Selected Articles on Microcomputers

— TECH NAT L INST. OF STAND & NBS Reference Publi- cations c A 11105 )fi350M i^ddik 84-2878^/

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE National Bureau of Standards Institute for Computer Sciences and Technology Center for Programming Science and Technology Washington, DC 20234

May 1984

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

''ATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

- QC — 100

. U56 84-2373R 1384

NBSIR 84-2878

SELECTED ARTICLES ON MICROCOMPUTERS

Lynne Rosenthal

U S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE National Bureau of Standards Institute for Computer Sciences and Technology Center for Programming Science and Technology Washington, DC 20234

May 1984

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Malcolm Baldrige, Secretary

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS. Ernest Ambler. Director

SELECTED ARTICLES ON MICROCOMPUTERS

ABSTRACT

There is an abundance of information being written about microcomputers and related products. Often the reader is overwhelmed at where to begin. This document provides the reader with basic microcomputer information and provides a starting point for further examination of the subjects. The readings cover a broad range of topics including management and technical aspects of hardware, software, communications, and support.

Key words: communication, management, microcomputer, micro-mainframe connection, personal computers, selection, software

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SELECTED ARTICLES ON MICROCOMPUTERS

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This document provides a collection of readings to those involved in the selection, operation, and/or management of microcomputer systems. This effort in compiling references has been prompted by the growing interest of the Federal community in microcomputer systems and the overwhelming amount of information on the subject. The selected readings are intended to help the reader acquire basic information on microcomputers and provide them with a starting point for further examination of the subjects. This document is part of a continuing effort and is an update to a previous bibliography, "An Annotated Bibliography of Introductory Articles to Aid in the Selection of Small Computer Systems," NBSIR 82-2573, August

1982 .

The articles selected cover a broad range of microcomputer topics, including managerial and technical aspects of hardware, software, communications, and support. The intent is to provide articles that are generic in nature, in that they are not product reviews, but rather discussions of features, techniques, and/or concerns associated with microcomputers and related products and services. Thus, the identification/discussion of a product within an article is not the prime emphasis, but rather a means of illustration. It is hoped that the value of the information presented here will not rapidly decay over time.

The document is comprised of reprints of articles from readily available magazines and journals which are considered primary sources for articles on microcomputer systems (Appendix). No claim to exhaustiveness is made. The articles were reviewed, evaluated, and selected as to their value in fulfilling the objectives of this document. It must be recognized that new articles on microcomputers continue to be published, and it is therefore impossible for this selected readings to include the most recent material. Because of the nature of this document, it is necessary to mention vendors and commercial products. The absence or presence of a particular product does not imply criticism or endorsement by the National Bureau of Standards or the author

This document is part of a continuing effort to provide the Federal community with standards and guidelines, and advice, assistance, and information about the acquisition, )

Page 2 management, and use of small computer systems. The author invites comments and suggestions on this document, future selected reading efforts, and/or our microcomputer program activities. The author can be contacted at:

System Selection and Evaulation Group Institute for Computer Sciences and Technology National Bureau of Standards Washington, D.C. 20234 (301 92 1 -3485

1 . 1 DOCUMENT OVERVIEW

To aid the reader in locating areas (or articles) of interest, Section 2: Article Compendium is a listing of the readings selected for this document. The articles are divided into several general categories, and are preceded by the page number of the article as listed in Section 3 of this document. Although each article has been assigned to a specific category, it is possible that some of the articles might also be appropriate in other categories. The categories are arranged in the following order:

1 . OVERVIEW

These articles present information related to the changing role of computing due to the use of microcomputers within an organization.

2. POLICY/STRATEGY

These articles address the issues and concerns associated with developing organizational strategic plans for microcomputer resources.

3. ACQUISITION

These articles discuss the methods and impact of acquiring microcomputer systems.

4. SELECTION

These articles describe a methodology to be used in the evaluation and selection of a microcomputer system.

5. HARDWARE

These articles describe various components of a microcomputer system, ranging from the microprocessor to various peripherals. . .

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6. SOFTWARE

These articles cover a wide range of topics ranging from the procedural aspects of selecting and using software to a discussion of application software.

7. INTERCONNECTION

These articles address the needs, benefits, or methods for connecting a microcomputer to other computer systems

8. ON-LINE INFORMATION

These articles identify and describe services available for the electronic dissemination of information.

9. SUPPORT

These articles discuss several of the microcomputer support activities that can or should be implemented by an organization.

1.2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Special thanks are extended to Shirley Radack of the Institute for Computer Sciences and Technology for her assistance in the preparation of this document.

The author acknowledges the assistance of the authors or magazine and journal publishers for granting permission to reproduce articles from their publications. The name and subscription address of the publications can be found in the Appendix ::

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2.0 ARTICLE COMPENDIUM

1. OVERVIEW: page 10 "Smooth Sailing", Alan D. Mazursky, Computerworld Office ti_on 8 Aut oma , Volume 17, Number A, February 23, 1983, pp. 17-24. Overview of microcomputing including discussions on technology, application and system software, communications, and management issues.

2. POLICY/STRATEGY: page 15 "Corporate Moves With Micros", Frank D. Girard,

Computerworld : O ff ice Automation, Volume 17, Number 41A, October 12, 1983, pp. 13-15. Discussion of key areas in the development of guidelines for the use of microcomputer systems.

page 17 "Breaking Ground", Walter Ulrich, Computerworld : EXTRA!, Volume 17, Number 48A, November 30, 1983, pp. 47-50. Case history of how one company established a microcomputer policy.

3. ACQUISITION: page 20 "Purchasing Micros", Aaron Goldberg, Computerworld OUlce Automation, Volume 17, Number 32A, August 17, 1983, pp. 37,40,41,44,45. Questions such as: Who is buying micros?, where are they coming from?, and what impact will they have?, are discussed.

4. SELECTION:

page 23 "Fear of Buying", Rebecca Houck, Dg.sk.tgp. Computi ng , February 1983, pp. 46-48,50,51. Description of a general, commonly used methodology for buying a microcomputer system.

page 27 "How to Choose a Portable", Stanley J. Wszola, BY1£, September 1983, pp. 34,35,44-47. Explanation of portable systems and exploration of its various components.

page 31 "Multi-user Systems Offer Substantial Savings", Ken Pedersen, Desktop ng December Computi , 1982, pp. 48-50,52. Discussion of the advantages, limitations, and related issues of multiprocessor systems. . . ,:

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5. HARDWARE: page 36 "Bit by Bit”, Ken Sheldon, Desktop Computing. March 1983, pp. 18,19. Introductory explanation of the meaning and implications of 8, 16, and 32 bit microcomputers. page 38 '•Purchasing Computer Power", Mark Phillips, PC WORLD, Volume 1, Number 4, May 1983, pp. 292-296. Outline of a cost/benefits approach to buying more memory or storage. page 43 "How to Choose a Printer for Your Personal Computer", Bruce Thatcher, LIST, Spring 1983, pp. 108-110. Limited discussion of printer types and capabilities. page 46 "The Basics of Modems", Kenneth R. Guy, Hardcopy September 1983, pp. 84,86,90. Explanation of modems and how they work.

6. SOFTWARE: page 50 "Software Evaluation", Michael Hammer, Computerworld Office Automation, Volume 17, Number 24A, June 15, 1983, pp. 53,54,56,58,59. Criteria for deciding what software is best for you. page 52 "Copying Computer Software: What Risks, What

Penalties?", Personal Computing . May 1983, pp. 131,132,134. Discussion of copyright law and the legal implications of copying or modifying software. page 55 "Free Software: Is It Any Good?", James E.

Fawcette, Personal Computing , January 1984, pp. 243,245,247. Discussion of public domain software; where to find it and is it of any use. page 57 "Choosing What's Best for Your Purposes: The Family Tree Of Computer Languages", Bernard Cole, Eo.E.y.l_2.c

Computing . September 1983, pp. 82-86,88. Guidelines for understanding computer languages as well as a survey of several major/popular languages page 62 "The Processed Word", Terry Tinsley Datz and F. L. Datz. Softalk. August 1Q88 op. 4Q-S3. t Survey of various word processing program features .

Page 6 page 66 "Assessing Your Data Management Needs", Deward F.

Sayle, Desktop. Computing , March 1 983, pp. 38-41. Discussion of data management needs and the kind of system required to satisfy them. page 70 "New Spread-Sheet Packages Do More Than Model", Alan Hirsch, Mini-Micro Systems, June 1983, pp. 205,206,208,21 1,212. Discussion of spread-sheet basics and the integrated spread-sheet packages. page 74 "The New Wave of Computer Graphics", Alexis Driscoll

and R. Howard, Computerworld : ExtLC.a.i_, Volume 17, Number 48A, November 30, 1983, pp. 75,78-80. General discussion of graphic programs, features, and use as a management tool. page 76 "The Communicators", Larry Jordan, PC Woc_ld, Volume 1, Number 5, June 1983, pp. 74,76,78,79-82,84. Examination of the most important features of communications programs. page 83 "Integrated Software: More Than Meets the Eye",

Kathryn Cogswell Carr, Computerworld : OfXlcg Automation, Volume 17, Number 41A, October 12, 1983, pp. 16,17,20,23,24,26. Examination of what is meant by integrated software and how it is influencing microcomputing. page 87 "Fourth-Generation Lanaguages", Henry T. Cochran,

Computerworld : Office Automation, Volume 17, Number 24A, June 15, 1983, pp. 47-49, 52. Overview of these software tools and how they aid in solving problems.

7. INTERCONNECTION: page 90 "Communicating with a Mainframe, Mark Levine and J.

Williams, Popular Computing . April 1983, pp.

1 56,158. Introductory look at why a personal computer user would connect to a mainframe and how. page 91 "Finding a Proper Translation", Amy E. Smith,

Business Comguteii Sy.stg.ms, Sept 1 983, PP* 86,88-90. Discussion of the problems and solutions to exchanging information among different computers. page 95 "A Primer on Networking", Bruce Churchill, Sgllglk, July 1983, pp. 97-100,103. Discussion of local area networking fundamental s . .

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8. ON-LINE INFORMATION page 100 "Information Utilities", Markoff and Shea, Infowocid, Volume 5, Number 13, March 28, 1983, pp. 41,42,44,46,47. Brief introduction to electronically delivered information and the various types of services available

page 102 "Videotex", Bernell Wright, Computerworld : Office Automation, Volume 17, Number 16A, April 20, 1983,

pp . 65,66,68. Overview of Videotex; what it is and how it can be used.

