evaluatedon anindividualstudentbasis,particularlytostudents whoaredropout - prone. This review needstobe undertakeniq ordertoensure that students are not being kept out of such programs while bring allowed topar icipatein work- study programsthathavefew,ifany,operationaltieswiththestudents' overall school goals.

Work-studyexperiences--particularly thosepursuedearlyinstudents'high schoolcareers--shouldbeevaluatedcarefully.Suchexperiences,whennot operationallytiedtostudents'overallprograms,arenot a panaceafor resolving an individual student's school problems. (p. xi) Weber also provides a number of useful insights into strengtheningvoc ed's role in prevention programs. For example, he notes that researc:, findingssu3gest that once dropout-prone students areinhigh school,they tend not toenter the mainstream of vocational programs. Their involvement in these programs appears to be concentrated in exploratorycourses,especially consumer/homemaker andindustrialarts. These students takerelat'vely few occ rational coursesthat provide specific jobtraining. Moreover, they do not appear to explore the full range of vocational offeringsor develop a voca- tionalspecialty.Weberalsoobservesthatbecausetoofewdropout-pronestudents appeartofollowthe normaltransitionalpaths throughtheirschools'vocationalpro- grams or take advantage of the job training aspects of those programs, mechanisms for assisting them in these matters need to be implemented. Hesuggest:,that these mechanisms, among others, might include tne following:

oOfferingoccupationalcoursesearlier in thestudents' careersandnot requiring a variety of "exploratory" prerequisites.

oOfferingexploratorycoursesaswellasany requiredremedial coursesat an earliertime(e.g.,eighthgrade)orasspecialcourses(e.g.,afterschoolor summer) in order to ensure that time during the high school day is devotedto occupational courses. In response tothe quc.tion of what vocational offerinrr are more clearly related toreducingdropoutrates,Weber (1987)suggeststhatsuccessful dropout prevention programs possess the following characteristics--among others:

oPrograms areholisticand multifaceted. The most prevalentstrategiesinclude acombinationofparentinvolvementsremedialbasicskillsinstruction,and work experience/job placement with counseling, support services, and in-school vocational instruction all coming in as close seconds.

oPrograms are presented in contevts that differ from the traditional environment even thoug" 'hey may be housed 'n the same physical plant--for example, involve specialmotivationalstrategiessuchastyinr:schoolactivitiesdirectlytothe realworld,designactivitiestobuildespritdecorps amongstudents,and involve some degree of individualized learning activities.

80 oPrograms are focused on dropout-prone students who are in the beginning stages of their high school careers (between the ages of 14 and 16), prior to the time ..hen they would normally become formally involved in a voc ed program. (p. 17)

Last, Weber sums up the program characteristics commonly noted byvoc ed proponents in exhibit 11.

EXHIBIT ;I

PROGlIAM CHARACTERISTICS COM? ',ONLY NOTED BY VOCATIONAL EDUC/* TION PRC"ONENTS

Vocational Programs vs. Other Curricular Offerings

Active role in learning Passive learner role

Concrete, hands-on experiences Abstract, generalized learning Experiences relevant to learner's Experiences notdirectlyrelevant to everyday life "outside the school" learner's life outside the school

Learning proceeds from concreteto Learning proceeds fromabstractto abstract abstract, principle to principle Learning occurs within an "applica- Learning is context free tion" context

Preparation forlabor market entry, Preparationforadditionalschooling does notnecessarily limitlearner's or a "genera!" education not directed postsecondary options towardeitherajoborfurther education

SOURCE: Adapted from Weber 1987, p. 18.

Weber stresses the need for a competency -based curriculumrather than a "conveyor belt"one.Fortunately,a number of vocational and other educators have spentmany years sharpeningtheirinsightswith regardtodeveloping such programs. One of the leadersinthefield,Robert Norton of the National Center forResearch in Vocational Education,isparticularly atthe cutting edge. Norton (1982) summarizeswhat he con- siders to be the five essential elements of suchprograms:

oCompetencies to be achieved by the students have been-- - - carefully identified, -- verified by local experts, and - - made public.

81 oCriteria for assessing each of the verified competencies have been-- - - derived :rom analysis of the competencies, - - explicitly stated along with conditions, and - - made public.

oInstructional program provides for the--

- - individual development of each competency and - - individual assessment of each competency.

oAssessment of the students' competency--

- - takes knowledge into account, - - takes attitudes into account, and -- requiresactualperformanceofthecompetencyasthemajorsourceof evidence.

oStudents progress through the program-- -- at their own rate and -- by demonstrating their competence.

Vocational education methods and techniques are highly consistent withmany of the recommendationswehaveseenregardingdropoutpreventionstrategies,particularly those callingforhighlyindividualized andalternative instructional approaches. Maley (1978) performs a great service in presenting a number of the most relevantones. We have summarized briefly those that appear to be most applicable to middle and junior high school instruction. o The contract method is an agreed upon arrangement between the teacher (or school authority) and the studet.ts with respect to the proposed accomplishments of the students and the reward system setup for such accomplishments. The contract system may be operated on a single student-teacher agreement,a group of students, or on a total class basis.(p. 170) o The demonstration method as a form of instructional methodology involves the actual carrying out of a process or seriesof actionsina manner thatthe learner may heabletounderstandtheprinciplebeingtaught.Itnormally involves action, pro,edure, technique, and information, coupled withcommunica- tionthatgeesbeiondtheverbalexplanation... thedemonstrationusuai.y involvesaninterfacewithanumber of different methods ofteaching. The demonstration has few limitationsin content andisapplicable inallareas of learning.(p. 86) o The discovery method impliesthat a learner derives understandings of various phenomena by direct personalinvolvementina sequence of events--including observation or detection and awareness of dimensions, plussome form of inter- nalizing,formulating, and concluding. The discoveryisthe result of an individual or group involvement that permits the discovered clementor phenomena to surface.Thismethodteizesdifferentdegreesofplanning - -fromaformal,

82 directedexperiencewith apreciseprocedureandanidentifiedexpected outcome--to a more informal,unstructuredexperiencewithunpredictable procedures.(p. 220) o The problem solving-z. _.hod rr,kes use of one or more acceptable approaches to solving the problems that are developed by the students or are generated out of theactivitiesofthelearningsituation,thatis, itplacesconsiderable emphasis on studentinvolvementintheprocessesof arrivingatanswersto problen.s faced by the students. (p. 212)

o The project method (often) makes use of a constructionalvehicle.Itspurpose risto carry, implement, and develop the content and processes associated with a courseaswellascontributetothe development oftheindividuals.Allof thisisinkeepingwiththegoalsoftheexperience.Skills,understandings and processes are developed and applied in a measure through involvement in the project.(p. 108)

Inthehighschoolgrades,cooperativeeducationalso isahighlysuccessful instructionalapproach.Indeed,it isapowerfulstrategythatbridgesschooland work. Such programs provide a dynamic laboratoryfor studentstoapply and refine skillslearnedintheirjob-simulationlaboratories.Cooperativeprogramsalsoprovide opportunitiesfor studentstoassumeresponsibilities and monetary reward_through a satisfactory jobplacement. As aninstructional method,itisthe "payoff" for voc ed, thatis, job placement and success are greatly enhanced (Nystrom, Bayne, and McClellan 1977). We are not suggesting that we turn middle and junior high schools into voc-tech schools; our pointisthat we canlearn much from voc ed curriculum content and instructional processes.

Industrial Arts and Technology Education Ernest Boyer, president of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching and a former United States commissioner of education, says that he finds "scandalous" the "mindless distinctions" being drawn between the so-called academic and nonacadelaic programs.In his words,

I believethatthefalsebarriersbetweentheso-called academic and vocational should be broken down. The truthisacademic programs are,infact, p-eparingstudentsforavocation. Andtheothertruthisthatvocational educationalsointroducesstudentstogreatliterature,tobasicscientifi principles,andto enduring values,ifthey aretaught withthe power al._ ins.gla that they deserve. (Boyer 1985, p. 6) Turning his thoughts to technology education, Boyer concludes:

If we canfindawaytorelatetechnologytothelargervalues,then I believethisnationwillnot only survive,but,for coming generations,will flourish with dignity as well.(p. 6)

83 Technology education, he asserts, is a force to be reckoned with. What is technology education and why, as middle and junior high school teachers, should we listen with special care when vie hear the term? We all are aware that indus- trialartseducation has undergone atremendous transitionintoa new thrustthathas been called technology education.Let's look at this key definition:

Techno-9gyechcationisacomprehensive,action -basededucationalprogram concernedwithtechnicalmeans,theirevolution,utilization,andsignifi- cance; with industry, its organization, personnel, systems, techniques, resourcesand , ;oducts;andtheir social/cultural impact.(International Technology Education Association 1985, p. 25) What are the purposes of tech ed? Many new tech ed programs are exploring the history of technology aswellasrecent developmentsincomputers, spacetechnology, robotics,satellitecommunication,andlaserprinting.Studentsintheseprogramsare learning bouttools,materials, and processeswhile gaining an appreciationfortech- nology'ssignificantsocialandculturalaspects.Theseprogramsarebasedonthe assumption that because technology affes everyone, tomorrow's citizett: should understand technology and know how to control it for everyone's betterment.

What are some of technology education's specificgoals?Inthemiddle schools, the primary goalisto proviC.,, students with an orientation and exploration of technology.Becauseourculture isincreasinglycharacterizedastechnological,ourroleis to give every student an insight and understanding of the technological nature o- our society. Exempk,ry middle-level tech ed programs striveto do that by acquainting stu- dentsxiiththeirtechnological environment so they can make rationaldecisions about their own lives and join in controlling their destiny.

What exactlyis behind the charge from industrial arts to tech ed? Sensing a gap between the changirg nature of technology comparedtotraditionalindustrialarts,23 leadersintheindustrialartsprofessionmetatJackson'sMil',WestVirginia.The resulting report (Snyder and Hales n.d.) called foraradical departure from the tradi- tionalindustrialarts.Thissetinmotionachainreactionthatpromptedseveral statestorevisetheirprogramscompletelyandotherstobegintheprocess. In essence,theJackson'sMilltheoristsperceivedthedomainsofknowledge(sciences, technologies,humanities)tointeractwiththeadaptivesystems(ideological,sociolo:,- ical,technological). Thatis,aspeople discover more knowledge,theeasieritisfor them to adapt. Cor.versely, as they develop better ways to adapt, they th mselves contribute to the doms,,,Ins of knowleage. What are the benefits of tech ed? The projected benefits are that students know andappreciatetheimportanceoftechnology;applytools,materials,processes,and technicalconceptssafelyanderriciently;uncoveranddevelopindividualtalents; applyproblem-solvingtechniques,otherschoolsubjects,and applycreativeabilities, and deal with the real forces that influence the future. What are some of the more common elements of these programs? A number of elements canreadily beidentified. For example, these programs should be an activity program; betaughttoallstudents;orientyoungadolescentstothechallenges,responsibilities,andopportunitiesofthetechnologicalage;includeavarietyoftechnolog- icalconcepts;bridge"academicskills"and"practice,""theory,"and"operation;"and

91. provide anopportunityforyoung adolescentstodeterminetheir own aptitudes and interests.

Whatisthe proper "criteria"for such programs? A number of specificcriteria have been established. For example, the program and course contentare based on the following points:

o An organized set of technological concepts, processes, and systems

oKnowledge about the development of technology anditseffect on people, the environment, and culture

oContent drawn from one or more of the following--

communicationefficiently using resources to transfer informationto extend human potential construction--efficientlyusingresourcestobuildstructuresorconstructed works on a site manufacturingefficientlyusingresources to extractandconvertrate/ recycled materials into industrial and consumer goods transportation -- efficientlyusingresourcestoattainandmaintainphysical contact and exchange among individuals and societal units through themove- ment of materials/goods and people

oAssistingstudentsindevelopinginsight,understanding,andapplicationof technological concepts, processes, and systems

oApplyingtools,materials,machines,processes,andtechnicalconceptssafely and efficiently

oDevelopingskills,creativeabilities,positiveself-concepts,andindividual potentials in technology

oDeveloping problem-solving and decision-making abilitiesinvolving human and material resources, processes, and systems

oPreparing students for lifelong learning ina technological society

What curriculum structureis being proposed? The structure--as wellasthe specific middle and junior high focus--can be summedup graphically in figure 3.

What should the middle or junior high school tech edprogram look like? Programs atthe middle and junior high schoollevelsare exploratory. Students inve -lte four broadareas:communication, construction,manufacturing,andtransportation. . stu- dentsshouldtake techedatourlevel,regardlessoftheircareergoals.Teched coursesatourlevelshouldbedesignedtoleadintoawell-articulatedseriesof courses atthe senior high schoollevel and beyond. Problem solving,career orientation, and learning for tomorrow's adaptive environmentare cornerstones of the program. One primary goal at our level,therefore,istoassist students in making informed and meaningful educational and occupational choices.

fb Grades High School: 9-12 Preparation in Technology

Grades Middle and Junior High School: 6-9 Orientation and Exploration

Grades Elementary School: K-6 Learning Reinforcement and Technology Awareness

Figure 3. Technology toducation curriculum structure

SOURCE: International Technology Educati-n Association 1985, p. 26.

At our level, every student should be requiredtotake a one-semester coursein IntroductiontoTechnologicalSystems.Inthiscourse,the fourtechnologyareasare broadly presented. Afte each studenttakesIntroductiontoTechnological Systems,he or she canelecttotake any orallofthefourindividualcoursesthat shouldbe available(e.g.,Communications Systems,ConstructionSystems,Manufacturing Systems, andTransportationSystems).Thesecoursesprovideamorein-depthorientationto technological areas from a systems perspective.

Ailother aspect of technology education that should not be ignoredisour need to teexainine and harness career education concepts for the benefit of the emerging technical program concepts. Tech ed should encompass thetotalprogram,v.t2. Thistotal program should be sequent:al so that students gain the maximum benefit. Students who go through an articulated program should be prepared for any one of threepossible careergoals. Thatis,they may wishtoentercollegeasanengineeling,scientific, ortechnicalbaccalaureatedegreemajor.Another path isforstudentstopursuea vocationalcareer aftergraduating from high school.Thisalso may be doneinhigh schoolifappropriatevocationalcoursesareoffered.Finally,students may taketech ed for general education purposes to make them better prepared to liveina technolog ical world.

Two excitingtechedinstructionalapproachesalsohavebeenexplored.Maley (1984)forexample.addresses34questionsthatrelatetousingtheapproachwith regardtointroducingtheinit,studentresearch,constructionactivities,theseminar, andevaluation.The secondapproach,alsodescribedby Maley (1986),outlinesthe research and experimentalaspects of tech edinstruction. Among many other suggestions,Maley outlinesa number ofresearchprocedures.For example,hepresentsthe following "common model procedure" that has been used at both the eighth and ninth grades and senior high schoollevels:titleof researchproject,statementof problem, statement of purpose,statement of need, background study,statement of limitations, statement ofhypothesis(es),statementof assumptions, statement of procedures,listing

86 of terminology,collectionof data,presentationof findings, statement of conclusions, and recommeklations. A number of exciting program examples can be found that describe approaches that haw, been used successfully at the middle and junior high school. In Technology Edu- cation: A PerspectiveonImplementation(InternationalTechnology EducationAssocia- tion1985),for example,detaileddescriptionsarepresentedof severalprogran.s. Wa cannot begintopresentallthedetails,but rather give only one brief overview and suggest that you check out the details in the resource noted. In Syosset Junior High School in Syosset, New York, seventh graders are required totake a10-week coursein communication technology. Students circulate through six activitystations:amateurradio,offsetlithography,videotape/television,technical drawing, computer communications, and photography. The purpose isto create an understanding of thepervasiverole communications technology playsinadvanced societies andtoprovidestudentswithanabilitytocommunicateideas,processinformation through the use of technical means, and explore communications related career opportunities.Thecoursealsoprovidesanopportunityforinterdisciplinaryexperiences. Other communications classactivitiesinclude anoralhistoryprojectwiththeEnglish classes.Tapedinterviewsare conductedwithseniorcitizens,transcribed,andkeyed intoawordprocessor.Photographsoftheseniorcitizens,alongwiththeirstories andrecollections,areprinted on placematsthatarethendistributedtolocalrestau- rants so visitors can learn about the community. The students do many other tasksin other aspects of the curriculum(e.g.,manufacturing technology systemsinthe eighth grade).That10-weekcourseisrequiredofalleighth-gradestudents.Films,lec- tures, and hands-on activities are usedto contrast primitive production methods with _ontemporary ones.Both programs offer actualexperiencesinmass producing products using hand tools, machines, and materials. The program attempts to teach how manufac- turinginfluencestheculturalcontext;howtousematerials,tools,andmachines safely; and how to explore career opportunities.

This program provides young adolescentswith excitinglearninge tpur;,:nces. The New York State Education Department has developed several new approach' ,st carry a ,rent deal of promise for stimulating both the curriculum and instructional gam for young adolescents, especiallyfor grades 7 and 8. Kadamus and Daggett (1 lescribe the program indetail. Once students acquire the necessary foundations in le men- taryschool,they aretobe providedopportunitiesfordevelopinglifesk. lareer awareness, and job readiness skills through a 3/4-unit requirement in Home a: biter Skillsthatallstudentsmust takebytheendoftheeighthgrade. The c designedtopreparestudentstomeettheirpresentandfutureresponsibilities 4 member of a family, consumer, home manager, and wage earnerSince youth bcgl.. assumetheseresponsibilitiesatthestartofadolescence,theprogramis offered rather earlyintheschool experience. Using hands-on or applied learning experiences, students develop decision-making, management, and personal skills leading to competence insuchareas asfamilyresourcemanagement,personaldevelopment,andcareer planning.

The second course, Introductionto Technology, enables studentsto understand the conceptsthatunderlietechnologicalsystems.Studentslearnabouttheinfluencethat these systems have on theirlives, at home, school, and work. Thesystems studies are biotechnology(agriculture,medicine,foodprocessingandpreservation),information/ communication technology (informationprocessing, photography, graphic and electronic

87 111=1IMEIIMMIM lempriawwwwi

communications),andphysicalter! nology(construction,energy,manufacturing,tray, portation).A majoremphasisisonprovidingstudentswithopportunitiestoapply their new technology understandings to the design, development, maintenance, and operation of systems in each of the three categories.

The curriculum, developedinamodular format,isorganizedintwo parts. The modules in part one are "Getting to Know Technology," "What Resources Are Needed for Technology," "How People Use Technology to Solve Problems," "What Must Be Known about S,stems and Subsystems," and "How Technology Affects People and the Environment." Through a study of such resources asmaterials, tools and machines, information, capi- tal, human labor, time, and energy and an exploration of how these resources ..:e corn- intechnological systems, students are provided with conceptual tools that can be ut ;IIIinsolvingtechnologicalproblems.Examples oftasksthatstudentsundertake arethe construction of a wind chimethatillustratesthe sound produced by certain materials; the manufacture of glass from raw materials; the enhancement of plant growth by changing thelevelsoflight,moisture, andnutrientsinafunctioning greenhouse; andthe design of adevicethatwillmake ataskeasierforpersons withphysical handicaps.

Parttwoaddressesadditionaltechnologicalconcepts,focusingontechnicalpro- cesses,methods peopleusetocontrolthem, career opportunities, and other personal andsocietalimplications.Studentsencounterawidevarietyofproce-sessr.chas energy conversion, materials conversion, and information processing; monitor these processes; and use feedbacktocontrolthe operations of systems. The moduletitlesare "Introduction and Review," "Choosing the Right Resources," "How Resources Are Processed by Technological Systems," "Controlling Technological Systems," "Using Systems to Solve Problems," any "Technology and You: Personal Impacts, Decisions, and Choices." Exam- plesof technicalpr -1ssesstudentsmightlearnabout 1- ideconvertingmechanical energy to electrical energy, forming plastic through vac=Forming, and using computers to produce graphics and to communicate data over telephone lines.

The Introduction la Technology curriculum includes "Technology Learning Activities"--suggestedinstructionalactivitiesteachersusetomeetspecificperform- anceobjectives.Theseactivitiesemphasizehands-onlea, ning.Wheneverapplicable, theuse of computersisencouraged and supported.Inaddition,thefollowingskills and concepts have be identified as important to address in each module where appropriate:appliedmathematicsconcepts,appliedscienceconcepts,awarenessof human elements and societalimpacts of technology, communicationskills,safety, psychomotor skills, and career-related information. Recently we received some very interesting materials in the mail from Elementary Industrial Technology Certerinthe Los Angeles Unified School District. The program beingdeveloped -- intendedforgradesfourtoeight--isentitled"Automotive Creative Technology." Theprogram'smotivatingactivitiesaretobedesignedtobereadily integratedininterdisciplinaryinstruction(gradesfour -six)asatechniquetorein- forceacademicdisciplineswhileprovidingthresholdexperiencesinindustrialscience technology.For grades seven andeight,activitiesaretobe formulatedtomeet the curriculumobjectivesof specificsubjects.Other aspectsofthisinnovative approach include suggestedactivitiesintheseareas:carmodels andfactoryproduction,global perception,sciencetechnology,engines,electronics,carcare,safeanaenjoyable driving, and career awareness.

88 In sur. nary, technology education should be added to our list of choices, particularly when those choices include programs as stimulating as these. Tech ed conteia and Process surelycanhelpusbond students morecloselytotheirclasses andssliools. (Fur anyone interestedin obtaining more information cn thistopic, write to theIntel nationall'echnologyEducationAssociation, 1914 AssociationDrive,Reston,Virginia 271091.)

Discussion Items

I. Whatlocalcurriculum concerns seemtobe most relevanttoyour situation- - regardingdropout prevention? What instructional issues seem to be most relevant? 2. What ca.,'ou do tf' make your curriculum more relevant to the needs of dropout- prone students? What specific strategies might you consider? 3. 1-14ve we raised our local educational standards--and have we assessed the potential effects? 4. What experiential learning activities seem to be most appropriate at your middle and junior high levels? 5. How do yourindividualteaching/learningstylespromote students'decisionto stay in school?inhibit it? 6. How do you"rank"yourselvesinterms of thechecklist onteaching/learning styles? (See exhibit 9.) 7. How would you respond in terms of the informal learning styles inventory? (See exhibit 10.) 8. What are youd ..ngtopromote career awareness and e:,ploration--ortouse Bailey's concepts, cdreer accommodation and career orientation? 9. Are you attempting to develop personalized,individualized "educatio' ',1develop- ment plans?" 10. Have you considered any of the various cooperative learning approaches or used any cooperative learning materials? 11. Have you attempted peer tutoring foithose wl. -ded extra help in the "basics?" Which tutoring approaches are most appropriate to your needs? 12. What vocational education content and which vocational education processes are most relevantto student atyour grade levels?Which of the various methods presented are most appropnate to your teaching styles? 13. To what extent are your curricula "competency based?" 14. Flowcanyouutilizethecooperativeeducationinstructionalapproachatour grade levels? 15. Whatistheroleofindustrialartsand technology educationinyour school? What might it be? 16. Howdoes thetechnologyeducationcurriculumlend itself to yourlocal situation?

89 HOW CAN WE ENSURE YOUTH ADVOCACY? oWhat Is Advocacy? 93 oAdolescent Behavior 94 oExpectations of Young Adolescents 97 oEarly Identification 101 o13uilding Self-Esteem 108 oCounseling and Support Services 112 oAdvisor/Advisee Programs and Interdisciplinary Teams 119 oWhat Is Accommodation? 121 oDiscussion Items 123

91 HOW CAN WE ENSURE YOUTH ADVOCACY?

Whet Is Advocacy?

To some practitioners, advocacy connotes a nurturing environment andan empathetic regard for students rather than sentimentality and softness. To others, advocacymcnns teachers and counselors who arerealistic, sympathetic, and who can relateto the st dent'sbackground andculture;italsomeans more personalattentionforindividual students, more individualization, more cammitment. Advocacy means teachers whoare upbeat with and unafraid of students who may at times tend to "baffle and offend" the rest of the general population. To others, advocacy means "a community of believers"--teachers, counselors, principals, custodians, psychologists, social workers, secretaries, mentors, volunteers. Advocacy also means respect for studentsasindividuals, for theirrighttoparticipate indecisionsaffectingtheir own lives,for opportunitiesto expandtheir independence and take on new responsibilities, and for therightto engage with adultsin serious examination of values and to formulate their own value system. Sometimes advocacy is translated into programs such as "IALAC," an acronym for "I am lovable and capable."

The National Foundation for the Improvement of Education (1986)asserts that advocacy implies "student empowerment" which results from the students' sense of ownership oftheirdropoutpreventionprogram.Studentsachieveself-directionandaccount- abilityfortheirlivesthrough student-centered programs delivered by dedicatedstaff advocates. The advocates,teachers andcounselors,wouldseethatallstudentssuc- ceed;enablingstudentstoplan;helpingstudentstofulfilltheirpotential;helping students learnto set and achieve attainable goals; allowing studentsto own their mis- takes and support studentsin dealing with the consequences; and providinga situation wherein they can say "I was finally heard."

To the middle school researchers, Johnston, Markle and Harshburger(1985), advocacy impliesthat an attitude changeisrequired. At the heart of this changeisthe teacher, a flexible, positive,creative,person-centeredhuman being.Researchers Weidman and Friedmann (1984) assert that youth advocacy involves helpingyouth identify alternatives suchasstreet academics or,for older students, work-study programs that are conduce ieto school completion and skill acquisition. Such a youth advocacysystem would help individual youths make informed choices about theiremployment and educa- tionalpotentialsaswellas aboutthemost appropriate settingsinwhich they might realize those potentials.

To Morris, Leinhardt, and Zigmond (1987), advocacymeans improving students' self- concept, self-image, self-esteem. It implies that so-called "killer statements." statements that put down or demean students, have absolutelyno place in or near the school.

Two other researchers, Wehlage and Smith (1986),assert that advocacyisrelevant totheconceptof teacherculture.Teacher culturereferstothebeliefsheldby a schoolfacultyaswellastheregularexplicit andimplicitbehaviorsthat accompany thosebeliefs.Someexamplesareourrelationshipswithstudents,ourexerciseof authority, our definition of ourroles,and our expectations. To Wehlage and Smith, concepts such ascollegiality,choice, and ownership are thelensestouseinviewing

93 the degree of commitment and engagement that teachers have in implementing programs for dropout-prone youth.

The Children's Defense Fund (Edelman 1987) says advocacy is accomplished by offe-- inga"menu"ofspecificactivitiesthatadults -- individualsandgroups--arewilling and able to undertake. Edelman contends that we must not expect people to simply be "forchildren,"butrather we must offer specificways they canact withtheir own capacities and beliefs.

TOtheNationalCoalitionofAdvocatesforStudents(1985),definesadvocacy throughthreebasicassumptions:(1) Access of allyouthtopublic educationiscru- cialtothe vitality of a democracy as well astothe future well-being of each individual.(2) Communitiesmustcontinuallyassess andreassessschoolpoliciesand practices with this question in mind - -Does each policy or practice promote rgther than impede access of all childrento public education? (3) When students are not learning, itistheschool's responsibilitytotry new approaches until we are certain,that every child is learning.

Advocacy meansallofthesethings. The dimensiondiscussedheredealswith understandingadolescentdevelopment,identifyingdropout-pronestudents,counseling, advising, building self-esteem, developing individualized plans and programs, and making appropriate accommodations whenever and wherever we can.

Adolescent Behavior One way of becoming an advocate for youthis by getting to know youth. This periodisa time for growth and change second only toinfancy initsvelocity. Inter- estingly,Lipsitz (1980)pointsoutthattherehasbeenarelative"absence of dialogue" about this age group. Those who work with this age group realize that there exist several problems--not necessarilyinworking withdropout-proneindividuals--but,asDorman, Lipsitz,and Verner (1985) allege, because there appears to be a considerable "lack of fit" between what we know about young adolescents and what we do with them for 5 days a week. Although this does not mean that we can necessarily be responsible for every aspect of every student's development, we must be responsive to their needs.

As Rogers (1982)testifies,evenifadolescenceisnotcriticalinthesense of constitutingacrisis,itis significantinthatattitudes,behaviors,andcharacteris- ticsestablishedatthispointintimerelatetothosefactorsintheyearsahead. Rogerstestifiesthatthisisa period for consolidating copingstyles and characteristic ways of solving one's problems. Moreover,itis the beginning of the establishment of decision-making patterns as well asin establishing identity and determining commit- mentstovaluesandlife- styles.Inshort,adolescenceisaprocessforachieving the attitudes and beliefs needed for effective participation in society.

Lipsitz(1979)feelsthatthereareseveralmythsaboutadolescence.One is that "adolescenceisa time of tumultuous upheaval during which the best we can do is to hold our breaths, wait forittopass over, and meanwhile segregate as best we can theturbulentfromtherestofsociety"(p. xvi).AsLipsitznotes,researchshows thatadolescence for most individualsisaratherstable andrelativelysereneperiod

.1C j k ratherthanonefilledwithturmoil.Dorman,Lipsitz,andVerner(1985)concur. Insteadofstorm,stress,andstrife,foralargeportionofyouth,thisperiodis mainlyaprogressiontowardmaturitywithfew orintermittentperiodsofdistress; nonetheless,sinceprofoundchangesoccur,integratingthesechangesina way that makes sense can be confusing for many young adolescents.

A second mythisthat young adolescentsareina"transitional"stagebetween childhood andadolescence.Lipsitz(1980)maintainsthatresearchshowsthatevery decade the onset of puberty occurs 4 months earlier, yet this important fact has had no effecton policymakers andlittleeffect onprofessionals.Shealsomaintainsthat we have not been willing to change our concepts of young adolescent needs. Another myth isthe belief that teenagers form a homogeneous age group when, in reality, thevariabilityofvarious"ages"--chronological, social,academic,biological,emotional, andintellectual--isone ofthemoststrikingandleastacknowledged characteristics of this time of life.

AsLipsitzarguessoconvincingly,thesemythsaredestructiveinthatthey reflectadistrustand evenadislikeof this age group. She arguesthatthese myths should be rejected in favor of "a new social concern" for young adolescents. According to Lipsitz (1984), a central weakness in most schods for young adoles- centsisthewidespreadfailuretoconsider school practicesinterms of the develop- mentalneeds of adolescents"inorder eithertoincorporateresponsibilityfor meeting [these needs]intothe schools' academic and social goals or to keep them from being barrierstoattainingthosegoals"(p. 168).Shearguesthattheunderstandingof young adolescent development needs must not be tangentialto,but rather should help form, the central purposes of our middle and junior high schools. Decisions about governance, curitculum, and school organization must flow from our sensitivity to thin age group. Developmental responsiveness is an essential ingredient of successful schools. Much has been written about the developmental needs of young adolescents. What followsis a summary of severe' key developmental needs and school responses that were presented by Dorman, Lipsitz, and Verner (1985).

The Need for Diversity

The opportunitytotryout new thingsncourages young adolescentsto develop curiosity about the world beyond their home, school, and community. It also keeps them "engaged"intheirschool.Schools canrespondtothis need by attemptingtomatch variedstudentinterestsandabilitieswithanequallyvariedenvironmentthrougha varietyofteachingstyles,methods,andmaterials;high-interestexploratorycourses; flexiblescheduling ofbothshort andlongperiodsbased,inpart,onthematurity levels of the students as well as the nature of the learning tasks.

The Need for Structure and Clear Limits Clear and consistent communication with teachers, counselors, and principals helps young adolescents know theirrolesina worldthatincreasingly seems full of doubts

10j anduncertainties.Theyalsoneedopportunities forself-exploration. andself-definition. to help. answer such questions as "Who, am, I?' and "Am Inormal?"' Schools that are responsive expressrulesand' expectations crisply, and clearly. These rules and expectations generally are accepted and understood by everyoneinvolved-. The most obvious way ofensuringacceptanceistoinvolvethe youthauthenticallyinestablishing rules and understanding the consequences for failingto. adhere to them. Young adolescents need the securityprovided by clearlimits. We must also avoidrigidstructure and excessive limits thatonly fosterdependency,hostility, withdrawal,and rebellion.

The Need for Competence and. Achievement

The opportunity tosucceed ir?school and receive recognition. forthis successis vital.Feelingsofself-worthareabsolutelyessentialforyoungadolescentstobe able to move on to even higher lez.,Isof competence. We can respond by emphasizing academics, providing high-qualityteaching,feelingand showingpositiveexpectations ofall our students, giving honest rewards and praise, andproviding, oppo,:tunities for increased independence and responsibility for students. Avariety. of teaching methods, a balanced curriculum, andexciting extracurricular activitiesall provide a framework in which all students can register some type of success.

The Need for Positive Social Interaction with Adults and Other Students The opportunity to see positive role models can help raiseaspirations and expectations,whereas peer interaction can promote skillsin living ina democratic community and satisfythe young adolescent's need for socialactivity. We can respond by encouragingpeerinteraction,offeringsmall: grouplearningactivities,andproviding spacefor studentstogatherinformally.Positivesocialinteractionbetweenadults and studentsareaidedbyadviser-adviseerelationships,ourparticipationinactivi- ties, and informal contacts outside the classroom.

Interestingly, almost 30 years ago, Friedenbergisreported by Arth etal.(1985). to have predicted what would happen as adults began towithdraw from interactions with adolescents. He identifiedthatthisvoid would be "inundated" by peer group interactions. He apparently noted that maturation for young adolescentsdevelops from two types of interactionwith peers and with adults. Our currentdecade has witnesseda more than 90 percent increase in homes. with school agechildren headed by lone females; one out of everythree of those homes existsatthepovertylevel.Continuing in: creasesof homes with two working parentsisanotherrelevant characteristicof our contemporary society. Today many young adolescents havelesscontact with adults out of school than at any prior time. The primary significant adult,interactions. that many, middle and junior high school youngsters experience are with usonly. This makes the modeling of our responsible behaviors critical for today's youth (Arth et al.1.985).

96 The Need for Meaningful Participation in Activities in Both the School and the Community

The opportunitiesforallstudentstofeeltheybelongenhancetheirsenseof securityandopportunitiestocontributefostertheirgrowingsenseof altruismand socialidealism. We canrespondby establishingmeaningfulstudentcommitteesand councils,schoolimprovement projects(forexample, constructingrecreationareasand learningresourcecenters). We alsocanofferstudentsopportunitiestocontributeto community serviceprojects, again, by working on constructing recreation areasinthe community,workingwithyoungerchildren,andassistingwitholdercitizens.The opportunities for service are endless.

The Need for Physical Activity

Opportunitiestoexpressenergy,relievetensions, and remove pressuresmustbe provided. We canrespond by providing structuredoutletstoreleaserather than sup- press thephysicalenergy thatissoevident. Noncompetitive physical education, phys- icalactivities during breaks and lunch time, and opportunitiesto move around inthe classroom are each important. The continued lowering of the chronological age at which pubescence occurs appar- entlywillbring more of thetasksformerly experienced during the ages 14-18 years intothelivesof our middle and junior high schoolstudents. These youthareevi- dently much moresophisticatedthantheircounterpartsadecadeago.However,the social and emotional maturity of most young adolescents has not really increased. When we are struck by the physically mature appearance of many young girls and boys, we must not assume theyalsopossessequallysocial and emotional maturity. Infact,justthe opposite may betrue;the adjustment problems of physically precocious young adolescents may signal a need for our special understanding and support.

We alsoshould not view surface behavior asindicating social-emotional maturity To be sure, some youth have matured earlier than others in social and emotional development. However, some are only displaying athinveneer of sophisticationthatthey mimic fromthepopular media. Many young adolescentsdisplay"streetwise"behavior ratherthanearliersocialandemotionalmaturity.Inmisreadingthisbehavioras actual social and emotional maturity, we may mistakenly cut these youngsters off from adultinteractionandsupporttheyneedduringthisperiod.Theseyoungstersneed more, notless,positiveinteractionswithusatthistimeintheirlives. We need to recognizethatmiddle and junior high schoolyouth need our enlightened supportin dealing with a number of very difficult troublesome problems (Arth et al. 1985).

Expectations of Young Adolescents

Low teacherandschoolstaffexpectationsalltoooftenplaceinvisiblebarriers betweenstudents'expectedperformanceandtheirpotentialachievement(Wheelock 19861)).Unfortunately, sometimes these barriers become _harsh and explicit. Even when they are subtle, barriers may be evident in simple classroom student and teacher interactions.Forexample,accordingtoonestudy (Moran1981),teachersoftentendto praise higher achieving students for academic performance and slower students for good conduct. We tend to call on higher achievers more than students whom we think are less

Cv) able. We alsotendtoallow more time forhigher achieversto answer questions.In contrast, sometimes we tendtoask slower studentstheeasiest questions and provide fewer clues whilewaitingfortheirresponse.Moreover, we seemtospendlesstime listeningtolow achievers and givethemlesspraise and more criticism, even when their answers are correct.