9. SUPPORT - Training, Security, Maintenance page 105 "Information Resource Centers - Organizaing to Serve End Users", Thomas N. Pyke, Jr., Proceedings of C0MPC0N 83, Fall Summary of the motivation for and issues associated with organizing to support end user direct access to computer resources. page 109 "Computer-Based Training", Kate Barnes,

Computerworld : O ff ice Automation, Volume 17, Number 24A, June 15, 1983, pp. 64-66. Discussion of the use and benefits of computer-based training. page 111 "End-User Game Plan", Hugh Ryan, Datamation, December 1983, pp. 241,242,244. Discussion of factors (training, 'coaches', software tools) that should be part of end-user computing strategies. page 114 "Hard Facts on Hardware Service", John Butler,

Desktop. Computing T March 1 983, pp. 60-62. Practical advice about maintenance options for the care and repair of microcomputer hardware. page 117 "Insecurity in Numbers", Fred W. Weingarten,

Government Data Systems . July/Aug 1983, pp. 8,9- Discussion of security and data control problems that arise from the use of office automation systems Page 8

3.0 SELECTED READINGS Page 9 Page 10 Q\

The mainframe computer j environment was where it began. But now it's smooth sailing for personal computers, particularly in the office. j By Alan D. Mazursky

Microcomputers are producing a revolution in the way many of us function at work. Neither mainframe computer systems nor traditional word processing systems have had such an impact on our work lives. For the first time, users are finally getting control of their processing power. Business people are now using microcomputers as stand-alone or distributed “analysis" workstations, powerful WP systems, inquiry and data entry stations connected to mini or

mainframe processors and as full and CP/M (project or Job stream The above functions and others the users to make them better at business (production and ac- control) and production and mar- are being performed through mi- what they do. Although 16-bit ma- counting) systems. ket modeling. crocomputer workstations In chines are here, many applica- Frequently we forget that the tions can be performed capabilities we now have with mi- important factor in adequately and at a substantially crocomputers were not available “The most lower cost with 8-blt micros. Simi- even three years ago. Until recent- determining the application of micros larly, many applications can and ly. all processing and analysis had in the office is functionality. It is not should be performed in a stand- to be performed either on the or- alone configuration, while others ganization's mainframe or mini- the brand name or the biggest and best dictate the need for a shared ca- computer system or by hand in system that is important. Importance pacity (either multiuser or quill-and-pen mode. Microcom- is gauged by what the system can networked). puters now allow many office The 1 980s has been identified provide for the users to make them functions to be performed at costs ” as the decade of communications. considerably lower than those in- better at what they do. During the coming years, the con- volved with more traditional mini- trol, analysis and effective com- computer-based office systems. munication of information will be Microcomputers now are being among the determining factors of health via- used to handle many business of- • Color-graphics generation: many organizations. These work- an organization's and fice needs, such as: Use of full-screen and hard-copy stations can be used as stand- bility. Much like controlling the • Word processing, including color graphics, creation of free- alone applications processors or factors of production was impor- report preparation, list processing hand graphics using digitizing as part of distributed networks, tant for the industrial revolution, and data-base handling of ab- tablets, display graphic and tex- tied into the organization’s sys- so will controlling the means of stracts. comments and briefs. tual material through automated tems, local-area networks and communication be important for • Financial analysis, including presentation systems. broader networks. the Information revolution. used to budget and financial statement • Communications: participa- The most Important factor in Micros are now being analysis, systems modeling and tion in electronic mail networks, determining the application of mi- access many data bases available simulation, portfolio charting and accessing remote data bases. In- cros In the office Is functionality. to the public, including Micronet, modeling and cash flow and pro- quiry/data entry to host main- It Is not the brand name or the big- The Source and the Dow Jones duction forecasting. frames, accessing public gest and best system that Is Im- News/Retrieval Service. These • services, data and Mathematical analysis: sta- networks and functioning as lo- portant. Importance Is gauged by networks offer tistics. linear programming, Pert cal-area network workstations. what the system can provide for programs that can be used for Computerworld OV Copyright 190J by Ctl Connunications/Inc.. Franinghen. HA 01701 - Reprinted iron LWRUTERUORLD OFFICE AUTONATION or CQ1PUTERUORL D EXTRA". Paae 11 a\

business applications. Other spe- he alternative of using a ligent DP decisions. As microcom- support for asynchronous trans- clallzed network services are also local-area network pre- puter applications become mission (public networks), blsych- ronous transmission and offered, like Auerbach (computer- T sents some Interesting increasingly more sophisticated related Information) and Lexis possibilities. A number of physi- and complex, so. too. do the types 3270-emulation and packetlzed (law-related Information). Also, cal and logical design approaches of decisions we make about their transmission (for example. X.25 many micro systems are currently are available for local-area net- implementation. protocols). They also enable con- being used to access the Tfelex networks and are described below. There is no quick answer as to nection to public-access data work for transmitting Important Topologies: which techological alternative to bases, corporate mainframe host messages to other workstations • Star — Devices are inter- select, but the driving force systems, other micros (point-to- on the network. During this de- connected through a centralized should always be the strategic point) and so on. cade. these network services will network controller. business need. Over the past few years, the mi- proliferate. • Bus — Devices are inter- cro-software industry has experi- Micros are frequently the send- connected directly by cables and enced considerable growth both in ing and receiving computers for may pass thru nodal control icrocomputer software numbers and sophistication. A communications networks like points. has already distin- shift has occurred from the cot- Telenet and Tymnet, which sup- • Ring — Devices are con- M guished itself as being tage industry to the corporate en- port data, document and electron- nected in a circular (ring) pattern. innovative, user-friendly and vironment. Software systems ic mall transfers. Although most Cabling: powerful. The available software have blossomed from those with micros currently communicate • Twisted pair — Essentially Includes systems for word pro- limited stand-alone functionality asynchronously at 300 blt/sec or phone-line cable. Offers low cost cessing, portfolio analysis, finan- to (hose employing concepts of 1.200 blt/sec. full use of the pub- and low-speed transmission (56K cial and production modeling multifunctionality, integration lic packet-switched networks sup- bit/sec). (including simulation and fore- and communication. (Table 2 pro- ' porting the ISO Open Systems • CATV — Essentially cable casting), data base management vides a brief recap of the micro- interconnect architecture will re- TV cabling. Offers high cost and and full-blown accounting sys- software industry). The next few quire that hardware vendors em- high-speed transmission. tems. The acknowledged leaders years should bring the Implemen- bed X.25 communications Communications control in the marketplace show a flair tation of truly integrated software protocol hardware In the next gen- logic: for understanding what users (and hardware) systems. These eration of microcomputer prod- • Token passing — A device need, presenting the system to us- systems will: ucts. The use of X.25 protocols Is allowed to transmit only when it ers and maintaining reasonable • Require little technical com- has the major advantage of guar- gains control of a “token." Tbken pricing structures and — more puter expertise. Users should not anteeing end-to-end transmission passing Is best suited for long Importantly — quality. have to worry about brand of com- of packetlzed data and therefore transmission lengths and large The following popular applica- puter. type of operating system or reduces the risk of receiving cor- message packets. tions have found a firm foothold management of data files (for ex- rupted data. • Carrier sense multiple ac- In the automated office: ample. details of I/O access meth- A growing opportunity exists cess with collision detection • Spreadsheet packages: These ods or conversions). for organizations to take advan- (CSMA/CD) — Devices monitor are the primary legitimizing factor • Benefit users who understand tage of these public networks. transmission line for a not-busy for businessmen. They enable problem solving techniques and Many companies are Investigating condition. Data transmission is nontechnical users to "program" are not afraid to try new the use of micros for collecting monitored by device to determine financial forecasts, budgets and approaches. and communicating data (for ex- if data packets have collided; if so. so on. They also provide inter- • Integrate such functions as ample. factory orders) to various data is retransmitted. Suited for faces to graphics processors for word processing, graphics Input remote sites — domestically and small-size data packets. such things as trend lines and pie and output, automated slide-show abroad. These organizations have Capacity: and bar charts, and they are ex- presentation capabilities, voice recognized that It Is not necessary • Baseband — Offers trans- cellent for small modeling tasks. recognition and synthesis and to use mainframes or minicom- mission speeds up to 10M bit/sec. • Financial modeling languages communications protocol support puters In situations where micros Assigns capacity of network to are used for complex models with These types of packages are be- can be used effectively — and at a one transmitting device at a time. large data files. They provide ginning to appear For Instance. much lower cost. Offers low cost and is good for some integration of functions and Context MBA and Mlcro-DSS:F In the move to put a worksta- low-volume data traffic. are considerably more expensive display some of the integration tion on every desk, we must con- • Broadband — Offers very than the spreadsheet packages. features mentioned above The sider how we want the system high-speed transmission, is capa- • WP packages include most, if current marketplace will show a architecture to look from a func- ble of supporting data and voice not all, of the features offered by radical shift over the next year — tional standpoint. Do we want our communication and supports con- mini-based WP systems and they all for the better. workstations to have local storage current device transmissions. En- are considerably less costly than and processing power while still tails high cost and is good for traditional WP systems. They en- communicating (Implying a net- high-volume transmission. able users to prepare reports (in- work design), or do we want to Im- Two popular microcomputer- cluding spreadsheets, graphics he early 1980s has evolu- plement a multiuser micro based local-area nets are Cluster and so on) without resorting to the brought a natural of hardware from an environment (Implying a more One by Nestar Systems. Inc. and typing pool or report department. T tion traditional minicomputer-type Omninet by Corvus Systems. Inc.; They also allow users to transfer 8-bit world (Apple II. TRS-80. Os- environment)? both use the twisted-pair archi- documents to and from many WP borne I. Commodore CBM. and so Some of the larger microcom- tecture. One possible drawback of systems. on) to the more powerful 16-blt (such as the IBM puter systems (such as those from this type of network is that sup- • Data base systems support microcomputers the Fortune, Altos Computer Sys- port is currently offered only for a users In complex tasks by pre- PC. Fortune 32: 16 and DEC tems. Inc. and Cromemco, Inc.) limited selection of micros, which senting a logical (relational) view Rainbow). The following shifts are capable of supporting a num- forces a hardware standardiza- of data to the user: by absorbing are occurring: ber of users on a single host "mi- tion. (In the larger sense, this may the detail file/data management Main memory: cro"-processor. Architectually, or may not be warranted). tasks, thus allowing the user to • 64K bytes to 1 M byte these systems are very much like Other micro-based networks concentrate on managing the ap- O Mass storage the minicomputer systems cur- now being implemented by many plication. not the data; and by • Floppy diskettes (400K rently available. However, lower corporations include, among oth- functioning as a very useful cen- bytes) to hard disks (20M byte) cost configurations are possible ers, Digital Research, Inc.'s CP/ tralized data center for users con- Operating systems and it is possible to run many of Net and Zilog, Inc.'s Z-Net. Micros nected on a local-area network • Single to multiuser the popular microcomputer soft- can also link into mini-based lo- Passible applications Include fi- • Uniprogramming to ware packages on these systems. cal-area nets such as Ethernet nancial and market modeling, multiprocessing They also share with minicomput- from Xerox Corp., Intel Corp. and document and brief abstracts, Technology changes ers a basic drawback — if the Digital Equipment Corp.; Wang personnel assignment and client • 5.25 In. floppies to 3 in rig host processor goes down, so do Laboratories. Inc.'s Wangnet; Da- billing and integrated accounting id floppies the terminals. tapolnt Corp.’s Arcnet; Sytek, systems. • illgh-resolutlon screen col- the organization require this type Inc.'s Localnet. • Graphics systems offer en- or graphics. of architecture for its processing Many issues should be consid- hanced data presentation capabil- • Use of digitizing tablets, needs?” If a data base is shared ered before a decision is reached ities. ("Everything Is In the touch screens, light pens, voice frequently and there is a heavy on a network or multiuser imple- delivery.") They also function as and so on as Input devices processing load, this might be the mentation. These Issues — such Interfaces to data bases, spread- From (he perspective of func- correct choice. If the work load Is as work load, technological inte- sheet packages and modeling tionality. organizations should not sufficiently large, consideration gration, functionality, cost/bene- systems. be concerned with the particular should probably be given to the fits and software availability — • Communications packages plrce of hardware being used minicomputer level. have always been the core of Intel- provide communications protocol Hardware Is nothing but a com Computer-world QA Q\ Page 12