The NationalCoalitionof AdvocatesforStudents(1985),infact,placeslow expectationsatthecoreofwhattheyconsidertobethe"barrierstoexcellence." Theselowexpectations,theyargue,justifythesortingandlabelingpracticesthat often are foundinschools. Moreover, the National Coalitionfeelsthat although some teachers,counselors, andprincipals may notbelievethatat-riskchildren canlearn, low expectations unconsciously influence us to judge student ability based on the pre- viousyears'reports,grades,or even conversationwithotherteachers andtoignore students who may need help but are not assertive enough to ask for it. Some of these not-so-subtleactions send unspoken messages that,nonetheless, are clearly understood- stood--every youngsters who do not speak English well.

At-risk,inner citykids,despitetheir disadvantaged backgrounds, can perform at national norms if given "theproper school context" (Hess1987).Inhisresearch, Hess reportsthata number of urban school administrators seemtoprefertobelievethat these students cannot perform. AccordingtoHess,the administrators citethe findings of the1966 Coleman report,thatthe only significant variableinjudging school performance at that time was family background, in a pernicious way to excuse the non- performance of their own schools. They, Hess claims, have taken that descriptive finding and madeitintoa prescriptive conviction, namely,that inner city youth cannot achievenationalnorms.Moreover,theyarereinforcedinthese"mischievousbeliefs" by some scholars whose works use an approach that blames the victim by focusing on how the dropout-prone are at best, marginal students. The Massachusetts Advocacy Center (Wheelock 1986b) interviewed students who said thattheir"favoriteteachers,"aboveallelse,heldhighexpectationsforthem. 1 ,rd and Anderson (1978) report intheir research review studies a positive correla- tionbetweenstudents'academicsuccessandteachers'preference.Inonestudy, teacher preference depended to alarge degree on socioeconomic status.Inthat study, of the 40 children classified by the teacher, not one of the "most preferred" belonged tothe lower class. One-half of the "leastpreferred" were from the lower middle class or below. Not a single student inthis group was from the upper class, and only one was from the upper middle class.

Mc Dill,Natriello,andPallas(1985)alsoreportthatwhenelementaryschool teachers had higher expectations for students and, hence, were more demanding of them, students respond with greatereffort. At the secondary schoollevel, an answer tothe related question of the impact of achievement standards on student effortis found in a series of studies by Natriello, Mc Dill, and Pallas (1985). These studies, which examined the standards of high school teachers and the responses of students to those standards, found that in many cases the standards teachers had for student performance were quitelow.Certainstudentgroups,notablyblacksandHispanics,especiallywere likelytoexperiencelowstandardsfortheirperformance.Moreover,theresearchers found that students who were not receiving challenging standards often rated themselves asworking hard ontasks even though their own objective descriptions of theeffort they were devotingtoschool work reveal them tobe exerting minimal effort. These students were likelyto have poor grades and low achievement scores. The researchers,

98 therefore, concluded thatthese students didnotfully appreciate the degree of effort required tolearnin high school because they had not been presented with challenging standards.

Mc Dill, Natriello,andPallas(1985)reportedthefindingsofNatrielloand Dornbusch who studied students confronted with challenging standards of the type advocated by recenteducationalexcellence commissionreports.High schoolstudentspre- sented with challenging performance standards generally devoted more effortto school tasks.Ina subsequent study, these same relationships were examined through observations of 38 classrooms. With classrooms classified as high demand, medium demand, and low demand, the researchers found that the higher the demand levelinthe classroom, the more likely students were to report paying attentioninclass and spending time on homework. Paradoxically,theynotedthatstudent"cutting"wasthehighestinlow- demand classrooms. Last, in response to the research question How will low-achieving students respond to more demanding standards?, these same researchers find that a high-demand levelin the classroomisassociated with greater effort by students even when the abilitylevel ofthestudents isstatisticallycontrolled.Itisinthelow-demand classroomsthat they found the highest proportion of students reporting that teachers should make them work harder. However, they also found that high-demand classrooms oftenlose low- abilitystudents.Whenthepaceis toofast,low-abilitystudentsreportthemselves tryinglesshardinhigh-demand classroomsthanin medium-demand classrooms. The researchers conclude that low-ability students must be provided with additional help as they attempt to meet more demanding standards.

Lipsitz(1984)alschasseveralpenetratinginsightsintothisissue.Shefeels that"itisnotreasonablethatteachersshouldexpectallstudentstolearn,unless learningisahighlydifferentiatedterm.Itisreasonablethattheirexpectationsnot betiedtorace,sex,orclasssoastolimitstudents'growth.Itisreasonablethat therebeconstantreassessmentaboutstructuralbarrierstolearning"(p. 187).Itis importantthatteachershavehighexpectationsforthemselves andbelievetheyare capable of making a difference in their students' learning.

Lipsitzobservesthatteachers'behavior is nottiedonlytoexpectations.In many middle schools, teachers put enormous energy into teaching because of many factors unrelatedtothestudents(e.g.,personalsenseofmission,colleagues'expectations, the encouragement and evaluation of esteemed principals,thesense of fighting fora cause,andthegratitudeofparentsandstudents)."Questionsaboutequallyheld expectationsbarely beginto evoke the complexity oftheir commitment totheir students'welfare"(p. 187). Commitment tostudentwelfareisamajor aspect of youth advocacy.

A brief"expectationssurvey"isprovidedinexhibit 12.Thissurveyindicates variousschool-relatedbehaviorsintermsof"high"and"low"expectationsandcan serve as a self-analysis guide. EXHIBIT 12

EXPECTATIONS SURVEY

BEHAVIORS TOWARD STUDENTS THAT SHOW HIGH EXPECTATIONS LOW EXPECTATIONS

Whenteachersindicate Findingsatisfaction in Learning how to adjust to what students should be learning and thinking the rules and behave gettingoutofschool, and gettingalong with well. they begin with: others.

1V hen students ask Provide an answer, even Ignore the question. irrelevant questions, when the question is teachers: unrelated.

When teachersdescribe Describe assignments Explain that they do not homework policy, they: that require students to assign homework because review classwork. their students are so poor that they have neither the privacy nor the resources to do the work.

When you ask teachers Describe changes they Respond that they often how they help children make in learning activi- refersuchchildrenfor who learn differently, tiesto address individ- special education evalua- they: ualized needs--and tions outside the class. experiment until they find the right approach.

When asking for answers Allow as much time for Allow more time for high- toquestionsin class- low-achieving students achieving student:: to room discussion, as high-achieving answer questions. teachers: students.

Inclassroom discussion, Call on low-achieving Avoidcalling onlow- teachers: students as often as achieving students. high -achieving students.

POLICIES TOWARD PARENTS THAT SHOW 111011 EXPECTATIONS 1.0W EXPECTATIONS Meetings between school At a time and place that At ata fixed time and staffand parents are takesintoaccountthe placeestablished by the held: parents' resources and school. schedule.

Inconsidering waysin Demonstrate ways family Donot believefamily which school learning members can encourage members can help in chil- can continueathome, learning in regular home dren's learning. schools: situations.

100 When a student is absent Parentsarecalledat Student tardiness is urtardy: once and asked to take overlookeduntilithas steps to improve become a regular pattern attendance. of the student's behavior.

Inreviewing achild's Have the opportunity for Arc invited to a once-a- school progress, regular individual year open house. parents: parent-teacher conferences.

When letters are sent to Highlight accomplish- Focusonproblemsthe parents, they: ments andabilitiesas student is having. well as problems.

POLICIES TOWARD TEACHERS THAT SHOW HIGH EXPECTATIONS LOW EXPECTATIONS

When the school is con- Consulted about new cur- Given textbooks and cur- sidering new programs or riculaandinvolvedin ricula which are selected materials, teachers textbook selection. without their input. are:

Regular staffmeetings Discussion of needs and Announcements of events mostly focus on: problems teachers arc and policychanges that having in an atmosphere have been made. that encourages problem solving.

Teacher evaluations How students are How students are focus mostly on: learning. behaving.

Early Identification

The earlyidentificationof consistentcharacteristicsof dropout-prone youthhas been a major issue in understanding the complex school dropout problem. The complexity of the problemisintensified by many contributing factors relatingtoschool,family, economicstatus,race,sex,andpersonalcharacteristics.Theresearchstronglysug- g "ctsthat dropping outisnot anisolatedact but rather aprocessthat occurs over ti ..e; it often is the culmination of a complex interaction ofevents. A number of researchers and educators believe that potential dropoutscan be iden- tifiedasearlyaselementaryschool.Usingapotential-dropoutprofiletoidentify high riskstudents,theyindicatethatprevention measures also may beinitiatedearly tohelp students completetheirhighschooleducation. We justhope we are nottoo latebythetime students reachusinthe middle and junior high school grades. We think we are on the right track when we speak of earlyassessment and interventions as importantfirststeps,Itisimportant,for example,toreview student records aspart ofthisassessment.Muchofthesuccessfuleducationalexperimentationduringthe 1060s and1970s provide empirical evidence that successful approachesto early childhood education do make a difference inlater school success for disadvantaged students (Willis 1986).

101 Preventive approaches can begin as early as the primary grades through effortsto improveattitudesabouttheimportance of attendingschool.Studiessuggestthatby thethirdgrade, discerniblepatterns of academic success orfailure become ingrained in the young child; according to O'Connor (1985), some schools are providing a second chance for those students who are beginning to show early signs of "falling through the cracks.""Interventionscanbetargetedattransitionalperiodsintheschoolcontin- uum such as from elementary to middle school or middle school to high school--points at which structural supports within the school change and new freedoms are experienced by students" (Council of Chief State School Officers1986,p. 2).Middle schoolsoffera most critical juncture.

Littledoubtexiststhatcertainstudentcharacteristicsrelatetoearlyattrition butthatthepredictiveeffectofthesecharacteristicsvary bylocale.For example, Enger and Vaupel (1978) suggest that both students who continue and those who drop out should be compared in ordertoidentify thosetraitsinwhich differences occur. The availabilityofdata,theysuggest,shouldbeconsideredindeterminingtheoptimal selectionofpredictivedropoutcharacteristics.Suchaproposedinvestigationshould precede the formulation of systematic procedures for record keeping.

Althoughagreatdealisknown about dropout prevention, much muststillbe learned about localreasonsfor dropping out. As Clark (1987)pointsout, we often continue to focus on the students and their background as causes for dropping out or on the symptoms that lead toitrather than on the actual reasons. He recommends that our research questions focus on why students drop out, thatis, we must look beyond super- ficialexplanationstotheunderlyingcauses. He suggeststhatteacherscantakethe leadinthisinquirybyprovidingtechnicalassistance,datacollection,andanalysis capacitytotheresearchers. The purpose of suchstudies would betodiscoverthe unique needs of our students. These needs, Clarkpostulates,will depend greatly on the socioeconomic backgrounds, ethnic/racialmix, and achievement levels of high-risk students.Oncetheseneedsareideatified,dropoutpreventionprogramscanbe designed, modified, or adopted.

A goodbitof ourearlierdiscussionfocusedonthepsychological,behavioral, family,and academicfactorsthatappeartobeusefulitearlyidentification.For example, Bronfenbrenner '(1986) submitsthatheavyrelianceonpeersisone ofthe strongest predictors of problem behavior ingeneral. Two researchersatthe University of Wisconsin (Novak and Doughterty 1986) suggest the following clues:

oAttendance--Demonstrates habitual absences or tardiness; skips periods frequently

oAttitudinal--Lackspersonalmotivation;habituallydoesnotcooperate;reacts negatively toward authority figures

oBehavioral -- Createsadestructiveatmosphere;showsabuseofschool,fellow students, staff

oEducational--Recordsfrequentfailures;functionsachievement belowgrade level

1C2

'1.07 oEmotional--Exhibits emotional outbursts or withdrawalthatmakesitdifficult to function rationally

oFamily- related -- Illustrates the following patterns: parent orsibling influence to leave school, broken home, parent with drug/alcohol problem, other members of family dropped out

o Peer-relatedFollows peersregardlessofconsequencestoself(peerstendto benegative towardschool);also, may have difficultyrelatingtopeersin a positive manner

oSelf-concept--Demonstrates a low level of satisfaction with oneself

o Self-prophecy--Has indicated a desire to leavc. school

The following criteria are used by the New York City Public School System (1986) toselectstudentparticipantsin-fiddle school dropout prevention programs. The criteria must be applied in order, thatis,the second criterion may be used only when all students meeting thefirstcriterion have been identified and openings inthe program stillexist.Studentsareeligibletoparticipateinmiddleschooldropoutprevention programs ifthey arein grades 8 and 9 in junior high schools or grades 7 and 8in intermediate schools and--

have 30-74 absences in school year;

have 15 absences or more for spring;

have 25-29 absences and 1 of the following high-risk indicators--

--reading I or more years below grade level, --2 or more major subject failures, --20 or more latenesses, - -20 or more I/2-day absences, - -overage, --limited English-proficiecy; - -participateinthedr poutpreventionprogrambutarenolongereligible because of improved attendance.

Conlputers areplaying anincreasinglylargerroleinearlyidentification. As the InstituteforEducational Leadership (Sheppard1986) suggests, with computer technology,schoolscankeepreliableinformation on dropout-prone students,dropouts, and reentries. Also, Mann (1986a) contends that computers can be extreme'y useful in identifying young adolescents as they become increasinglyatrisk. Many youth, he maintains,dropoutbecausetheycannotcopewiththecumulativeeffectsof what is happening to them. Although most schools also may have a sense of what is happening, computers can be invaluableinhelping uskeeptrack of those multiple impacts and alert us before kids reach the danger point,for example, we can analyze poor grades, truancyrecords,graderetention,disciplineproblems,family information,andsoon.

Effectiveidentificationimpliesthatclosecontactmust bemaintainedwiththe elementary school andwithhighschools.It isabsolutelyessentialthat we articulate with these other levelsif we are to maintain a consistent direction for our total K-I2

103 dropoutpreventionprogram (O'Connor1985).Followingaretwosampleapproaches designed by the Florida Department of Education (1986).

Dade County Schools

A potential dropout profileiscomputerized and sentto secondary school principals.Iti^usedasaprobabilityindicatorandasanidentification/counselingtool. Theprincipalssharethe rofilewithcounselors,assistantprincipals,occupational specialists,andteachers.T. criteriaincludethefollowing:18or more absencesin a school year (Fridays and Mondays count as 2), 2 or more years older than the average age for the grade level, reading staninelessthan 4, attendance at 3 or more schools, 3 or more "Ds" or "Fs" for the current grading period, total days of in-school or out- of-school suspension in 1 school year, and severity (matches 2 or more of the profile criteria).

Orange County District Schools--Winter Park Compact

The compactisdirected by a committee that gathers and disseminates information onpotentialdropouts. The committee--consisting of anoccupationalspecialist,social worker,policeliaisonofficer,teachers,andcounselorsdeveloped aprofilethat includesstudentgrades,attendancerecords,disciplinerecords,andstaffcomments. Consultants help thestaff set up a computer database and assist personnelinidenti- fyingpotentialdropouts.Checklistsaredistributedtoteachers andstaff who make referralsaccording tospecifiedcriteria.Inorder to identifypotentialdropouts among entering ninth grade students, the checklist is sent to five feeder schools.

The sample forms shown in exhibits13 and14 can be used toidentify high-risk youthfor dropout preventionactivities. The forms have beer adapted from Staying In... A Dropout Prevention handbook, K-12 (Novak and Dougherty 1981). These can be adapted further for your local use. We cannot allow early identification to become an approach that views the school dropout aswhat Conrath(1986)calls"aclinicalproblem,"thatis,thefocusison whatis wrong with the student. Rather we should approachit from what he calls a "systemic problein," thatis, how we can make the system more manageable. In Conrath's insightfulanalysishe contendsthat approaching theproblemclinicallyallowsschools toavoidexaminingtwocriticalfacts:(1) middleschool is thefirstimpersonal institutionmost young peopleface,and(2) many oftheseschools(andmosthigh schools) deliver servicesto young people through fragmented and impersonal methods. Although identifying young adolescentsisapositivestep,he contends that solvinga student's "problem" will not make the system more personal or manageable. Further,it was reemphasized in a newsletter of the Council of Chief State School Officers (1986)thatfactorsrelatedtopremature schoolleaving oftenare cumulative, interrelated, and differentfordifferent student groups. Hence, even with earlyidentification, no single program or policy can meet the needs of the diverse population of potential dropouts.

104

1(6 EXHIBIT 13

SAMPLE REFERRAL MEMO FOR IN-SCFIOOL USE

TO: All staff: teachers, counselors, aides, support staff FROM: Dropout prevention staff/name of contact person

RE: Referral of Candidates for Dropout Prevention Programs

DATE:

We would like to begin screening students who might be potential dropouts. We are, therefore, looking for students who fit all or some of the following criteria: -- underachieving -- poor attendance -- significant difficulties in reading or math

-- evidence of emotional problems (very low self-esteem, disruptive)

On the bottom, please list the students whom you feel meet these criteria (any or all). Please note any additional criteria which you feel warrants special consideration.

STUDENT CRITERIA GRADE

105

1' / j1....t., EXHIBIT 14

SAMPLE REFERRAL FORM FOR OUT-OF-SCHOOL USE

Ifeelthat isnot experiencing success in school and should get additional help. isin grade at School and has ,problems in the following areas:

Ilis/her age is . Another thing you should know is:

In addition, I feel the following problems(s) might be adding to the student's lack of success: school attendance does not participate in extra. (often absent) curricular activities low self-esteem does not seem to have any school friends is a discipline problem at school seems to feel rejected and/or home by teachers does not see the value of school by peers other areas: others

Please give more information on the problem area(s) you checked:

My relationship with this atudentis: Specify For more information, I can be reached at: Phone:

Please send this form to: Contact person - complete address

EhrenandLenz,researchersatFloridaAtlanticUniversity,andascitedin Florida Department of Education (1986), also make these penetrating observations based on thei- research into the use and application of "profile characteristics":

oIdentificationstudieswiththehighest accuracy frequently u8e data not read- ilyavailable instudentrecords(e.g.,interviews,observations,andpeer tracking).

o Some identificationsystemsuse"catalystvariables"(i.e.,eventsthat immedi= atelyprecedethedecisiontodropout).Profilesrelyingonthesevariables cause identification to occur too late and ignore more long-term factors.

oProfilesthatconsist of alistof variablesorcriteriaoften do not ptovide adequatedirectionbecause they do notidentifythemostimportantfactors, account for certain combinations of variablesthat may be predictive,identify

106 thecriticaltimesatwhich certain events must occur, and adequately define the variables on the list.

oIdentification systems may notberelatedtothe availableinterventions. Many systems or profiles contain a wide variety of factors that are not addressed by existing dropout prevention programs in a school district.

oAlthoughvariables suchas socioeconomic status,sex, andracial/ethnicgroup often have predictive power, thesearefairlyuseless when the majority of a school's student population is associated with these variables.

oProfiles view dropping out asbeing caused by "student problems" rather than "system or school problems." Recent researchindicates that some school characteristics may beasimportantascharacteristicsof studentsattending them and that both points of view must be considered. (pp. 8-13-18)

WehlageandSmith(1986)indicatethatthoseadvocatingearlyidentification assumethatthecharacteristicsof dropout-prone studentsarerelativelyeasytospot inthe elementary years and that early interventionismost, appropriate. This approach isbased on the assumptionthat academic deficiencies and thefailure syndrome that follows are the primary cause of dropping out. The strategies most often advocated are early childhood education programs, remediation (especiallyin reading and math) and coordinated social services to deal with nonschool problems. Although they concur that there is some merit in this argument, four problems exist when considering the implications of this position.

First,theyraisethe question of whether or notitispossibletoidentify with sufficientaccuracythedropout-pronepopulationatanearlyage.Iferrorsshould occur,two questionsarise: What are the consequences tothoseinneed of interventions that did not receive them?, and What are the consequences for intervening with students who might not benefit from the treatment or services? Since students become at-ris:,`'ordifferentreasonsandatdifferenttimes, we must beinapositionto respond appropriately. Not all causes are longstanding; some students dropout because they become pregnant, suffer from drug abuse, react tc a family breakup,or are affected by personal problems. Since each conditionisnotlikelytobe foreseeninearly identification, such intervention is not always possible.

The second concern deals with theissue of the extent the earlyidentification/ interventionstrategyproducesatypeofmentalitythatseesthesestudentsbasically assick." The responsecallsfor diagnosis and treatment by individuals charged with the responsibility of "fixing up" at-risk youth. Thatis,the problemiswrit the student. Also, one of the unintended effects perhaps may be tocreate a new category of "socialdeviants."Earlyidentificationunintentionallymayresult inearlynegative labeling that actually may exacerbate some students' problems. The dangerof promoting afragmented strategyof treatingstudentsalsocoulddivert attentionfrom some of the more fundamental school changes that are needed.

The third point has to do with theissue of what additional interventions middle schoolscouldintroduce(assumingsuccessfulidentificationispossible)thatarenot alreadypartof ourrepertoire.Schoolsare committedtoteachingbasicskillstoall youngsters and an array of programs are attempting to dothis.Hence, Wehlage and Smith ask these questions: How much more remediationcan students profit from?, and

107 What will such interventions cost in time and energy taken away from other academic and 1.3riaculemic activities--including enrichment?

Thelastpoint may bethe most important one, namely, thereisno reasonto beii,v3thatearlyidentification/interventionwilleliminatetheneedforspecialpro- nram:: inhigh schools for a substantial number of students. Even if early intervention were successful in eliminating the academic problems of some students, a sizeable group whose at-riskcharacteristicslikelywillpersistandwillrequirecontinuedinterven- tionthroughhighschool. An adequatelevelof academicskillsintheearlygrades does notguaranteetheprevention of students from dropping out.Accordingto one study, about 30 percent of the dropouts in Chicago several years ago were reading at or above grave level.In another study, many dropouts were found tobe above national norms inbasic skills.It was also noted thatto the extent schools can implement suc- cessfulearlyidentification/interventionsuchpracticeslikelywillincreasethenum- berofstudentsidentifiedasat-risk.Thiscouldresultina"built-inexpectation" of special programming for this group from the time of early identification to the end oftheirschoolyears.Although noidentificationsystemisinfallible,onecarefully designed to avoid these problems and pitfalls can be a useful toolfor taking effective preventive action. The concept of youth advocacy implies that we need to develop special programs for those who need them--as long as they need them.

Building Self-Esteem

Wehlage and Smith(1986)report that Wehlage and another colleague found measures of self-esteem among dropouts actuallyroseafter theyleftschool. This suggeststhat perhaps the studentsinthe studyfeltbetter about themselves after leaving an environment that for them produced negative experiences.

Self-perception, self-esteem, self-concept--all are interrelated and all are highly relevant tothe dropout issue. According to Beane, Lipka, and Ludewig(1980), self-perceptionappearstofunctionatthreelevels:specificsituation,categorical, andgeneral.Forexample, weallareinvolvedinspecificsituationsinwhich we developideasabout our knowledge, skills,beliefs,and attitudes.Second,asafunc- tion of experience, we all have perceptions about ourselves based on various roles we play and attributes we believe we have. Third, all of us seem to have a general sense ofself basedondecisionsaboutour"situationexperiences"and"categorical perceptions."

Also, accordingtoBeane andhiscolleagues,self-perceptionappearstoinvolve thesethreedimensions:self-concept,self esteem,andvalues. Theformerrefersto description we hold of ourselves based on theroles we play and attributes we believe we have."Self-esteemreferstothelevelof satisfaction we attachtothatdescrip- tionorparts ofit.Self-esteem decisiors are made on the basis of whatisimportant tous,thatis,our values" (Beane, Lipka, and Ludewig 1980,p. 84). This distinction isimportant for us for two reasons.First. since our values may not be the same as ourstudents'values, we cannotinferthattheyhavepositiveself-esteemregarding particularaspectsoftheirlivesjustbecausewewould.Second,whentryingto enhance self-perceptions, we need to be certain which aspect of the self we are dealing with.

108 Theliteratureisfilledwithassortedinsightsintotheserelatedconcepts.For example:

oResearchersandeducatorstendtocharacterizeself-esteeminavarietyof ways;self-esteem,worth,respect,andimageallindicateasenseofwell- being,feeling good about oneself, a belief that oneislovable and worthwhile. The key factors are a nurturing climate of acceptance and experience with success. (Gordon and Ever ly n.d.)

oInthe scores of research studiesthat have been conducted onthistopic,a persistentrelationshipapparentlyhasbeen found between variousaspectsof self-perceptionandawidevarietyofschool-relatedvariables,forexample, achievement,perceivedsocialstatus among peers,participationindiscussions, schoolcompletion,perceptionsofpeersandteachers,prosocialbehavior, and self-direction in learning. (Beane, Lipka, and Ludewig 1980)

oItappears that self-perceptions areto some extent age-related and are largely influenced by persons we perceive as"significantothers."In childhood, parents serve asthe most significant others and, hence, have the most influence onself-perceptions."Questionsofselftakeon major importanceinadoles- cenceasthatage group confrontstheclassicidentitycrisis."(Beane,Lipka, and Ludewig 1980, p. 84)

oStudents carry images of the selfin several areasas well as the potential for developing more. These include the self as person,learner, academic achiever, pee', and others. Every school experience can affect self-concept, values, and subsequent self-esteem. For thisreason, an understanding of how schools might enhance or hinder self-esteem must be a major concern of those responsible for the curriculum. (Beane, Lipka, and Ludewig 1980)

oAs individuals get older,theirroles increase,their awareness of the environment is more acute and their self-perceptions are more complex. The longerwe delay efforts to enhance self-perceptions--or continue to hinder them--themore difficult our supportive role becomes. (Beane, Lipka, and Ludewig 1980)

oTeachers and counselors need to be aware that since general perceptions ofself arerather stable, consistent and positivefeedbackwillhave more effect than a few random compliments. (Beane, Lipka, and Ludewig 1980)

oItisgenerallyacceptedthatschoolsfosterlearninginavarietyofareas, includingpersonalandsocialdevelopment."Intrinsictothenotionofthe `hidden' curriculumisthe idea that the self and social outcomes of schooling are atleastas,if not more powerful than, academic outcomes." (Beane, Lipka, and Ludewig 1980, p. 84)

oVulnerable students must have opportunities to experiencesuccess. School projects,therefore, shouldbe developedfor young adolescents who feeluseless, worthless, or inferior that enable them to helpsomeone who is even more vulnerable. (Gordon and Ever ly n.d.)

109 oOn the basis of our experience, people who feel good about themselves generally have a sense of humor that isnot based upon putting other people down, know howtolisten,have a passionateinterestin some things, are tolerant of the changing moods of others, appreciate the success of others, have sympathy for thefailuresof others,are sensitivetotheneeds of others,arenot sure of everything, can offerlove unselfishly, and help other peoplefeel good about themselves. (Gordon and Ever ly n.d.)

The concept of locusof controliscloselyrelatedtoself-esteem. Wehlage and Rutter (1986) arguethatimplicitinthe purpose of schoolingarethegoals of self- development, self-management,rationaldecision making, and controlof one's circum- stancesandopportunitiesthroughtheacquisitionofknowledgeandskills.These goals,they maintain, shouldhelpstudents acquirepositiveself-concepts andlearnto take responsibility for their actions.

Specifically,interms of locus of control, Wehlage and Rutter (1986) found that each group generally experienced movement toward a more internal locus of control. The amount of change varied considerably by group. For example, college-bound Hispanics showed the largest change toward internal control; Hispanic noncompleters showed a sim- ilarmovement althoughtheyremainedrelativelyexternallyoriented.Forblacks,the difference between noncompleters and schoolstay-ins widened substantially. This sug- gestedto the researchers thatif the amount of change toward internal controlisused as a standard, then the data do not support the argument that noncompleters would have benefited bystayinginschool(exceptinthecaseofblacks). They concludethat dropouts begin with asignificantly different orientation toward control and, hence,it may be that the school withitspresent reward structure cannot be expectedto have much impact on thisfactor.Inthis sense, according to the researchers, noncompletic- may bethe appropriate decision for some youth who seek to gain a sense of control through participation in adult activities.

With regardtolowself-esteem,itisfairtonotethatavulnerableperson's self-esteemislowered when heorsheinternalizesnegativefeelingsreceived.This process,termed "identification with theaggressor," not only denotes one of the characteristics of low self-esteem, but also producesinsightinto how self-esteemislowered. Negative feelings about one's self undermines confidence thatthe world presents "awelterofopportunitieswaitingtobeseized."Personswithlow self-esteemno longerfeelsecureintheir capacity to cope withthe challenges of self-development. Problematic circumstances create a great deal of anxiety for them. Consequently, frus- trationcannotbeeasilytolerated.A primarycharacteristicoflowself-esteemis preciselythislowtoleranceforfrustration--coupledwith a highanxietylevel (Fennimore 1988).

Analysisof thecharacteristics and dynamics of low self-esteem suggestsseveral generalstrategiestopreserve and promoteself-esteem.Ifindividualswith lowself - esteem have internalized the negative feedback of others, thenit seems natural to surround theseindividualswithpositive,supportivepersonstocounteractprior negative feedback.Identificationwithsupportiveindividualsisonebroadstrategytofoster self-esteem.Another generalstrategyissuggestedby theat-riskstudents' low toler- anceforfrustration.Ifindividualswithlowself-esteemareeasilyfrustrated,the reasonable course of actionistoprovide them with more immediate gratification by giving them easily accomplished tasks or focusing on tasks at which they are or can be

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I proficient. Connected withthis approachisthe strategythat putsinplace opportuni- tiesforthese studentstosucceed. Some of these opportunitieslieoutsidethosetra- ditionallyofferedbyschools,areasthatoftenareinaccessibleduetothestudents currentskill level,pastfrustrations,andlackofavailablesupport(Fennimore 1988).

Fennimore (1988) also summarizes his position with the following simple overview that summarize the suggested efforts to address the problem of low self-esteem: o Two major characteristics of low self-esteem--

- - Identification with the aggressor -- Low tolerance for frustration o Two general strategies to preserve self-esteem-- -- Identification with positive, supportive individuals -- Provision of immediate gratification o Two general strategies to promote self-esteem-- -- Provision of success experiences - - Enhancement of sense of belongingness

Professor Sol Gordon and 1 of his colleagues suggest 20 projectsfor "vulnerable students" (Gordon and Ever lyn.d.).The followingselectedprojects seem targetedto middle and junior high school staff:

oEncouragevulnerablestudentstoconductprojectsaspartofacivicclub designed to help the indigent, lonely, and elderly people in thecommunity.

oRecruit students from a community collegetoactasbigbrothers/sistersto vulnerable students who, in turn, could be trained fora similar role.

oAsk graduating students to volunteer as "buddies" to work with withdrawnyouth. Thepurpose is to teachsocial,andotherskillssuchasbasketballor dancing.

oHavetalentshows,dress-updays,andartcontestswithprizesforslogans, poems, original songs, posters, and short stories. oTrain a small number of students, as part ofa teen peer advocacy project, to provide information about contraceptionas well as support for peers who don't want to engage in sexual activity.

Gordon andEverly alsobelieve thebest response to enhancing self-esteemisby initiatingthese types ofconstructiveactivities,activities in contrast to those focusedsolely on discussionand/orverbalclarificationof values.Educationinself- esteemisequallyimportantforvulnerable youthand,forsociety.Fortheseyouth, "gettingbacktobasics"firstshould mean learningtofeelgoodaboutthemselves.

I I I

i 4 0 Withoutthisfoundation,itisdifficultfor themtocarefor,respect,orlearn anything else.

Several other relevant suggestions are as follows:

o"ThisIsMe"isa photographic approachtoimproving students' self-concepts. Studentslearnbasicphotography,including how touse cameras and how to develop and process film. They select subjects through which they explore the past and present and from which they can tryto project the future and their relationshipswithit.Studentsdisplaytheiraccomplishments,receiverecog- nitionfortheircreativity,and begintosenseafutureforthemselves. Goal settingevolvesasstudentsdiscovertheirpotentialtodeterminewhatthey will become.

o"Be a Better You," a workshop for junior high girls designed to encourage positive self-concepts, uses a cosmetologist and a public health nurse who provide theparticipantswithinstructioninappearanceandbodilycare.Followup adtivitiesincludegrooming,clothesbudgeting,mealplanning,andexercise. (Johnston 1985)

oAnotherapproach is toprovidecurriculumunitsspecificallydesignedto enhance self-esteem. For example, through such unitsas "Developing My Per- sonal Values," "Getting Along with Others," "Livingin Our School," or similar interest/need-centeredtopics,studentshavetheopportunitytoexploreper- sonalissues andto think about arm make decisions regarding self-perceptions. Studyingsuchpersonallyimportantproblemsandcreatingorconstructing related projects provides an excellent opportunity' to develop a strong sense of self.(Beane, Lipka, and Ludewig 1980) An excellent setof teacher/counselor workshop materials were developed by a non- publicschoolgroupcalled"70001ofIndianapolis,"ayouthtrainingassociation.It isentitled "What Can We Do?" (For more information, contact 70001 of Indianapolis, 11 South Meridian Street, Indianapolis, Indiana 46204.)

Counseling and Support Services Often counseling and advising are one-to-one or small-group activities intended to facilitatestudents'developmentofself-esteem,self-awareness,understandingatti- tudesandrelationships,andunderstandingof availableoptionsan possibleconse- quences of school andlifedecisions (Cox etal.1985). Althoughallschools provide counseling, some apparently defineitin much narrower terms than the definition just presented,thatis,students get some guidanceinselecting,scheduling, and changing courses. One of the problems, of course,isthat many schools have so few counselors that studentsfeel luckyif they talkto a counselor more than once or twice ayear. Often, only students with special needs have access to a broad range of counselingser- vices.Thereislittlequestionthatmiddle schoolsneedtoprovidemorecounseling services.Infact, many witnesses atthe hearings of the National Coalition of Advo- catesfor Students(1985)linktheschool dropout problemtothelackof counseling especially at the middle and junior high school level.

112 A *tidy conducted inCalifornia several yeacs ago (Assembly of Office Research n.d.) showed that access to counselors islimited by the low number of available counselors and the large number of students each counselor must serve. The counselor-student ratios for grades K-8 in California from 1976 to 1983 were as follows:

o 1976-77 school year (1:3905 ratio)

o 1979-80 school year (1:3704 ratio)

o 1983-84 school year (1:3445 ratio) Although more than counseling;' reeded to deal with such problems as teenage pregnancy and substance abuse,goo.: counselingisfundamentaltoworking out these problems.Yet,accordingtotheCommission of Precollege Guidance and Counseling (1986), middle and junior high schools have fewer guidance and counseling services than high schools. A districtwide K -12 guidance and counseling plan would provide schools with a basis for more direct targeting of students who need help. Although the commis- sionrecognizesthat adding counseling servicesattheearly and middle schoollevels mightplacean added"fiscalstrain" on schooldistricts,they"callattentiontothe convincing evidence from our dialogues and studies of the importance of early intervention and support particularly for students who traditionally have not been well served by the schools" (p. 17). Few of the recent proposals for school reform address the need for supportive services.Insteadtheytendtofocusprimarilyonacademicaspects,suggestingthat schoolsfulfillonlyanarrowroleinrelationtostudents'lives.Seemingly,they view theseservicesaslittlemore than"frills"thatwater down the curriculum and lower the standards. The National Coalition of Advocates for Students (1985) disagrees with that position and argues that ignoring problems brought to school by students will not make these problems go away. Many recognize this reality and spend hours helping kids with their problems. However, we should not have to rely solelyon the good will of individualteachers or counselors for these important3rvicesto meet the needs of young adolescents.

As Cole(1981)acknowledges,the;nIddleschoolhas eme.gedinthelasttwo decadesasaschoolfocused onfacilitatingthe development of young adolescents. A clearlyevidentguidancefunction,therefore,mustexistin ninstitutionbasedon developmentaltasks of theseyoungsters. Suet' a program must be an integral part of the school.

Guidance and counseling atthislevelshe help students make intelligent deci- sionsaboutpresentandfutureeducationalal, prevocationalchoices(Arthetal. 1985).Studentsneedhelpinresolvingboth educational and personal problems. Cer- tainly one of the goalsisoffering career-related counseling tohelp young adolescents identifytheirskillsandinterests,understandthejobmarket, and make short- and long-range career plans. The Commission on Precollege Guidance and Counseling(1986) stressesthefactthatstudents from low-income families- -ruralaswellasurban - -are lesslikelytohave accesstoguidance counseling.Also,students who lackaccessto counseling are more likely to be placed on nonacademic "tracks" andtake fewer academic courses.