modlty. like a record player or a diskettes must be controlled In typewriter. If the hardware and some manner (at minimum, by software satisfy a particular need storing vital program and data and are consistent with the orga- “From a very pragmatic point of view, disks in a safe place). nization's objectives, then users In all cases, management . we need to recognize that, for many should be given the latitude to ac- should support the education of quire these support systems. organizations, the current mainframe employees with these new tools, Of course, the key phrase here DP systems are barely able to produce encourage formal and Informal is "the organization's objectives." the minimum information required to corporate communications (In- Management should always be cluding underground newspapers, looking toward the future needs of run the business, much less support if necessary) and inform the orga- the organization. Consideration management and staff with their nization of changes In policy and should given be to the possible re- analytical ” major development projects under quirements for integration and requirements. way. compatibility, as well as to the The points to be conveyed to need for short-term expedients. management are: Many articles are being written • There is a need to understand on the dangers of proliferating dif- the rapidly changing nature of the microcomputers. ferent microcomputers and gener- bring their microcomputers to the micro technologies. marketplace very quickly because Many managers do not fully re- atlng distributed data bases. • There Is a need for manage- (and modularity); alize the Implications of imple- These problems should be recog- of the existence ment to be flexible In dealing with availabil- micro-based nized and understood by manage- of CP/M and the general menting QA systems. the growth of micro technologies running either ment In the context of short-term ity of software packages They assume that goals within their organizations. under the CP/M operating system. stated in general terms can easily and long-term goals. However, • Access to information should translated into from a very pragmatic point of One of the great debates cur- be a microcomput- be controlled, but the hardware/ er view, we need to recognize that, rently raging is “Is CP/M dead?” implementation (based on all software solutions should be the success stories in for many organizations, the cur- CP/M Is often seen as the mast- appearing managed. rent mainframe DP systems are head of the 8-blt world, and this the trade press), or that nothing barely able to produce the mini- question arises because of the should be Implemented because the technologies have not mum Information required to run proliferation of 16-blt micros, yet ma- icros are becoming the business, much less support which threaten to crowd out the 8- tured. Management (and staff) firmly entrenched in management and staff with their blt systems. The question really must be educated regarding tech- our OA systems — nological alternatives. M analytical requirements. Often, should be "Is the 8-bit world whether as stand-alone or inter- users' requests for mainframe an- dead?" Further, management should connected application processors. not control the use of micros for alytical systems are put Into a The answer is "No!" at least In They have achieved recognition as OA; rather, the use of micros backlogged development queue a two- to three-year time frame. truly functional workstations. should be properly managed. Con- with delivery promised for two to Currently, 8-blt machines per- Furthermore, the available soft- trol Implies limitation — the an- five years down the road. form many functions very well ware demonstrates an under- tithesis of the concept of a Therefore, we must support us- and at a cost significantly below standing of what users need to personal computer — and may ers who wait to Implement their the 16-blt systems. It makes little help them improve their work well be resisted by users attempt- decision-support systems In the sense to spend extra money for a product. ing to satisfy the requirements of short term and not focus on long- 16-blt machine If all the function- The next two to three years we their particular function In the or- 16- range requirements to the exclu- ality required for a particular ap- will see the widespread use of ganization. It Is Inappropriate to sion of what can be achieved plication Is on the 8-blt level. bit machines and the Introduction define the best hardware and soft- of 32-bit architectures. The 8-blt today using microcomputer Certainly, as prices drop, users ware systems for an organization. world is not dead; Its universe, technology. will be getting more bang for the The edict approach does not rec- however, has been redefined. It buck. Full-blown 8-blt machines perating systems on the ognize the rapidly changing na- will now serve the low-end, entry- will become available at lower micro level have been Im- ture of the microcomputer level marketplace. The 3-in. rigid prices: as a result, more organiza- portant in determining industry. floppies will proliferate and the O tions will be able to take advan- users' and software vendors' ac- To be sure, management should cost of hard-disk drives will tage of the power of micros. The ceptance of the hardware prod- have real concerns about the use plummet. 8-blt world — and CP/M — ucts. Basically, there are two of micros. Most of these concerns Software Is moving toward sup- should therefore be with us as the types of operating systems: pro- should be addressed by policy porting an Integration concept In low-end market at least for the prietary (like Appledos and statements. Microcomputers virtually every application area. near term. Trsdos) and generic (like CP/M, should be thought of as nothing Combining the new software tech- Looking to the rest of the '80s. Msdos and Unix). more than office equipment, like nologies and support of many we expect that users will not have Proprietary operating systems electronic typewriters. Micros are communications protocols will to know which operating system function on only one vendor's only tools to be used by manage- put microcomputers in the fore- they are using. The operating sys- hardware, while generic operating ment, staff and support person- front of the multifunctional work- tem will be Increasingly transpar- systems will function on the hard- nel. The acquisition of a micro station marketplace. Micros will ent to the application and to the should therefore be tied to a real become an increasingly important ware of many different vendors. user. Several operating systems Obviously, generic operating business need and should be able part of local-area network imple- sys- will probably survive on the 16-bit to fulfill that need in a cost-effec- mentations. Microcomputer- tems, in providing the ability to level. Including CP/M-86, Unix tive manner. based graphics systems will run the same compiled software and the UCSD P-System. These Many microcomputers In the become vital elements In the mod- on different vendors' products, systems will provide the core for office will continue to be primarily ern automated office. have become Important In deter- the stand-alone and distributed stand-alone application systems Management will be responsi- mining the distribution channels processing workstations of the — whether It be WP, financial or ble for supporting, If not spear- for software and the popularity of 1980s. hardware systems. It Is reason- production modeling or forecast- heading. the proper implementa- able to Infer, then, that propri- ing. For these types of systems, tion of micro systems In the office. etary operating systems will have anagement surely rec- management should set general This support will take the form of a difficult time succeeding in the ognizes that Informa- policy guidelines for equipment general and specific policy state- marketplace unless the hardware tion and the means to acquisition. These guidelines ments, providing technical sup- M things as rec- has particularly good application get at that information constitute might Include such port through the DP department, software features. The Implica- vital organization resources. As ommending (but not mandating) setting certain guidelines for pur- tions for these vendors are clear. micros become more a part of QA specific equipment for acquisi- chasing micros and hooking Into Digital Research's Control Pro- systems, we must become acutely tion. purchasing procedures, local networks or the corporate gram for Microprocessors (CP/M) aware of both their power and training requirements and sug- mainframe. Ok was the first of the popular gener- limitations. In many organiza- gestions for packaged software. ic operating systems available for tions. management (including DP Fbr computers that will be con- 8-blt computers using the 8080 management) pays very little at- nected to a host mainframe or In- family of microprocessors (Includ- tention to the management of interconnected via local-area ing Z80. 8086 and so on). CP/M formation and technologies or to networks, management must set was patterned generally after supporting technological innova- both general and specific guide- DEC'S RSTS minicomputer oper- tion. lines. For Instance, data access ating system. It currently Is avail- The rapidly changing technol- and privacy issues must be ad- able on over 200 models of ogies require that those at the up- dressed (and therefore, access to microcomputers and has become per levels of an organization must the network or host must be prop- the de facto standard for 8-blt op- become more familiar with the erly controlled). Also, physical ac- erating systems. Many hardware technologies and manage — not cess to the microcomputer manufacturers have been able to control — the spread of hardware and data storage floppy Computemorld CM Page 13

ARPL1CA1 ION PRODUCT VENDOR

Spreadsheet Visicalc Visicorp Supercalc Sorcin Packages nultiplar Hicrosoft Calcstar Hicropro Target Conshare target Financial DSS: Financial Addison-Wesley Publishing Context /MBA Context flanagenent f1ode] ing FPL Lifeboat Assocaites Finplan Hayden Publishing

i Wordstar Hicropro TD1E FRAHE DESCRIPTION Word Vedit Conpuuiew Products Processing Easy Writer Information Unlimited Late 1970s Home-grown and limited- function Word Juggler Quark Engineering software Scriptsit Tandy Word Handler Silicon Valley Systems Early 1980s Packaged software, including: Final Word Hark of the Unicorn UP and electronic spreadsheets Data Base Dbase-II Ashton-Tate D6 Master Stoneware Hid 1980s Integrated software packages: Systens Datastar Hicropro single "systems" combining UP. FT1S-80 Systens Plus Condor Condor Computer graphics and modeling software

1 Graphics Apple Business Apple Computer Char trvaster Decision Resources Development of Hicro Software Technology Visiplot Visicorp Strobe Strobe EBS Lotus Development flicrolink Wordcraft Connuni cations Ancall Hicrocall Services Software Data Capture Southeastern Software Hicro- Courier Hicrocon Z-Tem Southwestern Data Systens

Some Widely Used Hicro Software Packages

8 ttIT 16 BIT VENDOR CQtlENTS

Appiedos fpple Proprietary T rsdos Tandy Corp. Proprietary Hdos Zenith Data Systens Corp. Proprietary CP/TJ CP/H - 86 Digital Research. Inc. Portable, single user HP/M II HP/H 86 Digital Research. Inc. Hultiuser HSDOS Hicrosoft. Inc. Developed for IH1 Personal Computer IJCSD P Systen UCSD P System Softech flier osystrtes. Inc. Very portable, uses concept of pseudo machine UNIX Western Electric Co. Originally developed for minicomputers XENIX Hicrosoft Unix look-alike Oasis OASIS - 16 Phase One Systens, Inc. Single or multiuser systems

Available Operating Systens

Masuraky la a managemen i consultant with the New York office of Delottte Haektne A Sells He works with clients (n tmple mentlng microcomputers In their organisations, developing corporate policies and MIS strategies and designing and Implement- ing production. MIS and decision support systems He la o mam- ber qf his firm's microcomputer taskforce.