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I A young woman returned to school through an alternative program set up to provide counseling and other services to former dropouts. When asked what made her returnpos- sible, she simply answered: "They talkedto me. They had me bring in my parents and we allsat down and talked. They seemed to care" (National Coalition of Advocates for Students 1985,p. 57).Thattypeof counseling/advocacymustpermeateallschools. The entireschool -- classrooms,hallways,cafeterias--needstobe viewed aslegitimate places for such guidance and counseling.

According to Clark and Irizarry (1986), counseling programs for high-risk students inthe middle schools place greater emphasis on guidance services and group counseling, parent outreach and involvement, teacher-run counseling sessions, and teacher "ombudsman" programs. Some of the different approaches follow:

oGuidance servicesin some middle schools focus on small-group counseling to improvemotivation,self-esteem,and/ordecision-makingskillsandintensive individualized counselingtodealwithstudents'personal problemsthat affect their attendance or performance. (Clark and Irizarry 1986)

oThe availability and accessibility of support services needed tohelp some students remain inschool arevital. The school staffassists studentsinidenti- fying and obtaining help ranging from what can be provided by peers and mentors to such social services as child care, transportation, and health care. (Public/Private Ventures n.d.)

oHigh-risk counseling tends to be conducted one-on-one with students considered to be at-risk of dropping out. Counseling teams generally are assigned by district offices. Frequent home contact is maintained. Variations in the approach focus on ninth-grade students who may have difficulty making the tran- sitionto high school and students who have been retained or have insufficient credits to move to the next level.(Clark and Irizarry 1986)

o Teacher mentoring involves assigning several(threeor four) high-risk students to ateacher who isin daily contact with them. The purposeisto nurture a "bonding" between student and teacher, where students know someone will care if theyskipclasses,failcourses,don't show up, don't do homework, or need advice. (Clark and Irizarry 1986)

oTeacher ombudsman programs in middle schools are similar to teacher mentoring, except that teachers work with small groups rather than one-on-one. The purpose of the group sessions--which often take place before and after school--is to reduce student absenteeism and involve them intheir studies. Some schools conduct staff development to help teachers carry out this function. (Clark and Irizarry 1986)

oParent outreachisanintegralpartof severalmiddle school counseling programs.Parent workshops provide guidance on improving children's self-esteem and motivation, helping them with school or home work, and emphasizing the importance of goingto school and having positive attitudes towardit.Several schools hold evening counseling and workshop sessions jointly for parents and students. (Clark and Irizarry 1986)

114 oPeer counseling offers students the opportunity to develop a sense of belonging andusefulness. This oftenisaccomplishedthroughthe exchange ofpositive experiencesinanonthreateningenvironment.Peercounselorsalsohelpone another invarious aspects of decision making. Also, students enrolledin peer counseling courses develop communicationsskillsthatthey usetohelp others become more self-aware. Some placeshave set up "familyunits" composed of four or five peers and a concerned professionalor trained volunteer to provide this type of support. (Florida Department of Education 1986) oReality therapy focuses on teaching youthto be responsible for their actions. The approach--developed by William Glasser--usuallyis implemented in groups. Its aim isto help youth help themselves and others in the group by developing self-esteemand acceptanceofothers,whichinturncanresultinpositive, constructive relationships. (Florida Department of Education 1986)

oValuesclarification.Duringthemiddlegrades,youngadolescentsoftenare subjectedtogreatstressregardingtheirfeelingsandbeliefsastheypass from dependence on adult patterns toward th' acquisition of theirown permanent attitudes.Schoo;shavetheopportunity--andresponsibility--tohelpstudents gainbaf,,icvaluesessentialtotheirwell-being.Allteachersshouldcontrib- ute, but the leadership must come from the guidance professionals. Also,close cooperation with parentsisessential (Morrison 1978). According to Simon and hiscolleagues(1972),theresearchconducted withstudents who havebeen involved invaluesclarificationshowsthattheyarelessapathetic, less "flighty," more energetic, and more likelyto follow through on decisions than those who havenotbeen exposedtosuchaffectiveactivities.Underachievers who have engaged in such activitiesalsotendtoexperience more successin school.

Somuchhasbeenwrittenaboutcareerawareness andexplorationcounseling including Herr and Cramer's (1984) Career Guidanceand Counseling Through the Life Span and Gysbers and associates' (1984) Designing Careers. Herrand Cramer's Chap- ter8 dealssolely with career guidance inthe middle and junior high school and,at onepoint,touchesdirectlyoncareercounselingforearlyschool-leavers.Gysbers' book includes sections by various experts on providingcareer guidance for the economically disadvantaged and students with handicappingconditions plus career development programs and practices in C.4 schools in general.

Inthisregard,Otte and Sharpe (1979)reportaninteresting study done several yearsagoontheeffectsofcareerexplorationonthreevariables:self-esteem, achievement motivation, and occupational knowledge. Theirmain theme is that knowledge of avariety of possible career alternativesincreasestheprobability of anindividual choosing arealistic and rewarding occupation.In additiontoclass work intheir regular classroom, students in the experimentalprogram were exposed to a program with two major emphases:(I) individual "hands-on" work experiences,firstintheschool and then inbusinessestablishments,and(2) organizedgroupguidanceactivities.The coordinatorreinforcedpositiveself-concepts,initiatedroleplayingtoenablestu- dentstodealwithfrustratingexperiencesinnew ways,praisedstudentsfrequently, and displayed personal enthusiasm by workingextratoarrangefieldtrips and guest speakers. The hypothesis wasthatinner-city seventh-graders exposedtoone semester of career explorationinvolving actual work experience (fieldtripsto work sites) and group activities would score higher on measures of variablesthan similar students not

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.. , _ I. #..., J ; inthe career exploration program. Among other points,theresearchers concludedthat (1) low-self-esteemindividualsarelessrealisticinevaluatingthemselvesandthus lesslikelytochoose occupations that meet their needs and (2) achieve, lentmotivation isfundamentaltosuccess and occupational knowledgeisacriticalfactorindecision making.

Severalstateshave identified outreach types of counseling servicesthat might be incorporated in a plan:

oStudent hotline. A telephone counseling servicestaffedby professional coun- selorsissetup. Students can callin about personal problems or any ques- tionspertainingtoschool. Hence,the counselors must be knowledgeable about the school system. Night hours may be includedto enable studentsto callin caseof emergencies. Theservicealsocouldserveasareferralserviceto localagenciessuchashospitalsandmentalhealthagencies.Thisapproach ofteniscoordinated through existing community agencies. (Florida Department of Education 1986)

oIntraschoolreferralsfor extended schooldaystudents.Inordertouseall available resources, extended school day programs have developed an approach to providingservices.Theservicedeliveryincludesareferralprocessthat enablesextendedschooldaystudentstoaccessthefullrangeofservices available to allstudents: socialservices,pxychologicalservices,migrant educationservices,servicestostudentswithidentifiedexceptionalities,and services available through vocational education. (North Carolina Department of Public Instruction 1986)

oFormer dropouts counseling potential dropouts. School dropouts who have reen- teredschool providepositiverole modelsfordropout-prone studentsinthat theyrelate"real-life"experiencesandare"livingtestimony"totheconse- quences of dropping out. (Florida Department of Education 1986) The Commission on Precollege Guidance Counseling (1986) recommends that coun- selingyoungadolescentsshouldincludeinformation aboutcollegeandfinancialaid opportunitiesthattraditionallyareleftuntilthelastfewyearsofhighschool. This information should be shared with both students and their parents, with increasing specificityregardingtheapplicationprocessfor bothadmission andfinancing. When choices about coursesaremade,itisimportantfor students and parentstobelieve thatcollegeisa realpossibility,financiallyandacademically.Withoutthisinfor- mation, young adolescentsarelikelytomake choicesthatlimitrather than advance their aspirations. Four major roles have been identified for middle school guidance personnel: counseling,consulting,coordinating,andfunctioningasaspecialistincertainareasof thecurriculum(Cole1981).Colefurtheridentifies16distinctfunctionsof middle school guidance personnel, including the following:

oHelping students becomo aware of growth patterns by providing classroom and group guidance in career, personal, and social development

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A-2 1 oServing asa resource personforteachers,parents, and others for techniques useful with this age group

oIncreasing communication by linking with students, parents, and the community

oBeing active in public relationsinthe community both far the guidance program and the school

o Using tests and other assessment methods to promote student self-knowledge

oOrganizing orientation programs so film a smooth transitionoccurs between the elementary, middle, and secondary levels.

Consultationinvolves working more indirectlywithteachers,principals,parents, peers, and otherstobring about change for theindividual student. Helpinj teachers designactivitiessothatstudentscangetalongbetteringroups or planning career educationunitsfor students are some ways we act as consultants. Oftenwe describe this age group toparents and othersso they caninteractwith studentswith more understanding. We alsoparticipateas an interdisciplinary team member, conduct parent seminars, andleadstaffinserviceeducationoncharacteristicsof youngadolescents (Cole 1931).

Effectivecoordinatinglikelydoesallowcounselorstoreferstuden'stomore appropriate resources than the guidance program normally provides. Parentswho have trouble allowing their children a measure of independenceor families facing acute dis- tressmay requireextensiveexternalsupport.Also,inadequatephysicalor emotional development may require medicalor psychologicalassistance. Serving asacoordinator of services beyond the guidance program enables counselorsto greatly extend the scope of our services (Cole 1981).

Many "group guidance" programs fall under the role of curriculum specialist,^spe- cially areas such as growth and development,career education and career information, student assessment, and human relations--as well as theprocess of decision making cnd values clarification.Curriculumspecialistsalsohelpotherstafffindanduseper- sonal development materials and designactivitiesfor teacherstouseinadviaor: and "homebase"groups.Further,thecounselor'sroleinhomeroom pros ams caninclude assigningstudentstohomerooms.Leadershipskills,academictalent,athleticability, creativity, and fellowship can be provided in each homeroom and studentsmay be helped with a problem by enlisting the support of fellow homeroommembers. Middle school students,generallyrespondpositivelytorequeststohelp one oftheirpeers. Such a program also provides a systematic way of working with each student regularly. The active support of administratorsisessentialfor afully effective counseling program. Provisionof adequate space,staff,and materials is an administrative responsibility, as isgeneratingenthusiasmforinnovationinguidance programming. Administrative support for such programsas developmental group guidance prevents crit- icismof counselorsititis necessarytohavestudentsmissclassoccasionallyfor group meetings. Administrators can also provide direct guidance to studentsby ,assum- ing responsibility for an advisory or homebasegroup (Cole 1981).

One program that uses a ward' sated approachto counseling isthe HOLD Helping Overcome Learner Dropouts 7.oject (1986). HOLD has developeda classroom guidance manual,apeercounseling nal,and an educationalclinicsupplement. The classroom

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A eft 1 /I ;:.,1 manual containslessonplansandsupportinformationforparentgroups,self-esteem groups, and classroom guidance activities. The peer counseling manual has lesson plans forapeer counselingclass. The supplement provides classroom guidance,peer guidance,andtutoringactivitiesrewrittenfor"educationclinicstudents." The keypro- gramcomponentistheclassroomcounselor.Counselorsarecollegestudents,peer counselors, community members, teachersaides,orteachers who assistthestudentin developing and implementing "success plans." They keep communication flowing between allthesignificantadultsinthestudent'slifeand providesupportforthestudent. HOLD isa prescriptive counseling program designed to increase attendance, self-esteem, andacademicsuccessofpotentialdropouts.Itstargetstudentsareidentifiedin junior high school and the students are counseledto develop individual successplans. Thestrategiesincludepeercounseling,attendancemonitoring,parentinformation, effectiveness training, and classroom guidance (The HOLD Project 1986).

Finally, Bergmann (August/September1986) presentedthefollowing10 steps for counseling middle grade students:

oAcknowledge the presence of the student even if you're busy; make positive eye contact.

oGive the student your fullattention or tell him or her when you will be able to do so. Maintain eye contact if possible. o Move to a quiet, private place.

oIfthestudentdoesn'ttellyoutheproblem,but obviouslyhasone,usea "sense" statement:"I sense that you are troubled, angry, upset--May I help?"

oOffer reassuring statements that show you are listening.

oParaphrase what the student has said. Be sure you understand what real message is being given. Try not to show shock or surprise.

oDon'toffersolutions to the problem.Havethestudentofferpossible alternatives.

oExplore the consequences of each alternative with the student. Don't preach or profess your own values.

oHave the studenttellyou what actionthey think theywilltake. Try toget them to commit to some trial solution.

oArrange to meet or talk with the student later the same day or early the next day. This follow-through is crucial to the student.

Effectiveschoolresearchconsistentlypointstotheimportant counselingroleof teachers,administrators,andotheradultsintheschool.Schools shouldofferincen- tivestotheirstafftobecome bettertrainedinworking withat-risk youth andto improvetheircounselingskills.Also,theseattributescouldbetakenintoaccount when hiring new staff where increased numbers of at-risk youth are enrolled (Sheppard 1986). Additionalsupportpersonnel--guidanceaides,clericalpersons, and other

118 paraprofessional--can free us of much of our routine work and allow us to do the job for which we are trained (Cole 1981).

Advisor/Advisee Programs and Interdisciplinary Teams An advisor-advisee program offers regularly scheduled times during which students have opportunitiestointeract with teachers and fellow students about school andper- sonalconcerns.Thisinteractionallowsteachers tobecomeinvolved in general advising attheclassroomlevelandto recommend students with specialproblemsto guidance personnel and/or parents for follow-up (Arth etal.1985). According to Arth andhiscolleagues, advisor-advisee programs arenotmeant toreplace but ratherto supplementthecounselor'srole.Such programs permit guidancestaffto work with individualsandgroups ofstudentsinordertodealwithproblemsattheironset. Often the problems are of academic importance because they affect student learning.

This strategyisaimed at reducing feelings of alienation and anonymity, particularly by studentsinlargeschools. Assuredly,students who havethe opportunityto participatein such programs benefit from one-on-one interactionsas wellas from the understanding that thereisatleastone person "outthere" who isan understanding advocate (Bergmann August/September 1986). Haupert (n.d.) provides a number of suggestions for advisory activities--including serviceprojectsandfund-raisingactivitiesthatprovidestudentswithopportunities to make decisions (such as where the money will go). Haupert also suggests that advisory activities can be usedas a central communication vehicle through student council, clubs, and athletic programs. Middle school students, shenotes,also enjoy the opportunity to have an "adolescent novel" read to themonce a week or to keep a journal of theirfeelings. Bergmann's many suggestions (August/September 1986)alsoareinstruc- tive, particularly regarding what schools can do to plan and implementthese programs. Her analysisisvaluableinthatshe places advisor-advisee programs asone of nine essential components of middle school guidance programs:

oInadditiontoguidanceprofessionals,allteachers shouldpossessbasic counselingskills.Althoughteachersoftenareuntrainedincounseling,they can begiventraininginlistening,group dynamics,and conferencing. This does not mean that they should become guidance experts--only that they become"sensitive to" guidance issues.

oBoth teachers and principals must recognize the need for bothinformal and for- malguidance.Principalsmustencourageteacherstoteachdecisionmaking, problem solving, and responsibility as a part of their daily curriculum.

oAdvisory sessions give students aconsistentadult and peer group thatmeet: regularly o give them practiceinskillsneededto cope withtheissuesof growingup. Therefore,time mustbe providedfor advisory groups to meet. (Bergmann suggestsatleast 20 minutesin any one session; some groups meet daily, others twice a week.)

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oTeachersandotherschooladultsshouldbetrainedingroupprocessskills before they become involved in formal advisory programs.

oInservice activities should be planned to help teachers prepare for the program andfront-line,"one-to-one"counseling.(Teachers--aswellasstudents--need support.)

oThe formal advisory program should be written as a sequenced guidance curriculum with goals,activities, and methods of evaluation. Some programs have one topicper month withlistsof activitiesthatgroups candiscussor develop: some programs select1 or 2 months as "community service project months."

oHealth information must be made available. Topics such as alcohol, drugs, and sex frequently are on the minds of young adolescents.

oThe "guidance model" should permeate the curriculum. Looking at decisions made in history,for example, can help students develop sensitivityto how persons make choices.

oParents should beinvitedtoparticipateindiscussions.Parent education programs also can focus on guidance issues. Bergmann (August/September 1986) maintains that the implementation of an effective advisory program takes about 3years. She suggests starting with a pilot program of a small group ofinterestedteachers.Counselorshelpprovidetheneeded structure by gathering background information and compiling resources needed to get the program off the ground. Bergmann alsoprovides a number of initial approaches such as exploring advisory models in other middle schools, using homeroom time for guidance issues rather than administrative issues, and assessing opportunities for guidance in the curriculum.

InAdvisor-Advisee Programs: Why, What, and How, author Michael James (1986) anticipates and answers many questions.First of all,heplacesthetopicinitspro- percontext,namely,affectiveeducationinthemiddleschool--theresponsibilityto assistinsocial and emotional as well as academic growth. One of the reasons for the limitedexistenceof affective education programs appearstobethelackofteacher preparation for dealing with the nonacademic aspects of education. Often teachers sim- plyfeelill-prepared.Jamespresentsdetaileddescriptionsofsixsuccessful programs thatillustrate(ashistitlesuggests)why,what, and how-to-doit.Hisanalysisof problems and the many questions on program, adviser, and advisee issues are extremely valuable.

PaulGeorge(1982)detailsfouroperationalphasesofInterdisciplinaryTeam Organization(ITO): organization, community, team teaching, and governmental. 1pthe firstphase,GeorgemaintainsthatanauthenticITO doesnotexistunlessseveral organizational conditions are met,for example, teachers and students on the team are locatedin the same area of the school, teachers generally share the same schedule, and atleasttwo or more subjects are taught to the students by the same combination of teachers.

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-1. .ek.) In phase two, a sense of community must be nurtured. This need must be recognized,goalsset,andactivitiesconductedtowardthatend.Also,bothstudents and teachers need to sense the community feeling. As we know, even we can feel "burnout" and withdraw psychologically from thelifeof the school, and there oftenisthe need to reestablish our feelings of the school as a community.

The thirdphase, team teaching, demands the kinds of communication skillsthat only the more sophisticated educatorspossess." Teamwork especiallyin curriculum and instruction demands an entirely different set of planning skillsthan does individualized teaching.