Computerworld / Extra! Page 14 Page 15 a\

Corporate Moves With Micros

Most major corporations are finding they can no longer avoid developing a corporate strategy for microcomputers. The pressure to set policy comes from two main sources within these large organizations: users who purchase micros on their own and forward-thinking management and DP executives who realize the growth of micro use should not go unattended. In developing a strategy for effective utilization of microcomputers, corporate management faces many problems, including: • Training relatively unsophisticated and nontechnical users to operate microcomputers effectively. • Coordinating the processing of information at hundreds of different locations rather than at a few carefully controlled and administered processing sites. • Ensuring the integrity and security of data created by microcomputers — data that is less secure and more available to personnel who may want to utilize it in a manner detrimental to the corporation. How can By Frank D. Girard

organizations successfully ad- mentation cost for utilizing ware that have been approved for Who will respond to u ser dress the issue of micro use? One micros within specific areas; and corporate purchase. and technical problems? way is to develop a plan that inte- the visibility to top management if How will software and When users experience prob- grates microcomputing within the areas selected for implementation hardware evaluation and selec- lems with microcomputer iaard- framework of the firm's overall are pilot test sites for microcom- tion be bandied? ware and software. hc>w will these business and information pro- puting. Will users be permitted to pur- problems be addressed? cessing goals. How will users be trained? chase their own micro hardware Several corporatlcns h.ive an Will they be self-trained by and software from a local comput- internal consulting group t' j assist means of vendor-supplied docu- er store? If so, the result may be a in addressing these problems In fter an organization re- mentation? Will they be trained lot of incompatible equipment, addition, many corporatlo ns have views Its current infor- internally by the organization's which would prevent computers established a help desk manned A mation processing and training department? Or will from communicating with each by a knowledgeable individual business environment, a three- training be supplied by the new other and from efficiently access- who responds, to request s for as- phase approach to developing this breed of firm that specializes in ing data maintained on other sistance. Such an appro, ich often plan can be helpful: introduce mi- microcomputer training? What mainframe computer systems. includes maintaining a 1 ogof user crocomputer concepts to user de- will the training cost, and how This purchasing pattern also and technical problctris so that partments: develop user operating will its effectiveness be assessed? could result in higher acquisition the use of micros an d related guidelines; develop overall policies Wbat corporate resources costs by not taking advantage of problems can be rcv'.ewed and and procedures for effective man- will be supplied to tbe micro- the combined purchasing power monitored periodically. agement. from a corporate per- computer users? of the corporation. Will employees be permit- spective. of the development and What resources will be supplied Factors that could be used to ted to take advanti igc of con- use of micros. The following for maintaining systems, evaluat- evaluate hardware and software tracts and compute r discounts checklist points out some key ing new microcomputer software, are capacity requirements; extent negotiated by tbe co rporation In areas in the development of oper* diagnosing problems and assist- of vendor support; availability purchasing micros I 'or tbeir own ating guidelines for microcomputing in the many other areas where and quality of help functional In- use? er users within a large microcomputer users will require corporated in software; complete- For larger organl zatlons. these organization: assistance? Will micro resources ness and quality of system discounts can amo unt to 20% or Wbat will be tbe primary be supplied by the DP department, documentation and system and more. Permitting en lployees louse objectives of microcomputer use the administrative department or software training materials; soft- corporate discount’ * for mlrrocom in tbe organization? another area of the organization? ware operating mode, such as puter purchases ci in help them to These objectives might include How will communications menu-driven vs. command-driven become more k nowlrdgrable providing Improved support for be bandied? software; the extent to which the about their compt iters executive decision making, in- How can internal and external software utilizes special hardware creasing the volume of clerical developments within the micro function keys; and the transfer- work performed with existing area be effectively communicated ability of data to other software staff or improving the organiza- to users? How can duplication of packages. he aliov e areas arr only a tion's competitive position in the individual user efforts in develop- Who will be responsible for few cx amples of Issue* marketplace. ing software or programs be pre- data, program and system T that mi jst be addressed in In wbicb areas of tbe orga- vented? backup? developing ef fertlvr operating nization will microcomputers be Several corporations have ad- What approach will be utilized guidelines for microcomputer us utilized? dressed this issue by establishing to provide adequate back-up facil- ers In addlt Ion to these user Factors that might influence corporate computer user groups, ities for micro programs, data and guidelines, in iportant pollrv and this decision are the potential im- microcomputer newsletters, tech- individual systems so that key procedural I ssues must he ad pact on bottom-line profits; the nical libraries and even their own processing functions can be per- dressed If a t orporate framru»>rk urgency of the need to provide mi- stores where users can shop for formed when system problems for managing the use of micro* i* crocomputer support; the imple- and evaluate hardware and soft- occur? to be cstablfs hed

Page 16 O/K

These managem ent guidelines auditing techniques. that outside maintenance con- mitting access to commercial cus- Include the followln g: Mil microcomputer user tracts for micros can cost from tomers’ cash management

How will doth i communica- be permitted to develop tbeir 20% to 30% of the initial purchase accounts. tions be bandied? own custom computer pro- price of the equipment. In summary, the era of micro- Will the corporation's micros be gram*? What will be the policy on computing has arrived at the door- equipped with modems, which If these programs are not prop- portables? step of major corporations. Will permit these systems to access, erly documented and developed Will the corporation purchase the problems that result over the update and communicate with and if the programmer leaves the portable computers for executives next 10 years cause major corpo- each other? If microc omputer data organization at a future date, the to use while traveling? What crite- rations to look back with regret, or communications is p ermitted, will effort that went into developing ria will be used to authorize a us- will the opportunities provided by the organization allow micros to the program may be of no value. er's purchase of such equipment? microcomputers revolutionize access and update mainframe Other users will have no method How will all micros owned by the American business in a positive data? How can the security and to maintain the program corporation be physically con- way? Integrity of this type < >f processing effectively. trolled to discourage theft of these The answer won't be found in be ensured? Will mfcros be per- How will microcomputer* devices from the organization? the capabilities of microcomputer mitted to access on-1 Ine informa- be integrated into the organiza- Will micro* be used a* hardware and software. Rather, it tion services such asi Dow Jones tion'* corporate information competitive weapons? lies in the approach that corpora- and Dialog? How wil 1 the on-line system? Will the corporation utilize mi- tions take today, in developing a access and communications costs The corporate information sys- cros outside of the organization as well-conceived plan to promote related to these services be tem may include mainframe com- a marketing tool — for example, the effective use of this new controlled? puters, minicomputers, word by providing them to corporate technology. Ok How can the uite of micro* processors and corporate commu- customers as an added-value ser- be audited to ensure that data nications networks. vice? created on tbeae syi items i* au- How will it be determined when Several major banks offer mi- thorized, accurat e and com- a microcomputer Is more suitable crocomputers to personal banking Girard is an OA consultant in plete? than a mainframe computer for customers to provide banking at the Data Systems Technical The use of micros presents a a business application ? home. Other banks are offering Consulting Services Group of the unique set of auditing problems How will microcomputer micros to corporate customers to New York offices of Ernst and which cannot always be ad- hardware be maintained? assist them in more effectively Whinney. an international certi- dressed by conventional computer Industry estimates indicate managing their cash flow by per- fied public accountingfirm.

Computerworld QA . . Page 17

MICRO MISSION

A SILLTON-DOllAR company -IMPLEMENTS AN INNOVATIVE PERSONAL COMPUTER POLICY.

’ 7 "V- ^ *• ersonal computing is so important that its implemen- A tation and proliferation cannot be left to chance. Individuals can now have powerful computing capability at their desks. At one time, computers were expensive, and people's time was less expensive. Today, computing power is cheap and getting cheaper. The economy of computing has swung dramatically, and this change requires a rethinking of how information resources are

managed. It is wise for organizations to take advantage of the new economics and adapt to the personal computing trend. Setting a personal computing policy is complex and has many implications. Here is a case history of.how.one company established its personal computing policy. It

V * s By Walter Ulrich /

involves a billion-dollar company and planned way, rather than in a headquartered in a major industrial chaotic and disorganized way. Sec- . . . Second, there is city Corporate and divisional office At the outset, members ond, there is enough information staff exceed 1,000 employees in the of the task force made available to make sound decisions enough information headquarters city. The company has about the implementation of a per- available to make over 20,000 employees and sells three critical observa- sonal computer policy. Third, the products throughout the U.S. tions about personal company had never implemented a sound decisions about The company saw that personal personal computer policy before. implementing a per- computing offered great opportuni- computing. First, per- There were important technical, cul- sonal policy. ties to improve productivity and ef- sonal computers and of- tural and business issues involved. computer fectiveness and to save money. It also Outside expertise was seen as invalu- fice automation should Third, the company recognized that deploying personal able in light of the considerable im- never implement- computers was complex and not become part of the pact micros were expected to have. had without significant risk. Inaction was The a company culture in a company selected consult- ed a personal comput- seen as an invitation to chaos. ing firm to assist in the office auto- er policy before. The company has a substantial in- conscious and planned mation and personal computer area. vestment in software, hardware and way, rather than in a The key criteria for selecting a con- training in an IBM mainframe envi- sulting firm were competence, ronment. The applications develop- chaotic and disorga- breadth of experience, complete in- required considerable attention and ment backlog was consequential. dependence and professionalism. discussion. Each of these are dis- nized way. . Over a year ago, the company estab- References were checked carefully. cussed below lished an office automation task The consulting firm was given Perhaps the most critical question force to review and evaluate the im- reasonable opportunity for data col- in any company is who will be re- plications of office automation. The themselves and trained interested lection and was named as advisor to sponsible for monitoring and imple- task force was composed of execu- co-workers in its use the office automation task force on menting personal computing In ev- tives and middle managers repre- In this nonthreatening and sup- matters of microcomputer policy. ery company, there are four groups, senting the operating divisions, ad- portive environment, microcomput- The firm was assigned to advise the each with an important role These ministration, finance, purchasing, er use grew steadily By the time the task force on its full range of alterna- groups are the information systems data processing and other staff func- task force began meeting, the micro tives, and the task force would make department, communications, end tions. was being carefully scheduled so the policy recommendations to the users and office administration

The issue of personal computers that it could be used by the many corporate officers. Personal computer evaluation, se- was one of several topics on the task people who needed it. Individuals Thirteen issues that merited con- lection and implementation are com- force agenda. One of the operating within the division and throughout sideration for this particular compa- plex technical undertakings In gen- divisions had already purchased two the headquarters were requesting ny were identified. These issues in- eral, the information systems depart- microcomputers. One was in a divi- their own micros and were asking cluded initiation, justification, ment has the charter to understand sion manager's office. The other was for personal computer support product selection, compatibility, pro- and implement Information technol- used for division planning. Within At the outset, members of the task curement, implementation, training, ogy the division, one forward-looking force made three critical observa- programming, maintenance, user While many personal computers manager and one technically orient- tions about personal computing support, monitoring, control and are used on a stand-alone basis today ed staff member were internal cham- First, personal computers and office general education it is clear that they will need to com pions for the personal computer. automation should become part of While each of the issues was im- municate tomorrow The communi- They used the micro extensively the company culture in a conscious portant to this company, four Issues cations will be to the corporate mam- Com puterworld/ Extra!

//. * Cofjyright. 1981 by CU ConnunicaLions/Irtc. . Franinghan. HA 01701 ffi-pr/ott-d " C0HPUTERU0RL0 OFFICE AUfCHATlUN or CCnPUltRUORLO tXlRA Paqe 18

MICRO MISSION placed. Their job has been thankless companywide. The user divisions rently, the chief administrative man- at times, but they have learned how were willing to share some control ager is responsible for implementing to be responsive on a personal level. over personal computing if they microcomputer policy, setting micro In the subject company, as in most were provided specialized support standards and providing micro sup- frame, to specialized minicomputers, corporations, the pros and cons of and greater assistance. port to the end users. The informa- to public data bases, to other person- who would be responsible for per- Corporate administration and oth- tion systems department provides al computers and to a variety of other sonal computers were complex. The er staff departments were the first in the technical and advisory staff to services. The ultimate success of mi- information systems department had the company to identify the need for support the end users. The division cros depends on establishing an ade- genuine interest in micros. At the overall office automation planning. executives have the final authority quate communications infrastruc- same time, information systems was The administrative staff examined for the implementation of micros ture. The communications function implementing a major new system many of the personal computer alter- within their division. These execu- can play an important role. that was seen as essential to accom- natives and were early supporters of tives also have the ultimate responsi- End users have been the personal plishing overall corporate goals and micros within the company. They bility for monitoring personal com- computer pioneers in many compa- objectives. The applications develop- had been a catalyst in the formation puter use. nies. Personal computers are confus- ment backlog was already substan- This approach does not fit every ing to them in some ways, bu? end tial. In addition, the information sys- company, but answers all the major users see the need and understand tems department had developed End users have been concerns of this company. The deci- the benefits. They are demanding procedures for handling the big sys- the personal computer sions for control of personal comput- personal computing. As pioneers, tems projects. Resources were al- ers fit the corporate culture and they have had direct control of their ready in short supply, and the infor- pioneers in many com- match the skills of the different indi- micros. Now that microcomputers mation systems department was not panies. Personal com- viduals. The administrative execu- are becoming accepted, it is no won- tive ensures that micros address the oriented to serving individual users. puters are confusing to der that end users are reluctant to In this company, communications needs of the individual office work- give up that control to a staff organi- responsibilities were divided among them in some ways, er. The information systems depart- zation. different departments. Therefore, no but end users see the ment provides qualified technical Office administration has been communications department was po- employees. serving the needs of the office and sitioned to play the leadership role need and understand Personal computer technical staff clerical worker for a long time. Of- for personal computers. the benefits. stay on the information systems staff fice services people understand the End users were the first users of to ensure that an adequate career needs of the professional, adminis- micros. They did not want their use path is available and to provide add- trator, secretary and clerk. They have to be impeded or obstructed in any of the office automation task force ed technical guidance. While this been focusing on the individuals' re- material way. At the same time, the and had exercised leadership in eval- kind of dual reporting would be a quirements for decades and can users recognized that resources had uating advanced office technologies. nightmare in some environments, it claim insight of the culture into to be made available to nurture and The issue of responsibility and works well for this company. which microcomputers must be support personal computer users control was ultimately resolved. Cur- The division managers are held

accountable for their respec- dardization are similar to The task force felt that it problems. are expanding. Since the pol- tive division's performance. those made in some other could not infringe on the di- The personal computing icy was established with an

It was agreed that their au- companies. The approach visions' authority to estab- center could be characterized eye toward overall office

thority must be final with re- has broad applicability. A lish its own justification pro- as a personal computing automation objectives, it is gard to micros within their small number of products are cedures after the initial store within the company. expected that micros will ul- divisions. In practice, divi- approved as standards. Prod- personal computer place- Users could get specific in- timately be an integral part sion management will look ucts are then chosen from ments were made. The end formation or they could of the overall information/ to the personal computer the approved list to meet users would be responsible browse. A micro hot line was office architecture. support staff for guidance. specific applications needs. for making their own case to also implemented so that a The key elements of this Division management will The technical staff reviews their own division manage- frustrated user could tele- company's policy-making not often overrule the sup- new products and recom- ment. The personal comput- phone with a question while success can be summarized port staff as long as the sup- mends changes to the ap- er support staff would advise still sitting in front of his mi- as follows: port staff has the proper proved list when it is neces- and assist the users, but it crocomputer. Finally, some • Establishing a high-lev- business and service orienta- sary to do so. was the requester who was services from the informa- el task force representing all tions. In the event a job cannot responsible for getting ap- tion center concept would be the parts of the company and Another major question be accomplished practically proval. made available to help meet dominated by no single divi- that arose was whether to from the approved list, there The consensus of the task sion. standardize on a single micro is a mechanism established force was that too-elaborate • Seeking the assistance vendor, select a few standard to allow deviations from the justification would be detri- Today, the com- of experienced, professional products or open the door to list. mental Since each part of and objective consultants. any micro that best meets the Purchasing is assigned the the company was represent- pany has a per- • Understanding all the needs of a particular applica- responsibility to procure the ed on the task force, it is ex- sonal computer issues and exploring all the tion. hardware and expedite its pected that micro requests options before trying to Selecting a single vendor delivery. Purchasing is ac- will be encouraged and that policy in place. make any decisions. had both advantages and dis- quainted with the applicable the justification efforts re- Microcomputer • Discussing the critical advantages. A single vendor technologies and is expert at quired will not be dispropor- decisions openly and elicit- would greatly simplify train- negotiating the best terms. tionate to the size of the in- use is encouraged, ing the views of all interesting, concentrate support The company had tradi- vestment. and its benefits ed parties. skills and offer purchasing tionally viewed every pur- The company decided to • Putting the policy and It leverage. The ability to tie chase with great care and de- offer micro support through are expanding. first-level procedures in the micro together in the fu- liberation. How much a corporate personal comput- is expected that writing, explicitly assigning ture would be greatly simpli- justification would be re- ing center. The primary ob- specific authority and re- micros will ulti- fied, and the problem of acquired and who would be re- jective of the personal com- sponsibility. cessing the mainframe sponsible for putting the jus- puting center was to serve mately be an in- • Keeping a broad per- would only have to be solved tification together? end users by: tegral part of the spective and considering the a single time. The task force recom- • Helping evaluate micro implication of other infor- On the other hand, a per- mended that several person- solutions to end-user infor- information/of- mation, communications and sonal computer that is good al computer requests by end mation problems. fice architecture. office technologies. for one task may be unsuit- users be approved on a com- • Providing personal Microcomputers can and able for others. As technol- monsense basis without for- computer training and sim- should be a powerful tool in ogy evolves, integration mal justification. The feeling ple support to the end users. your company. They are so problems that look awesome was that more experience • Making personal com- some of the end-user com- important that they must be today may soon become triv- with personal computers in puters available so that end puting needs that were poor- implemented in an intelli- ial. One vendor may not be end-user departments was users could test drive them. ly suited to personal comput- gent and forward-looking able to address all the compa- needed before the full bene- • Monitoring micro de- ers. way. The development of a ny's needs at a reasonable fits could be appreciated. Af- velopments. Today, the company has a corporate personal computer

price. ter this experience, it would • Offering a sympathetic personal computer policy in policy is essential. The company's policy de- be easier to list the benefits ear and helpful hand to users place. Microcomputer use is Ulrich is president of Walter cisions with regard to stan- and justify the micros. with personal computer encouraged, and its benefits E. Ulrich Consulting, Houston.

Com puterworld / Extra! Page 19 . Pane 20 FOCUS Purchasing Micros

No one is surprised anymore to see microcomputers ap- purpose of determining what personal computers to use, pearing with greater frequency on employees' desks. who gets to use them and how to use them. Management But questions about how the product gets from the fac- information systems (MIS) has the critical role in this tory to the user’s desk have not yet been fully answered. process. Not only does MIS have computer expertise, but The acquisition question is critical, not only from the also it will necessarily be Involved in a few years, when important budgetary standpoint, but also from future these users want access to the host. One key part of any support, software and integration standpoints. There is successful plan for implementing personal computers no single best way to purchase microcomputers. The in- will be directing purchases and resultant support and dividual needs of a corporation will dictate the best service issues. As the number of dollars spent on per- method of acquisition. sonal computing increases, it will be necessary to have Most corporations with more than 1,000 employees detailed plans in place in order to maximize discounts now have some committee or job function with the set and minimize related costs. By Aaron Goldberg

The most striking devel- number of personal com- largest percentage of sales need. He also represents a the high level of support opment in this large corpo- puters are often in use in to the corporate environ- large organization that will and training. rate market in the last 12 the corporation — and ment will go to the direct support the user and pro- Retail Computer Store: months has been the without sanction. Al- sales force of the manu- vide maintenance. The retail store Is certainly speed with which these or- though this trend Is abat- facturers. These three strengths the most visible channel ganizations have learned, ing. especially in Two trends support would seem to provide an- for the purchase of per- planned and started to im- companies with proactive this: the growing dis- swers MIS employees seek, sonal computers Many plement personal comput- MIS groups, eliminating counts available to those but there are problems. single systems purchased ing. During June of 1982. end-user purchases is al- who order large numbers Delivery of systems can in an ad hoc manner are at least half the large cor- most Impossible. (more than 200) of person- take anywhere from two obtained from computer porations in an Interna- Buying Patterns for al computers, and the weeks to three months. stores. tional Data Corp. (IDC) Corporate Personal Com- trend toward mandating Also, when the salesper- The retail store is often survey had no plan for per- puters: The corporate cus- personal computer use son is not around, who can "handier" than other sonal computers in place; tomer can purchase among professional and you go to? Telephone tag channels and does offer of this group, many had personal computers (both technical employees. can present untold miser- some Important advan- not even developed a com- multiple and single units) As fewer systems are ies when the vice-presi- tages. The support and mittee. from a number of different purchased on an ad hoc dent of finance's personal service they offer are not Exactly one year later, places. Figure 1 shows the basis, the big losers will computer is the one that at the same level as the the situation has totally source of personal com- likely be the retailers and breaks or that needs extra dealer's, but nevertheless changed. Fewer than 10% puters for corporate cus- dealers. The overriding memory. are highly useful. In addi- of all large companies are tomers’ for both 1982 and comparison that will guide Dealer/Distributor: tion, users can take ad- without a written plan for 1983. This data is evi- users in choosing one These sellers generally of- vantage of the storefront personal computer usage; dence that more and more channel over another will fer a higher level of exper- operation and go there to of those without this blue- personal computer pur- be low price/low support tise than that available expedite service, supply or print. nearly all are devel- chases are being made vs. high price/high from generic retail stores. add-on needs. oping one for implementa- from resellers and fewer support. Most offer a limited range Most computer retail tion in the next year at the from the direct manufac- Relative Pros and Cons of products and are well stores offer a broad range latest. Despite moving at turer sales force. for Different Channels: versed in these products. of products, and this can Deciding on a distribution Source 1982 1983 channel for the purchase % % of a personal computer Direct Sales 90 47 will have far-reaching ef- Deciding on a distribution fects on the use. support Dealer/Distributor 10 50 channel will far-reaching and price paid. Each chan- have Retail Store 30 31 nel of distribution has effects on the use, support and Other — 4 strengths and weakness- price paid. No Answer/Not Sure 7 16 es. As the market for personal computers In the Figure 1 . Source of Micros large organization explod- the corporate equivalent of The implications of this ed. cognoscenti agreed the speed of light, howev- trend are Important Al- that the direct sales force These resellers have the be Important to the organi- er. users continue to pur- though the headlines tell would have the easiest advantage of being highly- zation that wants to offer chase personal computers of thousand-unit pur- time selling to the large versed in the personal more than one or two sys- on an ad hoc basis. chases and million-dollar user and that the IBM computer products and tems. Some stores are will- The time and expense deals, the preponderance salespeople who had had they offer a high degree of ing to give a discount on companies spend develop- of resellers in the charts the account for the last 20 support. In addition, some total purchase value re- ing these plans would indicates smaller deals are years would be hard to degree of customization is gardless of who manufac- seem to Indicate that still more common In fact, beat. available, as well as spe- tures it. methods and sources for the large increase in dealer The direct sales force cific training and mainte- The drawbacks to the buying these systems are business is very indicative has Important advantages; nance. retail store should also be written In concrete. of the importance of local They should be able to of- The primary drawbacks noted. This Is most certainly support and service. fer the lowest price — af- center around the cost of Most stores do not offer not the case. IDC research When this data is col- ter all, they do build the the systems and the stabil- the high level of training has shown that, for all the lected for 1984. the per- box. In addition, the direct ity of the dealer/distribu- and support many users personal computer Inven- centages will undoubtedly salesman has account tor. These can be impor- will demand, and equip- tory the MIS group lists, have changed even more. knowledge: he knows your tant deficiencies, but they ment service is usually- double or even triple this At some point in time, the operation and what you are occasionally offset bv done on a depot basis. In Reprinted fro* Copyright 1981 by CO Cormuru cdtions/Tnc , Fi&tinghaa. fM 01/01 Computerworld QA m coigncruorld errice nunmnm or caipureRomo oora D aqe 21 FOCUS