Last, phase four, governmental, implies that power sharing and group policy making are both the product and process of ITO; this likely requires some form of what George termsarepresentative government system.As George concludes,theinterdisciplinary team organizationismore complex and considerably more variable than educators once believed. However, italso appears to be a more effective and a somewhat hardier variety of educational innovation than might have been expected. George notes that as edu- catorslearnmore aboutthestructureandfunctionof thevariousphasesof team organization and how tofacilitate them, the interdisciplinary team concept seemseven more to become a permanent component of educational practice in the middle grades.

What Is Accommodation?

Miller,Leinhardt,and Zigmond(1987)defineaccommodationasenvironmental responsivenesstothe needs and/or desires of students,or an effortto adjust certain mechanisms of the schooltobrin2, them closerinlinewith adolescents' developmental needs.Italsoisa willingnessto compromise inorder toreconcile student needs and educators' "demands."

The goals of accommodation are to modify the demands made of students,to provide support for students in meeting those demands, and to provide alternate means by which studentsmaymeetthesedemands.Accommodationoperatesatvariouslevels,for example:

oInstitutional accommodationisa concern for student needs thatisreflected in the policies and process which govern the school, in policies that aimto keep students functioning in school, or when some policy is adapted--or overlooked-- for individual students or particular groups.

oClassroom accommodation reflects adjustmentsinresponseto students'learning levels and capabilities. Most classroom accommodations have to do withadjust- ments insetting demands. These may take the form of simplifyinga task or reducingthecomplexity of apresentation. Other modifications arereflected in ways we help students enhance their performance.

oPersonal accommodation isa response to meet the personal needs of individual student...Itisreflectedinthewaysinwhichclasstimeisallocatedto attendto personalrather than academic matters; or,it may relateto the personal interest that we show in students.

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I, , x , $1/4") Attheinstitutionallevel,accommodationisnotedintworespects:(1) thepoli- ciesthat govern the school reflecta concern for maximizing a student's chances of successfully meetingtheschool's demands, and(2) thepoliciestake onadegree of flexibilitythatenablesthestafftoadjustconditionstoindividualcircumstances. One of the best examples ofthisisthe school response toafairly strict attendance and promotion policy that had serious implications for at-risk students sinceitwould makeit"virtuallyimpossible"forthose with poor attendancetopass any oftheir classes and, thus, ensure retention.

Institutionalaccommodationisseenina policy adjustmentthat gave students a second (or more) chance to pass. By attending an after-school program, students were allowed to "buy back" unexcused absences and clear their records. Attendance of three after-schoolsessions {I1/2 hours each) "bought back" one unexcused absence. Hence, theoreticallyit was possible for a studentto miss up to 45 days inthe beginning of the year and still have enough days left to make up the time in the after-school program.Duringtheafter-schoolperiod,studentsattemptedtocompletetheirschool work.

Classroom accommodations are the ways teachers modify their demands in response to students who may have trouble meeting higher levels of demand. Itis addressed in the selectioncccurriculummaterials,instructionaldeliverymethods,requiredacademic tasks, and assessment procedures. In terms of curriculum materials,this means simpli- fying tasksrequired of the studentsas wellas the content of courses. For example, one teacherin the study confided that each math class was actually taught at a level below the one suggested by itstitle. Thus, a classlisted as "academic" was actually taught at a "general" level, and a "general" class was taught at the "remedial" level. Accommodation was further evident in the way teachers delivered instruction. Some choseameansofdeliverythatlessenedtheskillsrequiredof studentstoacquire information.Forexample,socialstudiesstudentstypicallyarerequiredtodraw information from reading thetext. Studentsin one class, however, were almost never requiredtoexercise such skillbecause the teacher readthetextaloud. As students followed,the teacher stoppedintermittentlytodefine terms,give examples, or para- phrase the main ideas. Two other forms of delivery were observedthat helped students who had poor notetakingskillstorecord importantinformation. One wasanotetakingguidethat consistedofadittooutlineofinformationthattheteacherreviewed.Invarious placesinthe guide, important information was left blank and students were asked to fillinthemissinginformation.Inavariationofthistechnique,theteacher wrote on the chalkboard or overhead projector slide an outline of the important points that students copied. By and large,these notetaking guides presented the materialin such a way that independent thought was unnecessary.

Evaluation of student performance reflected accommodation inseveral ways. First, student grades were determined not only by their test scores, but also by the number of homework assignmentsstudentscompleted.Second,evenduringtimesofacademic accountability(suchasduringtesting),teachersoftengavestudents"a break"to enhance their performance. Also, an extremely high degree of overlap existed between tests and instruction. A final example of accommodationinassessment was evident in therelatively low levels of cognitive demand of theteststhemselves, a natural out-

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1r.' -; ;, come of the high degree of overlap between study guides, review sheets, and the tests themselves.

Last, personal accommodation relatestothe personal relationship between individual students andteachers andtothegenerallevel of teacher involvement with students,theirexpressionsofinterest,acceptance,andsupport.Italsomanifests itselfinteacherresponsivenesstoindividualstudentneeds,either academic or nonacademic. After over 200 classroom observations and interviews with students, the researchers' impression was that although accommodation may be helpfulinreducing extreme levelsof "disengagement,"itdidnotnecessarilypromoteactiveengagement.Indeed, they concludeitmay have some unintended negativesideeffectsthatlimit the students'academic engagement and what they get from school. One sideeffectisthe expectations students develop that accommodations always will be made. These expecta- tionsareobviousattheinstitutionalaswellaspersonallevel.For example, one student was unconcerned that he was not meeting attendance requirements because he expected that some "arrangement" would be made to help him pass, as had been done before. A secondsideeffectisthat schoollearningdidnotrequire even moderate levels of active engagement with the instructional content. For example, some students apparently spent a great deal of time "shuffling" information from one form to another without really absorbing anything. They copied informationintotheir notebooks, read italoud, recopiediton their homework papers, but oftenpaidlittleattentiontothe informationitself. Some students participatedindiscussions and did wellin homework assignments as long asthe study guides or outlines were in front of them. They ran into difficulty, however, every time they were required to use the information without the guide. Also, students apparently asked few questions or demonstrated much curiosity.Last,athirdside effect was student boredom and apathy. Because students were studying low-levelcurricula,they apparentlyfeltbored bytheir academic experience and felt they had been exposed to the same material too often. Some forms of accommodation may not be the best preparation for the world beyond school.Astheresearchersobserve,believingthattherealwayswillbea"second chance," learningthattoget through without significantchallenges, and being bored may teachstudentstolookforsecondchances,nottoseekchallengesortobe persistent.

Discussion Items

I. How well are we meeting the developmental needs of our students? 2. How are we attemptingtobe responsivetotheirvarious developmental needs (e.g., fordiversity,forstructureandclearlimits,forcompetenceand achievement,forpositivesocialinteractionwithadults and other students,for meaningfulparticipationinactivitiesinboththe schooland community, and for physical activity)? 3. What are our expectations for our students? 4. Flow do we "rate" on the Expectations Survey (see exhibit 12)? 5. What specific procedures should we consider with regard to "early identification?"

123 6. How can we avoid thevariousproblems--caveats--that relate to"early identification ?" 7. What can we do to ensure that we have developed a consistent direction for our total dropout prevention program, K-12? 8. How can we build self-esteem in our students--all of them, not just the dropout- prone? What specific strategies can we use? 9. What counseling and support services are we now providing? What other services might we provide? 10. What related programs do we havein place (e.g.,teenage pregnancy, substance abuse, and so forth)? I I. Whatarewe doing withregardtoreferralstootherappropriate community agencies? 12. Whatarewe doingwithregardtocareer-relatedcounseling?Whatisour approach to begin developing employability skills? 13. Whatspecifictypesofcounselingmight weofferthatwedonotoffer currently? 14. What "outreach" types of counseling services might we provide? 15. Isthe environmer,inwhich our counselors operate conducivetoan effective program? 16. What counseling roles can classroom teachers play? 17. What counseling roles can administrators play? 18. What areappropriate counselingrolesforparents and otherindividualsinthe community? 19. What staff development programs are needed with regard to counseling? 20.Do we have an advisor-advisee program--and does it appear to be effective? 21. Do we use interdisciplinary teams--and do they appear to be effective? 22.Whatis our (realistic) conception of "accommodation," and how do we seeitin terms of "advocacy?"

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1.. z:,) WHAT DO WE NEED TO DO TODAY? oAdditional Planning 127 oEvaluation Techniques 129 oStaffing Patterns and Staff Development Programs 132 oAdministrator Roles 133 oCreating Effective Middle Schools 134 oDiscussion Items 140

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le, - 1 ,) 3 WHAT DO WE NEED TO DO TODAY?

Additional Planning Good lad (1983b) maintains that there needs to be extensive dialogue at the school anddistrictlevelsregardingthemeansoffulfillingourgoals.Hebelievesthe agenda of teachers, counselors, and principals should include both dialogue and action onsensitivemattersofcurriculumandinstructionthatappeartoberesistantto change. He suggests that we set into motion a continuing planning process that focuses first on the conditions enhancing--or inhibiting--the healthy functioning ofour school and thentocreateacapabilityfor schoolrenewal.Results do not come overnight; they require a sizeable investment of time and energy.

A number of specificsuggestionsfor planning dropout prevention strategies are available.Theliterature is "teeming"with"thislistoffivepoints"or"thatlist ofsevensuggestions."Forexample,Willis(1986)recommendsfourbroadplanning activities:(I) acceptanceofthe strategy, (2) identificationof specificdropout preventioncomponents,(3) implementationofadeliverysystem,and(4) evaluation, Uhrmacher(1935)presents aseven-stepplan:(1) gatheringinterestedpeople--and establishinggoals,(2) findingsourcesofsupport,(3) determining what needstobe done,(4) involving studentsas much aspossibleintheplanning,(5) solicitingsup- port inthe school for the proposed programs, (6) moving the projects from pilotstatus to full-fledged programs, and (7) expanding them to other schools as needed. Hissug- gestion is tostartsmallbutplanlong-term.Potentialsourcesofsupportinclude stateremediationfunds,stateorfederalvocationalfunds,statedropoutprevention funds,state summer school funds,localor state Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA) funds,localeducation funds,orspecialproject funds generated bythestategenera! assembly.

Dougherty andPalen(n.d.)alsoofferseveralplanningsuggestionsforseeking supportfromtheschool'sadministrativestaffandschoolboard,includingthe following:

oDocument and describethestudentsleavingthe schoolsystem,includingthe reasons for leaving.

oDetermine the additional stateaides that would be receivedif dropouts, noncompleters, and early school leavers stayed in school.

oDevelop afile documenting school staff time,activities, and thelike devoted tostudentsidentifiedaspotentialdropouts.Thisreportcouldhelpestablish theneedfordropoutpreventionefforts,staff,adjustedstaffresponsibili- ties, and the like.

oCollectbaseline data so that hard data can be collectedlatertoindicate success of the efforts.

oMeetwithadministrators/schoolbcard members onanindividualbasis,not always in groups or at formal meetings.

127 oIdentify theleaders among the administrators and schoolboard. Gainingtheir supportwillhelpfacilitategainingsupportof otheradministratorsorboard members. oDetermine whether or not an administrator or board member has been assigned the responsibility of dropout prevention. Find out what they are doing, what they think should be done, and so forth. oIdentify asuccessful dropout prevention program inthe system--or elsewhere. Find out why and how it was planned and implemented, who was involved, and why it has been well received and/or funded. oConduct a follow-up of noncompleters (e.g., employment status,later participa- tionintheeducationalsystem,participationinpublicassistanceprograms, and such). Compare this to the cost of helping the individual stay in school. oDocument the success of current or similar programs through case studies, staff evaluations, community reactions, and the like. oPrepare appropriatewrittenreports,presentingthedatainamanner thatis easily understood.

Other planning considerations are as follows: oDescribe the problem asitaffectsthe school and community. Since dropping outoften isa symptomofotherproblems,considertherelatedfactors. Describe the strengths of the school and the con' nunity that can be brought, to bear. ("Dropout Prevention" n.d.) oStatetheobjectivesinmeasurableterms.Theyalsoshouldhavespecified beginning and ending dates.Setpriorities among them. ("Dropout Prevention" n.d.) oConsiderthelegalandethicalaspects.Compulsory attendancelawsarean exampleoflocalfactorsthatneedbeaddressed.Ethicalconsiderationsgo beyond what isprescribed by law. Such considerations focus on the impact a dropout preventionstrategywillhaveboth on studentsandthe community. (Willis 1986) oCommunity characteristicsinfluencetheprogramdesignandstructure.Vari- ables such as unemployment rate, job opportunities, and availability of various services need to be considered. (Willis 1986) oSchoolcharacteristicsalsoaffectthestrategy.Thisincludesnotonlythe physicalsettingbutalsoresources,staffandstudentattitude,availability ofservices(e.g.,counseling,careereducation,andspecialinterestactivi- ties) as well as funding. (Willis 1986)

Articulationalsoisan important planning consideration. The expectationsfor effective middle schools must be firmly rooted in how the middle-level program helps the student bridge the gap between elementary and high school. Articula tion seeks to minimize gaps and overlap in program expectation as students move

128 from one school unit to the next. 'The middle-level program must be planned in cooperation with the elementary school. The planning should encompass both academic and human developmental concerns. (Arth et al. 1986)

The following questions, adapted from Novak and Dougherty, (1986)are designed to assist with the planning process:

ohas the school staff noticed any changes inattitudes toward school among students? Do they have any ideas about what might be affecting these changes?

aIs there any indication that students seem dissatisfied with school?

o Isthestaff concerned abouttheincreasing number of singleparentfamilies and the corresponding effect that it has on students?

oAreparentsof potentialdropoutsinterestedintheeducationalactivitiesof their children?

oHave community members voiced their concern about what happensto dropouts who remain in the community?

oAre local social service agencies overburdened by young people needing service duetovarious economic andsocialreasons(e.g.,unemployment, child abuse, divorce)?

oWhat additional planning steps do we need to consider? What should the planning process include in our situation?

o How do we respondtothesecriticalplanning questions: Where do we stand? What isthe problem? Where do we want to go? How will we get there? Who will do it and when? How will we know if we have succeeded?

Evaluation Techniques

With the exception of 24 programs validated by the federalgovernment's Joint Dis- semination Review Panel in1972, thereislittle evidence that dropout preventionpro- grnms have been significantly evaluated. Although mostprograms keep data on attendance,graduation, and academic progress, accordingto Clark and Irizarry (1986), few have been analyzed extensivelyto determine the causes of their apparent success and how they compare to regular school programs in terms of reduceddropout rates.

Therearesufficientreasonsforconductingevaluations.Untestedassumptions aboutprogrameffectivenesswithoutappropriateevaluationcauseinflatedsuccess stories.Monitoring programsisnecessarytoensurethattheyarebeing implemented accordingtoplan. Data arecrucialespecially when additionalfunds arerequiredto sustainor expand aprogram. Decision makers want to see data showing achievement gains,improved attendance, andthereduction of suspensions andexpulsions. Without supportivedata,programs can only be consideredas"ideas withpotential."Although evaluation normally occurspriorto the end of a project or school year,itmust be

129 thoroughly planned and implemented allyear in orderto produce valid results (Florida Department of Education 1986).

Potentialobjectives must specifyatleastthesethreethings:the outcometobe produced, when or during what time period the outcome will be produced, and the degree to which the outcome will be produced.

Clark and Irizarry (1986) maintainthat(1) much time and effortwill be wasted unless we provide evidence that selected program components are actually the causes for reduced dropout rates and (2) the costs of such programs are reasonable inlight of the measured outcomes. The two researchers also submit that evaluationisdifficult due to variationsinthe definitions of dropouts and the ways they are counted. For example, differences in (1) cohort choice (age versus grade and grade configurations), (2) enrollment accounting (anofficial count at one point in time versus average daily attendance oraveragedailymembership), (3) exclusionof specialgroups(e.g.,learn- ingdisabled,alternativeschoolstudents,andpregnantteenagers),(4) useof school withdrawal/discharge codes(e.g., some schools count students enteringthemilitaryas dropouts and others do not), and (5) tracking procedures (i.e.,the circumstances under which astudentisconsidered a dropout) greatly hinder the collection of comprehensive,standardizeddata.Withoutanaccuratedatabase,changescausedby program interventions cannot be measured validly or reliably. On the other hand, when data for individualprogramsaresystematicallycollected,program-specificevaluationis quite feasible.

A most important evaluation considerationisthe criteria used for program effec- tivenessevaluation.Clark and Irizarry (1986) submitthat improvements inattendance, graduation rates, courses passed, and achievement testscores are each appropriate measures. However, they maintain that selecting reasonable outcomes can leadto a narrow definition of solutions.For example, a programthatincreases attendance and gradua- tionrates but does not result in improved reading scores may or may not be considered successful. On theother hand, programsthatare expectedtoimprove most orall aspects of student performance may not be considered successful because their goalsare too ambitious.Defining success or failure is not always an easy task.

Evaluationexpertsregardthefollowingindicatorsassignificant:reduced dropout rate;increased number of dropouts who return to school; reduced unexcused absence rate; reduced nonpromotions; reduced number of courses failed; reduced discipline problems asmeasured by numbers of in-school suspensions, out-of-school suspeosions, and expulsions; improved achievementtestscores;improved grades;increasedparticipation inextracurricularactivities;andimprovedattitudetowardschool("DropoutPreven- tion" n.d.).

The two specific evaluation approaches to be considered are formative andsumma- fiveevaluation. Formative evaluationisongoing evaluationthatlooksatthe ongoing processes and attempts to make "midcourse corrections" as needed. The Florida Depart- ment ofEducationreport(1986)emphasizesthatformativeevaluation(or"implementation information") must be collectedin a timely fashion for those responsible for program administration. Timingiscritical because the purpose of formative evaluation isto provide feedback on how activities are operating sothat problems may be cor- rectedintime to"fix"theoverall program. They raise four major questions for this evaluation phase:

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tx. oWho shouldheresponsibleforgatheringformativeevaluation/implementation data? Generally, theresponsibleperson.;arepartofthe program's stall,that is,those who already have access to various types of data. However, an external evaluator may be chosen since often they may be more objective and may have special expertise.

oWhat types of formativeinformationwillbe needed? The specifictype of information depends on the nature and scope of the program. Consider--

staff participation (number, qualifications, training provided, attitudes toward program, degree of involvement, problems),

administrativesupport(levelofsupport,financialsupport,space,equip- ment, communication lines, problems),

programactivities(specificactivities,timeallocations,levelofpartici- pation, perceived adequacy of activities, problems),

communityinvolvement(specificagencies,levelof advancement, perceived adequacy, problems),

studentfactors(identificationoftargetgroups,numberofparticipants, time in program, level of satisfaction, behavior, achievement, problems).

oWhcn willthe information be obtained? Since the timing of formative evalua- tionissoessential,implementationdatacollectionprocedures must bebuilt into the program and become a routine duty for the staff.

oWho willreceive the results of a formative evaluation? Allthose involvedin administering the program shouldreceive formative evaluationresults.Regular meetings withstaff should be scheduledinorder toassessprogress and plan necessary modifications. Periodic reports also should be considered for higher-level decision and policymakers.