.iddltion. l he viability of the spe- These short names Imply a

If I' • store to great deal; Figure 2 contains a "mputer has yet be Mandate Ignore proven. more detailed outline of each of One wild card exists In the area these approaches. It should be un-

• •I distribution — the in-house Hardware Only hardware Certain models Anything goes derstood that certain approaches niiiputer store It could be the used is provided or vendors are will work for some companies and best answer for a number of large by MIS suggested not for others. These approaches rc.ml/.itlons Gillette Corp. has No end-user Some end-user Some end-user may differ, but certain undeniable been a pioneer In this area and Is developed developed developed truths cannot be Ignored. In near- a good example of Implementation ly all cases, large corporate pur- i if the In-house computer store al- Software Limited number Reliance Package chases are far less expensive than ternative The in-house computer of packages on package software used ad hoc purchases on a per-system offers software si , re offers a number of benefits. basis. Integrating 10 different

Servo i and support are now un- Some MIS- Little MIS- No MIS-developed types of systems is easier than In- developed developed software der i hr direct control of the orga- tegrating 100 different models. software software ni/alion as Is training, which can Both for the present and future, be critical for implementation Support MIS provides MIS provides MIS provides key areas are cost and Integration, Significant Some, but not no support sue < ess From an organizational and Improvements In these areas support all support synergy standpoint, one benefit cannot be ignored. truly stands out MIS will be in- MIS cannot wait and let collec- MIS MIS controls MIS and end- User controls volved and knowledgeable about tive wisdom dictate exactly how Involvement every aspect user share all aspects personal computers because in control personal computers will be bought most eases. MIS runs the store. and used. MIS must be proactive From the corporate political so that the personal computers that Installed standpoint, the benefits are two- Figure 2. The MIS role are are Installed told MIS is perceived as being re- successfully, and all economies spi msi vc to user needs, and MIS is and the Role of MIS: The most provides some urging and reasons are taken. This is easily possible given more resources to perform important part of deciding upon a for following suggestions, but us- under both the Mandate and Rec-

I his larger job method of purchase for your orga- ers are allowed to make some de- ommend options. Companies that However, the in-house comput- nizations' personal computers is terminations on their own. The choose the Ignore strategy should er store does have drawbacks. The assessing the MIS group's role in support carrot is the tool most of- at least reevaluate their options. costs involved in setting it up are relation to personal computers. ten used as a spur by MIS. Impact on Software: The im- usually quite large. Staffing can Three distinct paths are open for Under the Ignore plan (also pact of centralized vs. decentral-

In i nine a problem, especially if the MIS organization: Mandate. known as the Ostrich approach), ized buying can easily be seen in in-house employees have to be Recommend and Ignore. In the personal computers are totally ig- the software environment. A trained and educated. In addition, Mandate plan. MIS approves ev- nored. Three years from now. number of benefits obtained from il the store experiment'' turns erything. and systems are allowed when the 500 different personal centralized buying are reflected in into a fiasco, it may leave the MIS only as MIS dictates — in short. computers become part of the dis- software: department in a difficult position. MIS controls every aspect. tributed resource system. MIS will Training is far easier when only Buying Personal Computers In the Recommend plan. MIS realize this was not a good plan. one version of the package exists. FOCUS

It is not uncommon for the From the end-user users may be limited, sav- the necessary board or same package to differ standpoint, it is very effi- are not yet fully dependent component. Some organi- greatly when used on two cient to be able to give a on their systems. In time, zations are training their different systems — func- fellow employee a copy of the professional's person- own employees In personal tion keys, commands and Centralized your diskette with the in- al computer will be as im- computer maintenance, so device addressing are com- buying pro- formation on it and to al- portant as the MIS 30 that service Is also done In- mon problems. low that employee to series. house — a concept that vides lever Although rare, corpo- a manipulate it. Diskette Centralized buying profits very well with the In- rate licenses are some- with the soft- sharing can almost be a vides important advan- house computer store. times available for some ware company, primitive form of a net- tages in maintenance. If In summary, the bene- software products, and a work. a physical packet. In only a limited number of fits of centralized buying one-time $20,000 fee is a resulting in a addition, it is comforting to models are purchased. MIS can be very large for some clear savings when con- higher level of know that if my program can possibly stock systems organizations and the trasted with 100 copies of disk crashes, someone rea- to be used as spares or support. costs saved substantial a S300 program sonably near me has a even to be cannibalized for However, each plan must Programs can be quality copy of the same program ings in the areas men- work synergistically with

tested. Good products can for the same system. tioned above often the organization It serves then be endorsed: if prob- MIS can also develop for outweigh this disad- Centralized buying will lems are found, it can be the program add-ons or vantage. work for most companies, recommended that those forms — for example, a Effect on Service and but It must be tailored to programs be avoided. A Visicalc template — that Maintenance: Because provide the best results aa planned method of dis- are critical, and software can be used by many of the most systems are relative- seminating this informa- firms are likely to provide prospective and present ly new and repairs are tion is far better than a higher level of support to personal computer users minimal, service and relying on word of mouth. an organization that Centralizing buying has maintenance problems of Goldberg Is research Centralized buying also bought 100 copies of the numerous advantages personal computers have manager oj Information provides an Important le- program than to an indi- from the software stand- not yet assumed the Im- systems at International ver with the software com- vidual who bought one point. Although the num- portance they will in the Data Corp in Framing pany. Corporate accounts copy. ber of options available to coming years. Also, users ham. Mass.

Computerworld GA Page 22

& ggUISfifTOl D aqe 23

[Selection by Rebecca Houck Fear of Buying

Rebecca Houck may not be starting up where Erica Jong left off, but she does intend to

remove, once and for all, the intimidation and uncertainty surrounding your decision to buy a computer system. Don’t begin by selecting models—first analyze your needs and examine your

reasons for believing that computerizing your procedures will aid your business. We doubt you

will find a more thorough and systematic treatment than the one offered in this guide.

f there exists a business professional your dollar investment in a small com- for buying a computer system. This Iwho is not intimidated by the sight of puter system is every bit as important to methodology is applicable to any size sys- a computer salesperson, I have yet to you as that company’s millions are to it. tem and organization. More important- meet him. Managers and small business To protect that investment, you owe it ly, it allows the business professional to owners who are looking for computer to yourself to take as much care in choos- determine and describe his or her needs systems generally perceive computer ing a system as that company would. Yet in terms of business functions, not hard- salespeople with a mixture of fear, suspi- very few would-be computer buyers take ware and software. cion and contempt. A common com- the time to examine their actual needs Step 1 —define your objectives plaint is, “They are trying to sell me when shopping for the “right” system. something I don’t need.” 1 won’t argue The result is often a lot of frustration You may have a set of objectives in with this. After all, a salesperson’s job is when the eventual product does not live mind when looking at computer sys- to sell. But whenever I hear this com- up to expectations. tems. Put these objectives into writing plaint, my immediate question is this: if and examine them carefully. Are they they sell you something you do not need, specific? Are they measurable? An objec- whose fault is that? tive such as “more efficient handling of

“But I’m not a computer expert,” the accounts” is next to useless. The term ery few would-be business will I V efficient” manager argue. “How am “more offers nothing to aim for supposed to know which computer is computer buyers take the and gives no measure to determine if a best?" Well, let’s back up a step. Maybe time to examine their system meets the objective. business professionals are not asking the A good objective is one that can be ex- actual needs when right question. Instead of asking “which pressed in numbers or some other con- is best?” they should first ask themselves shopping for the ‘right’ crete terms. For instance, an objective “best for what?” What do you, as a busi- system. might be to tighten inventory control to ness owner or manager, want out of a allow a ten percent reduction in the computer system? This might seem like a number of parts kept in stock. Or an ob- pretty simple question, but in practice it jective might be to cut sales-ordcr-pro is far from trivial. It is also where many So what is the answer? Companies and cessing time in half.

fail when buying their first computer. . . organizations in the private and public Often a business professional does not or even their second or third. sectors have found it in their interests to have enough familiarity with what a adopt formal methodologies for evaluat- computer can do to be able to determine Think about it ing and selecting computer systems. specific objectives. One of the better

You would hardly expect a large cor- These methodologies, though called by ways to learn about this is to visit other poration to buy a multi-million-dollar different names and using different ter- companies that are already using < < >m- computer system without having clear minology, all consist of a well-defined set puters for similar jobs. By looking .it the objectives and a master plan. In order to of steps to follow when buying a com- operation, how data are entered, what ensure that the company gets a system puter. These steps are designed to ensure kinds of reports are produced, what task . that meets all its needs, extensive studies that the buyer (1) knows exactly that are being performed by whom, and so are done to “define requirements” and s/he wants and (2) gets it. on, you can get an idea of how a comput translate them into “system specifica- In a very large organization, these steps er would fit into your company Ask tions” for a computer that will do the can take many months of effort. In a others about the problems they have cn job. The penalty for not doing such small business, they might take weeks. countered and the lessons they have studies would likely be wasted dollars for As a rule, the time and effort involved learned. Time spent in this way i an help an inadequate system, which will end up would be proportional to the size and you to establish some reasonable

Desktop Computing February 1983 " “Fear of Buyinq, Rebecca Houck. Oeskjop rnnpujjnq. / ebruon, 196) P6QP9 4f 9)

SO, hi. Reprinted by (remission. Copyright ft by Uoyrto tireoo fm 196J * RIGHTS RESERVED Page 24 r Select ion tem should be identified at the outset. past years to determine a rate of growth, Step 4 — estimate the benefits The most obvious constraint is money. then carry that rate of growth into the Benefits from a computer system are ei- An analysis of the company’s budget future. For instance, if two years ago you ther quantifiable or non-quantifiable. To should be done with an eye to how much averaged 80 invoices a month, last year justify the expense of purchasing the sys- of that budget can be allocated to a com- you sent out and this year you are av- 96, tem, you should be able to calculate puter system. point to remember in eraging you can translate this into a A 115, some savings or revenue increase. These this type of consideration is that the cost percent growth rate. Next year you 20 quantifiable benefits can be weighed of a computer system does not stop at may expect to average approximately against the cost of a system to decide if it the one-time purchase of the system. 138 invoices a month. Of course, such is a good investment. Consumables such as printer paper and analysis has to be done with an eye to floppy disks will become a permanent factors that could affect the rate of First, you should analyze your ac- part of the budget. growth. Such factors might include re- counting operations and inventory to Other constraints besides the budget cession, competition and industry identify those benefits that can

may influence your choice. The nature trends. An estimate of these factors is an reasonably be expected. A thorough

of your business may require filing cer- educated guess, but it could help you analysis would then involve multiplying tain types of reports with government avoid outgrowing your system in a year. the estimated benefit by the probability agencies, auditors, and so on. You might also do well to check any Internal Reven- ue Service restrictions on computeriza- Checklist items tion of accounts. When putting your business on the computer, you should

consider anything that restricts the way 1. Does the system have ade- 6. How long has the system been you do business. quate storage? on the market?