Summative evaluationoftenrequiresa good deal more sophisticateddata analysis thandoesformativeevaluation.Again,theFloridaDepartment of Educationreport (1986) recommends that in planning summative evaluation data collectionwe need to con- siderthefollowingpoints:planningactivitiesearlytoavoidmissingopportunities to collect data, making certain that adequate "prep time" has been allowed, making certain staff have been designated and trained, and ensuring that adequate timeis allowed toaccomplish objectives before assessing outcomes. The reportalsosuggeststhatthe plan fordatacollectionconsiderthefollowingdata sources: studentachievement (usually measured by norm or criterion-referencedtests);attendance and truancy (suspensions, referrals, expulsions); program (students served, staff, facilities, cost); academic(promotions, retentions); teacherperformance (classroom observationsznd teacherevaluations);andparentinvolvement(recordsofvolunteers,participationin school activities).Also,thefollowing are examples or data that may haveto be col- lectedusingspecialinstrumentsorprocedures:student,teacher,andparentsurveys of attitudes or perceptions about the program; community involvement andlevels of participation; student achievement; analysis of teacher characteristics and behaviors

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I relatedtostudent achievement; assessment of theuseof specialinstructionalstrate- gies; and summaries of student records.

The selection of appropriate instruments depends on the kind of informationneeded to answer the evaluation questions. A number of instrument types should be considered: norm-referenced tests, criterion-referenced tests, questionnaires, interview guides, structurednarrativeresorts,observationrecordsheets,ratingsheet3,logsheets,and record summary forms.Sinceeachtype hasitsown strengthsandweaknesses,the instrumentsshouldbeconsideredinthelightofcriteriadevelopedforaspecific evaluation: Doestheinstrument adequately measure whatisneeded?Isitappropriate forthetargetpopulation?Isiteasytoadminister and score?Isitscost,administration, and scoring reasonable and within our budget?

The Floridareport recommends analyzingdatavery carefullybeforeinterpreting results.Statisticaltechniquesarelikelytobeemployedinallsuchevaluationsand, althoughdescriptivestatisticssuch as means, frequencies,proportions,andpercents all are used todescriberesults, more sophisticatedstatisticaltechniqueshave a placeinprogramevaluation.Last,when largedatasetsarecollected,theuse of a computer is essential.

Staffing Patterns and Staff Development Programs

Staffingisundoubtedly one of themostimportant, considerationsindesigning dropout prevention programs. Program coordinators often suggestthat dropout preven- tionstaffiskeytothe program's success (Novak and Dougherty1986). One of the problemsinreplicatingdropoutpreventionefforts isthatthe successoftheeffort often depends onthepersonalcharacteristics of thestaff who runtheprogram. As Novak and Dougherty suggest,thecharacteristics of an "idealteacher" readlikethe prerequisitesof"sainthood."Dropoutpreventionprogramcoordinatorsoftensuggest, however, that teachers working with dropout-prone students must becloser to the ideal than most teachers. They should have a strongsense of personalvalues and a good self-concept sinceoften,the rewards of working in dropout preventionprograms are not immediately evident. Thereisa needto care about students andtobeinterestedin more than their academic lives. As we said earlier, we need to hold high expectations while being flexible enough to listen and to compromise.

According to Novak and Dougherty, many program dir-ctors whensurveyed were nearly unanimous intheir belief that theteacher'sorcounselor's academic preparationisnot as importantas theirabilitytorelatetoyoung adolescents. "Good" dropout prevention personnel, they note, have been drawn from counseling, adulted, voc ed, and all ademic backgrounds. The dropout prevention person alsomust be an above average Scher, one who can "seize theinstructional moment." He or she must knowwhen to date from the daily lesson and attempt to meet student needs (i.e.,when it might be necessary to talk through a problem).

Johnston andMarkle (1986) summarize characteristicsofeffectivemiddle school teachers,which parallelin many ways tothecharacteristics of effectiveteachersfor dropoutprevention xograms. For example,effectivemiddleschoolteachers- -havea positiveself-concept,demonstrate warmth, areoptimistic,areenthusiastic,areflexi- ble,arespontaneous,acceptstudents,demonstrateawarenessof developmentalhvels,

132

LI demonstrate knowledge of subject matter, use a variety of instructionalactivities and materials,structureinstruction,monitorlearning,useconcretematerials and focused learningstrategies,askvariedquestions,incorporateindirectnessinteaching,incor- porate "success-building"behaviorinteaching,diagnose individuallearningneeds and prescribe individualized instruction, and--most important--listen (pp.16-17).

Dropout prevention program coordinatorsindicatethateffectivestaffarethose who volunteer to participate in these programs (Novakand Dougheity1986).Respected teachers who volunteer to staff such programs lend credibility to theprogram. According to Novak and Dougherty, all of the staff should beaccounted for in the overallpatternsothatthe program can bewellcoordinated.Further,it: recom- mendedthatthedropout preventiondirector'spositionbe establishedatthe central officeleveltocoordinateeachprogramdesignedtoimpact onhighriskstudents. Staff development programs and inserviceactivities then provide opportunitiestofos- ter a sense of ownership on the part of staff toward the dropout preventionprogram. Animportantingredientinstaffdevelopmentis skilldevelopment.Priority shouldbegiventoapproachesthatencourageexplorationofattitudesandvalues. Techniques such as role processing and forced choice exercisesoften are more effective thangroupdiscussionwhentheobjective is toexaminepersonalattitudesand behaviors.

Staff development must berealistic,reflectingthe needs and situations of students. Staff should be intricately involvedin developing such programs. A needssur- vey should be conducted todetermine special emphases for programming. Most staff bring a background of experience that makes themespecially sensitive to the realism of theactivitiesandpresentations.Therefore, when techniques suchasroleplayingor casestudiesareused,theyshouldreflectrealisticencountersratherthancontrived events. A way toachievethisisthroughthepreparationof casestudies.Teachers and counselors can prepare suchcase studies based on personal experiences.

Communication between the regular classroom staff andthe dropout prevention staff isvital.This may takethe form of classroomteachersparticipatingin the referral process of the school's dropout prevention program. Another exampleishaving classroom teachershelp design the specific curricula for theprogram. Teachers serving as members of an advisory committee is anotherapproach. Teachers also feel more "empow- ered" when they are meaningfully involved in selectingstudents for a special program, if that is the direction selected.

Administrator Roles

Researchoneffectiveschoolsconsistentlyshowsthecriticalroleofprincipals ;nestablishingtheoverallschoolclimateinwhichtheteaching-learningprocess occurs.As Grossnickle(1986)concludes,the keytraneffectivedropout prevention programisstrongadministrativeleadershipinmanyareas:curriculum,counseling, communication with parents, staff development,coordination with community groups, and so on.

Two words keep reoccurringineffective schoolresearch:leadership and vision. Lipsitz(1984)zeros in on the idea of vision when she reports thateach of the effectiveschools she observedinher studies"hasorhas had a principal witha driving

133 1 :5 ." vision who imbues decisions and practices with meaning, placing powerful emphasis on why and how things are done"(p. 174).Principals of such schoolsalsoareableto articulate their vision and have the continuing energy to work towardit,step by step, year by year.

As Lipsitz putsit,they "are good enough leadersto leave a legacy behind their staff,a powerfully defined school, an educated community, and atradition of excitement,sensitivity, andstrivingforexcellence"(p. 178).Moreover,theyarenot "wasteful dreamers" who expend their energies on the unattainable. Instead they follow thepathof "hardrockpracticality." They do not talk about abstract solutionsbut rather about the nature of schooling.

Principalsat schools with lower dropout rates were assessed to be stronger over- allleaders (Hess1987).Data suggestthatthetypeof leadershiproletheprincipal assumes may affect the dropout rate in several ways. First,the principal who strongly enforcesstudentdisciplineensuresa more orderly atmosphere. Second,theeffective principalcommunicates a clearsetofexpectations.Third,theprincipalsinschools with lower dropout rates tended to have a more clear vision or ideology for the school. Last, the principal of the schools with lower dropout rates generally used staff more effectively. Lipsitz (1984) concurs that the principal'sauthority is derivedfromacknowledgedcompetence.Theyareauthoritative,notauthoritarian, leaders.

Creating Effective Middle Schools The Center for Early Adolescence at the University of North Carolina has been a valuablesourceinidentifyingcharacteristicsofeffectivemiddleschools. The center'sresearchonissuesinmiddlegradeseducation,forexample,specificallynotes thatintensive dropout prevention efforts must begin at the middle grades, foritisat thislevel we must determ;ne which interventionsare most effective. Although school attendanceis mandatory to age 16 in most states, many educators are recognizing that decisionsto drop out are frequently shaped during the middle-grade years. A critical realizationisthat middle schools and community organizations serving youth must col- laborateto addressissues such as dropout, pregnancy, and drug abuse prevention.It isrecognizedthat "nested problems" underlie dropping out of school, adolescent pregnancy, and drug abuse. These are not "singular problems" that can be solved with iso- latedprograms.Unfortunately,examplesofsuccessfulcollaborationbetweenschools andotheryouth-serving groupsarenotplentiful.Competitionforfunds, "turfdom," misconceptions of each other, and lack of resources are barriers to be overcome. The Massachusetts Advocacy Center (Wheelock 1986b), for example, present, these fivepoints:(1) effectiveschoolshaveastrongsenseofmissionwithanii!struc- tionalfocus emphasizingbasicskills;(2) anorderly and pleasant climate characterise effectiveschools;(3) theschoolprincipalisastronginstructionalandadministra- tiveleader;(4) effectivc schoolsbaseeverythingthey do onthe assumptionthatall children can .,chieve; and (5) effective schools perform careful and frequent evaluation ofstudentpit.,;ress.The advocacycenteralsopresentsamoreextensivechecklist originally developed by John Lounsbury, former president of the National Middle School Association. They suggest that we usethischecklisttoreview our programforits abilityto meet the developmental needs of young adolescents. They also suggest that

134 we rate our school using a "point system" (0 = not at all,2 = a little, 4 = some, 6 = extensively). We have adapted slightly the original checklist in exhibit 15.

MEETING DEVELOPMENTAL NEEDS OF YOUNG ADOLESCENTS

A positive climate of teacher-teacher, teacher-student, and student-student cooperation A commitment to and a plan for dealing with the affective aspects of education A curriculum that departs from the departmentalized subject/class arrangement for a large portion of the day An extensive program of enrichment and exploratory activities An activity/lab approach for much or most instruction A developmental skill program that provides both separate and context teaching of reading and communication skills for all pupils A developmental guidance program built on the classroom teacher as adviser and supplemented by guidance specialists

A comprehensive program of health and physical education A recognition of the social needs of early adolescents through both in-class and out-of- class activities

Use of readily available and varied instructional materials A comprehensive program of evaluation and reporting to parents Use of the community as an education resource

SUBTOTAL

. If the principalisnotan enthusiastic, caring advocate for middle level education, sub- _tract 20-30 points.

TOTAL

SOURCE: Adapted from Lounsburg 1984.

The Center for Early Adolescence (1984) hasits own list of characteristics of a successfulmiddle school drawn fromthework of severalmiddle schoolresearchers. Such a school--

oexhibits an tInt:oal clarity of purpose.

oadaptsallpracticestotheindividualdifferencesinphysical,cognitive,and social maturation.

oholds high expectations of all students.

135 oemphasizes academics -- especially read7ag and math-Wand carefully monitors.

ooffers many routes through which students can excel.

ois led by a principal with a driving vision.

ois marked by high levels of professionalism and collegiality. A

omaintainsanimpressivelevelofcaringand emphasisontheschoolasa community.

oprovides opportunities for students.

ounites students and adults and bonds them to the school and its goals.

oestablishes community connections that enrich the curriculum.

orefusestoacceptthedichotomythatschoolscanbeeithercaring,warm environments or strict, orderly places that stress academics.

The National Middle School Association (1982)identifies10essential elements of a"true" middle school: staffisknowledgeable about and committed to young adolescents,the curriculum--based on development needs--is balanced, organizational arrangement arevaried,instructionalstrategiesalsoarevaried,afullexploratory program isevident, comprehensive counseling and advisingisprovided, students progress con- tinuously, evaluation procedures are compat;ble withthenature of the young adolescents, cooperative planning is evident, and the school climate is petive. The National Association of Secondary School Principal's Council on Middle Level Education(n.d.)describes 12dimensionsneceJsaryformiedle.,c1loolexcellence.In brief,the dimensions are existence of coreva=nes, proper culture and climate,focus on student de eloptr.-.1.,abalance, curriculum, ce..alitylearning awl instruction, effective schoolorganization, useoftechnology,qualityteachers,focus ontransition (and articulation),strongleadershipiromtheprincipal,connectionswiththecommunity, and client centeredness.

The followinglistingof effectivecharacteristicsalsoisadapted fromthe work of theMassachusetts Advocacy Center (Wheelock1986b). Thislistfocuses on dropout prevention. Thereasonforitsinclusionatthispointistoillustratetheproximity of the two sets of recommendations: for middle school excellence and for dropout prevention. The recommended dropout prevention strategies are as follows:

oFocus primarily on changing practices and policies that but students at-risk.

oFocus onbroadening anddiversifyingopportunitiessothatstudentswitha variety of learning needs can experience success.

Involveteachers,parents, students, administrativestaff and community workers in meaningful roles.

oTake into account the normal develo;rnental needs of young adolescents.

136

4 1' o Acknowledgethebroadculturaldiversityofthestudentpopulation(if applicable).

oCollaborate with community-based, human service agenciestoprovide services for at-risk students and expand programs to all students.

Obviouslynosinglemodelforsuccessexists.Schools--likethestudentswho attend them and the teachers who stafftheir.- -forgetheir own individuality. Yet, we know thatthey must have an inordinately clearvision about thepossibilities of edu- catingallyoungadolescents.Clearlyaneffectivemiddleschoolisalsothemost effective dropout prevention strategy.

School improvement then becomes an appropriate focus and can begin by conductinga thorough assessmentofa;,...-hool'sresponsivenesstothe academic and developmental needs of students. The Middle Grades Assessment Program (MGAP) isa participatory, building-based process that attempts to inspire and engender school improvement. MGAP is designed to be conducted as a school-based self-assessment. An assessmentteam com- prised primarily of staff and parents from a school uses MGAP to producea comprehensive report on the current status of the school and an action plan for improvementat the buildinglevel. MGAP also can be adlptedfor otheruses, such asd;:nrict-wide assessment and planning for middle grade schools. The intended purposeisto provide an informationbase, assessment instruments, and a participatory process foran individual middle or junior high schools to assess and improve itself.

MGAP consists of a User's Manual, a slide-tape presentation, and Leader'sMan- ual. The User'.,Manualincludesobservationitems andinterviewquestionsthathelp theusersrelatethephysical,intellectual,emotional, and socialneeds of young adolescents to theschoolenvironment.Theslidepresentation illustratesadolescent development and explainsthe assessment program. The Leader's Manual presentssug- gestionsforpreparingto conduct a comprehensive assessment, techniques fortraining assessment team members inthe use of the observation and interview forms, techniques for leading the assessment team to share and summarize their information,and aids for preparing an assessment report and school improvement plan. Formore information contact The Center for Early Adolescence, University of North Caroiina at Chapel Hill, Suite 223, Carr Mill Mall, Carrboro, North Carolina 27510.

In sunnnary, the listin exhibit 16 has been devised as a review of importantpro- gram ccmponents for dropout prevention. The listdoes not attempt to summarize all previous suggestionsnorisitintendedtobe comprehensive.Instead,itcan be used asatooltopromotediscussion,asapresentationtodemonstratethediversityof choices available, and as a framework of ideasupon which local educators can add ideas ,d strategies of their own.