First, you must have sufficient main Although it is often tempting to get Step 3 —analyze your work load memory to hold the largest program the most state-of-the-art equipment, In to large a order decide how system you will be using. Most software pack- new systems are often full of bugs. will kinds of peripher- you need and what ages have a minimum memory re- These bugs are usually discovered by al devices (e.g., disk drives and printers) quirement, so be aware of it. Second, customers and reported to the vendor you should have, you must first know you must have sufficient disk storage for correction. If you do not want to what work your system will do. An to hold all the records necessary for be part of the debugging period on a analysis of your work load involves exam- processing. new system, it is best to go with older, ining your current operations and deter- proven systems. (Older in the com- mining what processes are done, how 2. How long does the system puter world, by the way, is measured many transactions are handled, how take to process a typical batch of in months, not years.) often various transactions are processed transactions? (hourly, daily, monthly), and so on. 7. Does the system perform the By going back through past records, Systems vary in their processing required functions? speeds, both because of the speed of you should be able to determine that you Make sure you have a list of the func- itself of sent out, for example, 100 invoices a the processor and because the tions you require for your operation. month on an average. Your invoices av- efficiency of the program. eraged about 5.3 lines with an average of 8. Is the system easy to use? 3. Can the system be easily 30 characters per line. Knowing this will The term “friendly” is used to de- expanded? help to determine how fast your printer scribe how easy the system is for inexperienced users to learn and use. Does must be to get all the invoices out, as well At a later date you may want to add the software provide easy-to-use as how much storage you will need to more disk drives or upgrade to a fast- prompts, menus and directions? Does hold the transactions being processed. er printer. Systems vary in the ease it require an inordinate amount of You will also need estimates of file with which such improvements can sizes. How many accounts, how many be made. memorization of obscure mnemonics customers and the size of inventory are a and commands? Is the screen easy to few numbers you will need to help you 4. How reliable is the read? Is the keyboard easy to use? This and the salesperson decide how much equipment? is where the person who will be inter- storage capacity you will need and how Many components of computer sys- acting with the system should get in- much information the system will be ex- tems have associated “mean time be- volved. An important consideration pected to handle. tween failure” (MTBF) statistics. This is how easy the user’s manuals are to Analyzing your work load will help to will give you an average for the life of read. System documentation can run communicate to the salesperson the ca- the component before repairs will be anywhere from good to really rotten. pabilities and capacities you will need. necessary. Sound documentation is very often

But the analysis is only half the job. To an indication that the system is 5. kind of warranty is in- be sure that your system is useful for a What respectable. number of years, you must allow for cluded, and what does it cover? growth. Therefore, the current work Some may include parts and labor, 9. What is the system cost?- load must be projected into the future to while others do not. Mail-order sys- System cost includes not only the to- in tal cost, but also the costs for supplies predict how fast it will grow in the next tems are particularly limited the few years. warranties given. and maintenance.

One approach is to use statistics from

February 1983 Doiktop Computing .

Page 25

Selection

7 th.it that benefit will be realized. This purchase options that allow rental pay- Step —shop around figure, then, is your probable benefit ments to go toward the purchase price. Most first-time computer shoppers buy

from computerization. This is a good way for you to decide not from the first vendor they visit. While

For example, if you were to achieve only which system is best, but also there was a time whe n your opt ions were your objective of reducing the parts in whether computerization benefits your limited by the small amount of hardware the inventory by ten percent, this may business. It can also give you a tremen- and software being offered for sm all busi- translate into a savings of, say, $5,000. dous psychological lift by lessening the ness applications, that day is gone. Today Yi hi are not certain that you can actually “fear of failure” in installing a new the market is highly competitive, and the accomplish this, however, so you are system, since failure does not mean as choices available in hardware and' soft- w illing to give it an 80 percent probabilb great an economic loss. ware make shopping around a must tv of success. Your probable benefit in The final alternative, and perhaps the Computer stores are appearing i,n all this case is $4,000 (i.e., 80 percent of most important to consider, is the “do major cities and many small towns.

$5,000). This is the figure you would use nothing” alternative. After you have an- These stores provide an excellent oppor- to compare benefits versus costs in vari- alyzed the business so far, you should ask tunity for buyers to see many of the s ys- ous systems. yourself, “Do I really need a computer?” terns on the market. Do not hesitate >to If you do not feel confident that a com- ask to try out a system. You eve n Not all benefits are so easily quantifi- may will help your business, perhaps - able, of course. Suppose you could serve puter want to take along some of your employ the best alternative is to wait a while. ees to ask pertinent questions and be- i ustomers faster or offer a new service not currently available. How much Step 6—write system specifications come familiar with the systems. would this benefit your business? Al- System specifications are simply those Step 8 —evaluate the systems and though these types of benefits cannot be features that you want to be included in the vendors expressed easily, they can be very impor- your system. These are derived from tant in deciding whether to buy a sys- your work load analysis. System specifi- Evaluating the systems involves weigh- tem. Try to identify as many of these cations serve to communicate to the ing the costs against the benefits project- non-quantifiable benefits as possible, salesperson exactly what you need. Ideal- ed in Step 4. Because systems vary in ca- and make a list to help you evaluate ly they should be written as much as pos- pabilities and costs, this is often more dif- what a new system has to offer. sible in terms of business functions and ficult than it sounds. A handy tool to should avoid equipment descriptions. have is a checklist of important features Step 5 —explore the alternatives For example, instead of saying “must to help you make a direct comparison be- have 8-inch, disk tween systems. The sidebar on page 47 In this case, the term “alternatives” an double-density it is contains some questions to include in does not simply mean an Apple versus a drive,” better to say “must be able to store transactions on line such a checklist. TRS-80. Many options are available to a one month’s these At this point, I must discuss a ve ry im- business manager planning to computer- for processing.” Not only are “functional” specifications easier for a portant point to keep in mind when ize. One alternative, for instance, is not business to formulate un- evaluating systems. A computer s ystem to buy a computer, but to subscribe to a manager and derstand, but they also emphasize the actually consists of two parts: the hard- computer service. A timesharing service end results and allow flexibility in how ware and the software. The soft w are is offers all the advantages of computeriza- the system accomplishes the set of programs that performs tl ic job tion without the responsibilities of sup- them. write specifications want and, therefore, is the primary concern in plies, maintenance and programming. To you may to get help from someone with computer choosing a system. Hardware is impor- Timesharing can be expensive, but it of-

1 expertise, either a consultant or a knowl- tant only in how it executes the soft ware. ten offers more services and flexibility edgeable acquaintance. Knowledge of than you would have with your own Some software packages are written to the capabilities and limitations of com- system. be run on only one model of computer. puter systems will help in creating realis- In this case, the choice of a specific tic specifications. Because you are most of software would dictate what hardware familiar with your business, however, you will purchase. Often the software avoid the temptation to let a consultant has versions written to run on a num her do all the work. Stay actively involved to Whether you are alone of different machines. While one com- ensure that all your needs are expressed. or with an expert, insist puter may run the program quickly a nd After some specifications have been efficiently, however, another system mnv that the salesperson talk drawn up, you can look back at your ob- be slower and less efficient with the same in your terms. jectives and decide which of your specifi- program. In this case, the goal is to find cations are mandatory and which are de- the optimum combination of hardwni <• sirable. Mandatory requirements arc and software. those without which the system simply Evaluating the systems themselves is Before purchasing a new system, you does not meet your needs. These are im- only part of your job. An evaluation of should investigate another alternative- portant and so should be identified. De- the vendor is an important part of rental. The low cost of microcomputer sirable features are those that would be choosing a system. To get an idea of how

systems will generally make rental too ex- nice, but without which you could live if the vendor rates on customer support, pensive as a long-term solution. Short- you had to. Identifying desirable and ask the salesperson or sales manager to

term rental, however, is an excellent way mandatory features allows you to see give you the names of some of their pre of trying out a new system without mak- where you can make compromises and vious customers. A short chat with cu’ ing the commitment to purchase. Most trade-offs without sacrificing the useful- tomers who arc using that vendor's s\ s dealers who rent systems have lease-to- ness of the system. terns can reveal any problems thev mnv

Desktop Computing February 1983 Page 26

Selection

have getting repairs or other service. will do your job. And after all, that’s the ses, specifications, evaluations, and so Here are a few items you should check: name of the game. on, so that you can anticipate when the system will be purchased. • How lo ng before the system can be de- Last thoughts Also decide which business functions livered a.nd running? These nine steps outline a very general will be put on the system first and which • What kind of training, if any, is methodology that virtually anyone can ones can wait. Plan as far ahead as you available? adopt when buying a computer system. can, but remember that surprises will oc- • Hovr fast is service? In addition to these steps, four other cur unexpectedly. Very often a manager • Wil.l the vendor offer assistance in set- rules are important to a satisfactory com- finds that after a computer is in, new ap- ting up the system? puter acquisition. plications crop up that s/he did not consider. T'ne evaluation of the system and ven- • Rule 1 —write things down dors may be another area where you will Writing down your thoughts and ac- • Rule 3 —do not be afraid to appear want the recommendations of a consul- tions in journal style is a handy habit to ignorant ta nt or someone with some expertise. develop. Obviously, you will be writing We are all ignorant about something. Whether you are alone or with an ex- down your work load analysis, specifica- If you are ignorant about computers, do pert, insist that the salesperson talk in tions and checklists. You should also not let the “experts” take advantage of your terms. Do not let the experts get write down decisions you make, your you. Ask questions, and use this as your carried away with computerese and leave reasons for making those decisions, and opportunity to learn. The difference be- you in the background. Ask questions, observations you have on your business tween ignorance and stupidity is that the and keep asking until you understand and on various systems you evaluate. stupid person does not ask questions. the answers. Documenting your activities serves • Rule 4—do not put blind trust in three purposes: it helps you remember Step 9—choose your system methodologies what has happened and keep things in Eventually you will have to make your Everyone looks for recipes on how to perspective; it allows you to backtrack choice. This is the hardest step. Many make decisions. Such recipes do not ex- and make changes along the way; and it buyers; get themselves caught in the pro- ist. A good methodology is general and keeps a record of lessons learned for next crastination trap. “If I wait a little longer, flexible, not a recipe to which you must time (or for writing a magazine article). the price will drop,” or "a newer, better adhere. Always remember, when you are model will be coming out.” Although • Rule 2 —plan ahead faced with a new situation, common this is very often true, it is also true that A timetable is a useful item to keep sense is one of your best tools. you could postpone your purchase for- events on track. If you have a slow sea-

ever w aiting for that new system or lower son around the holidays, for instance, The author is a computer systems analyst for the US price. you may want to plan the installation Navy. She is currently teaching computer system acquisition to mid. and senior-level government executives. For If you have done the previous eight and conversion for this period to mini- more information, write to her c/o Desktop steps well, you should be able to have mize the disruption of business. Plan the Computing. confidence that the system you choose time you will allow yourself for the analy-

February 1983 Desktop Osmpatiaf Pane 27 How to Choose a Portable

Factors to consider before you take the plunge

by Stanley J. Wszola

Just a year and a half ago the device for or method of displaying example of a briefcase computer is