137

.. . , 1. '4 EXHIBIT 16

DROPOUT PREVENTION PROGRAM COMPONENTS

Bonding o Advisory committees o Attendance improvement projects o Attendance/truancy committees oBusiness/industry/labor collaboration oClimate supportive for different individual needs and abilities o Community orientation o Community outreach activities o Community resources identified and utilized a Community service projects aDisciplinary alternatives o Home visits by teachers and counselors a Linkages with high school that students are likely to attend aOrientation to school aParental involvement in child's attendance arid homework activities oPartnerships with nonschool agencies o Record keeping accurately verifying student progress

The Basics o Academic acceleration oActivities tied to the real world--work, daily living, interpersonal relationships oAlternative curriculum or classes oBalanced curriculum of basic/core subjects and high-interest exploratory courses o Bask skills instruction related to real world experiencesindividualized and intensive o"Block" programs--consecutiveinstructionalperiods,followedbywor' ,careereducation, :ounseling activities. or community activities oCareer education activities oClass size reduction o Community based evening tutorial and homework assist nce programs, community based learning activities oCommunity-volunteer involvement in classroom oCompetency-based promotion oComputer-assisted instruction oCooperative learning oCurriculum integration oEncouragement for girls to enroll in math, science, and other nontraditional course,: oExpectations--academic and behavioral--clearly communicated oExperimental learning activities oExtracurricular activities oFlexible school schedules and hours oGeneral education program: integrated with dropout prevention programs aIntegration of vocational experiences with core subjects oIndividualized and persimalized instruction

138

.1. 4-i ,;:, EXHIBIT 16continued

oClearly defined learning outcomes oLow student-teacher ratios oMicrocomputers for drill and practice in indi-,idualized learning oOrientation to the broader world of work outside of school oPeer tutoring oPhysical activities in noncompetitive physical education programs oSelf-paced progress through the curriculum oSmall- group learning activities fostering appropriate group behavior oSpecific educational plans -- similar to IEPs o Summer learning programs o Teaching methods varie.I o Team teaching o Time-on-task for repeated practice oWork-relatad activities oVocational programs

Youth /kdvocaty.

o Adolescent development principles are the foundation of the program o Adopt- a-student activities oAdvisement and counseling oAffectivedomain partofthe school's concern oAssessment of needs by identifying local reasons students drop out oCoordinated activities of teachers, counselors, principals, and other support staff oDecision- making activities oDrug and alcohol abuse counseling oEarly diagnosis and intervention oEnvironment--personal, informal, nonoppressive oExpectatiors If success combined with caring for students oGoal attainment activities (short-term attainable goals) oGuidance an integral part of dropout prevention oHealth screening oHigh standards and expectations in a supportive atmosphere oIdentification of developmental needs of at-risk youth o Needs assessment activities oPeer counseling programs oPeer resource centers -- classrooms set aside for "dropping in" oPersonal relationships and rapport with individual Atudents oReferral systems oRewards and praise generous but honest o Holemodels positive oSelf-awareness activities o Self-concept and sense of worth; self-esteem enhancement at every opportunity o Sex educationpregnancy prevention, parenting courses o Short-term goals, immediate feedback, and positive reinforcement oSpecialized staff with counseling or specialized training background o Training for peer tutors and counselors

139

- 14 0 EXHIBIT :i6 -- continued

Planning and Evaluation

o Alternative administrative/organizational/instructionalarrangements o ;_rticulation: planwid linkages with bothelementary and high schools o Comprehensive services o Data collection system for dropouts and high-riskstudents o Evaluation information incorporated intosystem o Follow-up activities 1 oParticipatory decision making by staff inprogram governance o Program goals carefully monitored oPositive staff/administration relations o Public awareness and information program o Reo*.lition for outstanding instruction o Reduced teacher workloads o Retention-supervisor to review records for earlyidentification oSocial worker/counselor on site o Special education programs o Staff committed to philosophy and goals of theprogram o Staff development programs(e.g.,classroom management, interpersonal family intervention skills) and counselingskills, oStrong administrative support for theprogram, studen's, and teachers o System for identifying and followingprogress of dropout-prone students

Clearly,no one strategy will solve the dropout problem as no student dropsout forjustonereason.Yet,itis imperativeforthefurther economic--andethical- - development of our nation thatwe, as a nation, solve this problem. cific reasons for dropping The nature of spe- out vary from area to area and fromperson to person and the most effective strategieswill be tailoredtolocal need as of each student. Although wellas the personal needs the choices are many fordeveloping effective dropoutpro- grams, one choice is not available tous--we cannot select to ignore the problem.

Discussion Items 1. What additional planningsteps do we need to consider? process include in our situation? What should the planning 2.Respond tothesecritical planning questions: Wheredo we stand? Whatisthe problem? Where do wewant to go? How willwe get there? Who will do it aod when? How will we know ifwe have succeeded? 3. What specific evaluation techniquesshould we consider? And whichof the "guiding principles" of evaluationare most relevant? 4.Which of the evaluationcriteria--and performance to our situation? indicators--are most relevant

140

.. 7 .

L':.1 I

I 5. Flow do we respond to the four major formative evaluationquestions: Who should beresponsibleforgatheringformativeevaluation/implementationdata?What types of formative informationwillbe needed? When willtheinformation be obtained? Who will receive the results of our formative evaluation? I 6. What should be our approach to summative evaluation? Whatare the appropriate evaluation instruments we need touse--or develop? 7. What staffing patterns should we consider? I 8. Who should be primarily responsible for the delivery ofour dropout prevention strategies? one person?a team approach? other approaches? 9. What staff development programs should we consider? 10. What can administrators do to plan and implement dropoutprevention programs? 1 I. How do we judge the degree of proximity betweenour m'idle or junior high school programs and our dropout prevention strategies? 12. How can we improve our middle and junior high schools? 13. Where do we go from here? What do we need to dotomorrow or better yet--today? 14. What are our choices?

141

I40 APPENDICES

143 asp

APPENDIX A

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

Alexander, KarlL.;Natriello, Gary; and Pallas, Aaron, M. For Whom the School Bell Tolls:TheImpact of DroppingOutonCognitive Performance. Reportno. 356. Baltimore, MD: Center for Social Organization of Schools, The Johns Hopkins Uni- versity, January 1985.

Appalachian Regional Commission. "Basic SkillsInstruction and Job Readiness Training for Dropouts and Other At-Risk Youth." Final report of the Appalachian Regional Commission. Prepared by MDC Inc., Chapel Hill, North Carolina, September 1987.

Azcoitia,Carlos, andViso,PhiripA. "Dropout Prevention Chicago Style." Vocational Education Journcl 62, no. 2 (March 1987): 33-34.

Batsche,Catherine."IndicatorsofEffectiveProgramming:ExaminingtheSchoolto Work Transition for Dropouts." The Journal (Spring 1985): 27-34.

Beck,Lisa,ancitMuia, Joseph A. "A Portrait of a Tragedy: Research Findings on the Dropout." High School Journal 64, no. 2 (November 1980):65.-72.

13enedict,RichardR.;Snell,Richard;andMiller,Donald."EnterpriseHigh:Helping SchoolDropouts Become Self-SupportingAdults." Educational Leadership 44,no. 6 (March 1987): 75-78.

Catterali,James S.On theSoria!Costsof DroppingOut.Stanford,CA:Stanford Educational Policy Institute, Stanford University, December 1985.

Cook, MichaelS.Jobs and Schooling: Youth Employment. Personality and Delinquency ina Sample of Dropouts from Urban Schools.Reportno. 348.Baltimore, MD: Center for Social Organization of Schools, The Johns Hopkins University, December 1983.

Cox,J.Lamarr. "Study of High School DropoutsinAppalachia: Executive Summary." Research TrianglePark,NC: Research TriangleInstitute,Center for Educational Studies, May 1985. Mimeo. Earle,Janice; Roach,Virginia; and Fraser,Katherine. Female Dropouts: A New Per- spective.Alexandria,VA:NationalAssociationofStateBoardsofEducation, 1987.

Ekstrom. Ruth B.; Goertz, Margaret E.;Pollack, Judith M.; and Rock, Donald A. "Who Drops Out of High School and Why? Findings from a National Study." Teachers College Record 87 (Spring 1986): 356-373.

Hahn, Andrew, and Danzberger, Jacqueline. Dropouts in America: Enough Is Known Jo, Action. Washington, DC: Institute for Eductional Leadership, 1987.

i 45

A High Risk Youth Liaison and Field Services Unit of the California State Department of Education. "DropoutPrevention: Model Programs1985-86." Sacramento: The high Risk Youth Liaison and Field Services Unit of the California State Department of Education, 1986. Mimeo. Irvine, David. "What Research Doesn't Show about Gifted Dropouts."Educational Lead- ership44, no. 6 (March 1987):79-80.

Johnston,J.Howard. "Assessing the Culture of Your School."Action Sheets for Prin- ipals.Tampa: National Resource Center for Middle Grades Education, Univosity of South Florida, n.d.

Johnston,J.Howard. "Values,Culture, and TheEffectiveSchool."NASSP Bulletin 71, no. 497 (March 1987): 79-88.

Knaak,William C.LearningStyles:ApplicationsinVocationalEducation.Columbus: The National Center for Research in Vocational Education, The Ohio State Univer- sity, 1983.

Lipsitz,JoanS."AdolescentDevelopment:Myths andRealities."Children Today8, no. 5 (1979): 2 - ?.

Lipsitz,Joan;Lefstein,Leah;andothers.Disci! lineandYoungAdolescents:Issues inMiddle Grade Education,Research and Resources.ChapelHill:University of North Carolina, Center for Early Adolescence, Summer 1984. (ERIC No. ED 252 613)

Mann.Dale."ActiononDropouts."EducationalLeadership43,no. I (September 1985):16-17.

Martin,LarryG.YouthfulHigh SchoolNvnconzpleters:EnhancingOpportunitiesfor Employment and Education.Columbus: The National Center for Research in Voca- tional Education, The Ohio State University, 1987. McCrory, David L., and Ballen, E. Allen. "Technology Education: A New Direction for Industrial Arts at the Middle Level."Schools inthe Middle: A Report on Trends and Practices.Reston, VA: NationalAssociationof Secondary SchoolPrincipals, January 1986.

NationalDropoutPreventionandTechnicalAssistanceClearinghouse. WhyHispanics FailinSchool andSolutionstotheProblem.Oakland, CA:NationalHispanic University, 1986. Natriello, Gary; Pallas, Aaron M.; and Mc Dill, Edward L. "Taking Stock: Renewing our Research Agenda on the Causes and Consequences of Dropping Out."Teachers Col- lege Record87, no. 3 (Spring 1986): 430-40.

North Caro'ina Department ofPublicInstruction.JoiningHands: TheReportofthc Model ProgramsforDr, n'utPrevention. Raleigh, NC: Dropout Prevention Section, Division of Support Programs, Department of Public Instruction, December 1986.

146 North Carolina Department of Public Instruction. Extended School Day Program Glade. Raleigh, NC: Dropout Prevention Section,Division of Support Programs, Depart- ment of Public Instruction, May 1986. Pallas, Aaron M.; Natriello, Gary; and Mc Dill, Edward. "The High Costs of High Stan-

dards:SchoolReform andDropouts." UrbanEducation22,no. 1 (April1987): 103-114. Bomberger, Russell."I ligh School Dropouts: A Problem for Research, Policy, and Prac- tice."Stanford Education Policy Institute, Stanford University, September 1986.

Sherraden,Michael W. "SchoolDropoutsinPerspective." The Educational Forum 51, no. I(Fall 1986):15-31. Tyler,Ralph. "Conserving Human Resources: The School Dropout."In From Youth to ConstructiveAdultLife:The Role of thePublicSchool,editedby Ralph W. Tyler.Berkeley, CA: McCutchan Publishing, 1978.

UrbanSchoolDistricts'TaskForceonDropouts.Dropouts fromCalifornia'sUrban School Districts: Who Are They? How Do We Count Them? How Can We Hold Them (or atLeastEducateThem)?FinalReport.Sacramento:AssociationofCalifornia Urban School Districts, October 1985.

Weber,James.TheRoleofVocationalEducationinDecreasingtheDropoutRate, Columbus: The National Center for ResearchinVocational Education, The Ohio State University, 1986.

"What Research Says about Dropouts." Middle School Journal16,no. 4 (August1985): 8-31.

147 APPENDIX B

RESOURCE GROUPS

Numerous resource groups exist that could be of tremendous help to middle and junior high schoolteachers. Each of the groups listedbelow have lengthy publication lists, many of which include documents on at-risk and dropout-prone students.

Center for Early Adolescence University of'1\lorth Carolina at Chapel Hill Suite 223, Carr Mill Mall Carrboro, NC 27510

National Association of Secondary School Principals 1904 Association Drive Reston, VA 22091

National Middle School Association P.O. Box 14882 f " Columbus, OH 43214

National Resource Center for Middle Grades Education College r. Education University of South Florida Tampa, FL 33620

Educational Leadership Institute Box 863 Springfield, MA 01101

(The Institute's publications include the DisseminationServices on tlw MiddleGrades and Transescence. the journal on emerging adolescent education.)

In this discussion, we also repeatedly refetee,_to the National Coalition of Advo- catesfor Students (NCAS) and toseveral of their member groups. The followingare names and addresses of these organizations:

National Coalition of Advocates fIr Students 100 Boylston Street, Suite 737 Boston, MA 02116

149

.0 .- IOU NCAS Member Organizations

Advocates for Children of New York Education Law Center, Inc. 24-16 Bridge Plaza South 225 South 15th Street Long Island City, NY 11101 Philadelphia, PA 19102

Arkansas Advocates for Children & Families Education Law Center, Inc. 931 Dona?hey,,Building 155 Washington Street, Room 209 Little Rock, AR 72201 Newark, NJ 07102 AMR A Institute for Policy Research Institute for Citizen Involvement in 1112 16th Street, '1W, Suite 2900 Education Washington, DC 20036 10 Seminary Place, Room 19 New Brunswick, NJ 08903 Atlantic Center for Research in Education 604 West Chapel Hill Street Intercultural Development and Research Durham, NC 27701 Association 5835 Callagham Road, #350 California Tomorrow San Antonio, TX 78228 Fort Mason Center Building B Kentucky Youth Advocr-s San Francisco, CA 94123 2024 Woodford Place Louisville, KY 40204 Center for Law and Education 236 Massachusetts Avenue, NE Massachusetts Advocacy Center Room 510 76 Summer Street, 5th Floor Washington, DC 20002 Boston, MA 02110

Children's Defense Fund National Black Child Development 122 C Street, NW Institute Washington, DC 20001 1463 Rhode Island Avenue. NW Washington, DC 20005 Children's Defense Fund Mississippi Project National Council of La Raza Box 1684 548 South Spring Street, Suite 802 Jackson, MS 39205 Los Angeles, CA 90013

Citizen's Council for Ohio Schools Parents Union for Public Schools P.O. Box 99410 401 North Broad Street Cleveland, OH 44199 Philadelphia, PA 19108

Citizens Education Center Northwest Statewide Youth Advocacy, Inc. 105 South Main Street 426 Powers Building Seattle, WA 98104 Rochester, NY 14614

Coalition for Quality Education The Student Advocacy Center 1702 Uptown Avenue 617 East University, #226 Toledo, OH 43620 Ann Arbor, MI 48104

Designs for Change Western Service Systems 220 South State Street 1410 Grand B104 Chicago, IL 50604 Denver, CO 80203

150 REFERENCES

151 REFERENCES

Adkins,Winthrop. "LifeCopingSkills: A FifthCurriculum."Teacher'sCollege Record 75, no. 4 (May 1974): 507-526.

Appalachian Regional Commission. "Dropout PreventioninAppalachia: Lessons fcr the Nation." A report of the Appalachian Regional Commission.Prepared by Campbell Communications, Inc. Washington, DC: January 1987.

Arth, Alfred A.; Johnston, J. Howard; Lounsbury, John H.;and. Toepfer, Conrad, Jr. "A Consumer's Guide to Middle Level Education." Schools in the Middle, (September 1985).

Ashley, WilliamL.;Zahniser, Gale; Jones, Janice; and Inks, Lawrence.Peer Tutoring: A Guide to Program Design. Columbus: The National Centerfor Research in Voca- tional Education, The Ohio State University, 1986.

Assembly of Office 'Research. Dropping Out, LosingOut: The High Cost for California. Sacramento: n.d. Mimeo.

Bailey,LarryJ.Career Ed forTeachersandCounselors: APracticalApproach. 2d ed. Cranston, RI: The Carroll Press, 1985.

Beane, James A.; Lipka, Richard P.; and Ludewig, JoanW. "Synthesis of Fesearchon Self-Concept." Educational Leadership 38 (October 1980):84-89. Becker, HenryJ.,andEpstein,JoyceL. ParentInvolvement: Teacher Practices and Judgements, Baltimore, MD: Johns He _ins University,Center for Social Organi- zation of Schools, February 1981.

Bergmann, Sherrel. "Beginning a School Advisory Program."Action Sheets for Counsel- ors and Advisors (August/September 1986).

Bergmann,Sherrel. "HelloingParents,StudentsandTeachers Communicate." Action Sheets for Counselors and Advisors (March/April 1986).

Bernhardt, JanaJ."DevelopingPositive Self-Concept in Youth." WorkshopHandout at the National Youth Professional Institute.Dallas, Texas, 23-26 March 1Q87.

Bhaerman, R. D. "Involvingthe Community inTransitions."In The Connector's Guide. Columbus: The National Centerfor ResearchinVocational Education, The Ohio State University, 1987.

Boyer,ErnestL. "APerspective onEducation."InTechnology Education: A Perspec- tive on Implementation,pp.3-6.Reston,VA:InternationalTechnologyEducation Association, 1985.

Bradley, Earl K.BasicPrinciplesofLearning.PleasantHills, PA: Learnball League International, 1986.

153 Bronfenbrenner, Urie. "Alienation and the Four Worlds of Childhood." Phi Delta Kap- pan 67, no. 6 (February 1986): 430-435.

Brown,Faith. Five "R's" for Middle School. Strategies for Teaching Affective Edura- nonintheSchools.Fairborn, OH:NationalMiddle SchoolAssociation,August 1980.

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162 DROPOUT PREVENTION SERIES

THE HELPING PROCESS Targeted at the various individuals who have roles to play in a successful student retention effort, this series of six booklets and videocassette delineates the activities necessary to create a supportive team of adults to help students gain a diploma, job-entry skills, and options for further education. The Professional Set includes a single copy of each of the booklets and the videocassette.

SP700HP Professional Set $39.50 SP700HP01 Helping Process Overview Guidebook $ 6.50 SP700HP02Helping Process Bc.klet: Administrators/Planners $ 3.50 SP700111303Helping Process Booklet: Program Coordinators $ 3.50 SP700HPO4 Helping Process Booklet: Team Members $ 3.50 SP700HP05Helping Process Booklet: Mentors (package of 5 copies) $ 5.50 SP700HP06 Helping Process Booklet: Students (package of 5 copies) $ 5.50 SP700HP07Helping Process: Introductory Videocassette $25.00

THE STUDENT'S CHOICE Designed to introduce decision-making and problem-solving techniques and to offer instruction in interpersonal life-management skills. The Professional Set includes the instructor Guide and The Time of Choices videocassette as well as a complimentary copy of the consumable student workbook The Student's Choice.

SP700SC Professional Set $49.50 SP700SCO1The Student's Choice (package of 10 copies) $49.50 (Student Workbook)

IT'S YOUR LIFE ... TAKE CPARGE Designed to heighten student's awareness of factors leading to dropping out and to help students consider their choices. The Professional Set includes It's Your Life... Take Charge videocassette with user's guide and a complimentary copy of It's Your Life . Take Charge student workbook.

SP700TC Professional Set $49.50 SP700TC01It's Your Life ... Take Charge (package of 10 copies) $19.50 (Student Workbook in English) SP700TCO2 Es Tu Vida... toma control (package of 10 copies) $19.50 (Student Workbook in Spanish)

ADMINISTRATOR MATERIALS SP700DP01A Guide for Dropout Prevention: Creating an Integrated Learning Environment in Secondary Schools $13.2f SP700DP02 The School's Choice: Guidelines for Dropout Prevention at the Middle and Junior High School $13.25 #.,

)