Osborne 1 portable microcomputer data output, and usually a means of the Radio Shack Model 100. had no competitors. Today at least 50 storing data. Transportable computers: These portables fight for a share of the A portable computer must be easy are the heavyweights of the portable- market, and new machines are an- to carry from place to place. Don't computer field in terms of size, nounced almost daily. confuse "portable" with "transport- weight, and capabilities. I've used the There's definitely something going able." Any computer can be trans- term transportable because some so- oh out there, and it bodes well for the portable if you have a big enough called portable computers are noth- consumer. Manufacturers, trying to truck. For the purposes of this arti- ing more than a boxed desktop outdo the competition, are offering cle, a portable computer is one that computer with a handle on top. Most better, more powerful, and more at- can be carried by one person—but are the size of a small suitcase, weigh tractive portable computers. It's the not necessarily easily carried. Cur- 15 to 40 pounds, and usually have a free market at its best. The only prob- rently, portable computers can be CRT (cathode-ray tube) display with lem with this abundance of portables divided into three rough categories: one or more floppy-disk drives. Most is that buyers often don't know Pocket computers: These can be where to begin. To that end, we'll characterized as pocket-size, battery- start with an explanation of what a powered, lightweight computers Any computer can be portable computer is and then ex- with a 1-line display, limited memory transportable if you plore its various components. While (0.5 to 10K bytes), and usually BASIC have a big enough that won't tell you which portable to in ROM (read-only memory). Most to truck. buy, it will provide some signposts use cassette tape for data storage. The help you make an informed choice. keyboards on these computers are TTie sudden appearence of portable not suitable for touch-typing, and the use CP/M-80 or CP/M-86 and MS- computers results from a con- 1-line display is adequate only for DOS operating systems. These com- vergence of technologies. Many fea- simple programming. Many of these puters can do anything the desktop tures found on portable computers computers can accept accessories models can do, but their portability have been used and refined on prod- (i.e., printers, serial- and parallel-port is limited by the necessity for AC ucts such as digital watches and interfaces, and modems) to increase power or a heavy battery pack. The pocket calculators. In addition, the their usefulness. Osborne Executive is a transportable products of the years of research and Briefcase computers: As the name computer. development that went into creating implies, these computers are small today's desktop microcomputer have enough to be placed in a briefcase. Power Sources finally come together in the portable They usually have a 4- to 8-line dis- The growing use of low-power computer. What we have is reliable play, a full-size keyboard, provision CMOS RAM (random-access read hardware and proven software in a for increasing internal memory, serial write memory) chips and CMOS machine that can be shuttled easily and/or parallel ports, and AC or bat- microprocessor chips, such as the from office to home or wherever. Por- tery power. Most briefcase computers 80C85 used in the Radio Shack table computer users include busi- feature BASIC in ROM, and some in- Model 100, has decreased depen- ness people who like the flexibility of clude applications programs for word dency on AC power sources. Battery- working at home or on the road, processing, telecommunications, and powered portables can be used scientists and engineers who take appointment scheduling. Data stor- almost anywhere. But batteries can their portables into the field for on- age can involve micro- or full-size be a curse as well as a blessing, they site computer applications, and peo- cassette tapes, auxiliary floppy-disk add overall weight to the package and ple who simply like to take their com- drives, or bubble and always run out just when you need puting power with them. CMOS (com- plementary metal-oxide semiconduc- them most. What Is a Portable? tor) memory cartridges. Most have Most portable computers can run

A portable computer is, of course, full-size keyboards that are suitable from 2 to 10 hours before they need

a computer first and foremost. It for touch-typing. Their light weight a recharge. Battery life depends on must have a central processing unit, (5 to 10 pounds) and small size let the power requirements of the com

memory, a method for data entry, a you use them almost anywhere. One puter, the length of time it has been

September 1983 © BYTE Publications Inc.

Iron "How to Choose a Portable", by Stanley ./. Usrola. appearing tn

Septenber. 190J Issue of PYJE nagasine. Copyright (e) io#< t>y

tlcGrau-Hill, Inc . , New York, NY 10020. Page 23

operating, and the rating of the bat- environments and airport baggage Alphanumeric characters can be tery. Some portables have low-voltage handlers. formed by applying the voltage to the indicators to alert you when the bat- But the advantages of the CRT out- correct sequence of wires. The gas- teries run low. The transportable weigh the disadvantages. First, it is plasma display is similar to the ELD models are more power hungry than a luminescent display— it produces except that a gas fills the space be- the smaller portables. The CRT and light. Therefore, it can be used under tween the two plates. The Grid Com- the disk drives in the transportables poor lighting conditions. Second, it pass computer has an ELD screen. require a lot of energy. is extremely flexible. Given a monitor ELDs combine the advantages of Some briefcase computers use with sufficient resolution, you can the CRT and the LCD. They can dis-

CMOS memory chips and an aux- display any type of image upon it, in- play a full 80 characters by 24 lines, iliary nickel-cadmium battery to cluding color, such as with the Com- offer good bit-mapped graphics res- preserve data in memory if the main modore Executive 64. Finally, there's olution, and their flat shape makes batteries fail. For example, the nickel- enough software available to take ad- them ideal for portable applications. cadmium batteries in the Model 100 vantage of that flexibility. The only disadvantage is that both can maintain data for 8 to 30 days, The second most popular form of their price and power consumption

depending on how much memory display is the small, lightweight LCD, exceed the level of other displays. For

the computer has. This gives you an which usually requires little power now, field testing will have to deter- extra margin of safety if you are and is relatively immune to damage. mine whether the electroluminescent unable to replace or recharge the One disadvantage is that an LCD's and gas-plasma displays are econo- main batteries right away. response time is slower than that of mical and reliable enough to replace Many transportable computers a CRT display in terms of speed re- the CRT display for portable have auxiliary battery packs as op- quired to write and erase a character computers. tions. Of course, you still face the on the display. Additionally, the LCD problem of carrying the batteries as bit-mapped graphics are at best crude Data Storage well as the computer. Finally, some because the individual pixels (picture Developments in data-storage tech- manufacturers offer an optional auto elements) aren't small enough to give nology have enabled portable com- adapter, which lets you plug your sharp definition. And at tempera- puter users to take their data along computer into your car's cigarette tures below freezing, the LCDs may with them. The newer half-height lighter. They recommend using the slow down even more or stop 5V4-inch and 3V2-inch floppy-disk computer with the engine off to altogether. drives have as much storage capaci- eliminate lost data due to voltage The Sharp PC-5000 has the largest ty as the older 8-inch drives. Hard spikes and surges. That's just as well; LCD currently available on a portable disks are also becoming portable. For you don't want to be downloading a computer, 8 lines by 80 characters example, the Kaypro-10 has a built-in program and downshifting at the Whether such a display 10-megabyte hard-disk drive. Some

same time. is large enough for effective work is portables feature bubble-memory a matter of personal taste. Portable cartridges for convenient long-term Video Displays computers with a 1-line display are data storage. The new portables use one of three minimally usable. The HP-75 has a Memory is the working medium of types of displays: CRT, LCD (liquid- 1-line by 32-character display. The any computer, and portables are no crystal display), or ELD (electro- Epson HX-20 has 4 lines exception. Yet portables, because they luminescent displays). CRTs have by 20 characters. The Radio Shack incorporate the latest technology, of- been around for a long time and are Model 100 has an 8-line by 40-char- fer more memory options than stan- a proven medium. LCDs, although acter display. You can work with all dard desktop computers. You can limited in their ability to display of these displays, but they are only have a portable with CMOS RAM, graphics, are lightweight and don't a fraction of the size of a standard bubble-memory cartridges, mini- or consume too much power. The newer CRT display of 80 characters by 24 micro-floppy- disk drives, or hard ELDs have the same display capabil- lines. You should carefully consider disks. Each option has its own par- ities as CRTs with an extra advan- the display size in terms of your particular advantages and disadvantage—their flat shape makes them ticular application and choose the tages. ideal for use in portables. I'll explain portable that best fits your needs. CMOS memory is widely used in each in detail. Word processing on a 4-line display briefcase computers because of its

The most commonly used display is awkward at best. low power consumption. The recent for portable computers is the reliable, Finally, the new ELD and gas- improvement in chip-manufacturing flexible, and easy-to-use CRT. Most plasma display technologies provide technology has lowered the price and users are already familiar with it. Its still another choice. ELDs use a increased the performance of these primary disadvantages are a bulky chemical coating and a wire grid memory devices. CMOS chips are shape and high power consumption. placed between two glass plates. The still slower in operation than cor- The CRT itself, a large, fragile glass chemical coating emits light when an responding TTL (transistor-transistor tube, must be protected from harsh AC voltage is applied to the wires. logic) memory devices, but their

September 1983 © BYTE Publications Inc Page 29

speed is improving. In actual use the amount of storage for a portable computer uses an 8088 microprocessor speed of a CMOS memory chip does puter system and can handle almost and runs MS-DOS, but it uses the not adversely affect the operation of any application. Sony 3V2-inch floppy-disk drives, a portable computer. Hard-disk-drive manufacturers which are not compatible with the Bubble-memory cartridges have carefully studied the typical environ- standard 5V4-inch drives used on the been around for a while but haven't ment of a portable computer and IBM. As a result, you would have been widely used because of their have developed drives that have some work to do to transfer programs high price. But, like CMOS memory, special shock mountings and head- from the IBM to the DOT computer. level their price is dropping and their use positioning controls to withstand The second is data compati- is increasing, especially for the brief- shock and vibration. For example, bility. Most "IBM-compatible" com- case computers. Bubble-memory car- both the Kaypro-10 and the Starlite puters fall into this category. With a tridges offer several advantages over HD20 have utility programs to posi- data-compatible portable, you can other storage media such as floppy tion the read/write head in a “safety transfer data created on an IBM disk disks. They operate like a floppy-disk zone" on the disk that is isolated to a portable computer. But you can- drive but much faster; they have no from the data tracks; if a head crash not transfer the program used to moving parts and no disk-drive head occurs while the computer is in tran- create those data files. For example, can create a data file with elec- to move from track to track. Data is sit, you will probably be able to you an stored in the cartridge as a pattern of recover your data. In addition, the tronic spreadsheet program on the magnetic bubbles, and when the car- read/write heads have been rede- IBM and use that data on a compatible portable long have tridge is removed or power fails, the signed to be lighter and less prone to as as you the version of stored data is retained. The cartridges shock. same the spreadsheet pro- do not require an auxiliary battery to Hard-disk drives are an expensive gram for the portable. last level retain data. They require very little option, but their price is dropping. The of compatibility in- power to operate and are much more However, they are heavier than cludes computers that are "almost a rugged than conventional floppy floppy-disk drives and consume clone." These systems, such as the disks. more power because the disk is con- Columbia VP offer the graphics capabilities key- Floppy disks are still very much the stantly spinning while it's on. An- same and medium of choice for people who other potential problem is the possi- board as the IBM and use the same work with portable computers. They bility of data loss due to a head crash. software. They differ from the IBM respect are widely used, dependable, and This occurrence is more serious with PC only with to the informa- have a broad base of available soft- a hard disk loaded with great quan- tion stored in ROM. The PC has a ware. With the introduction of half- tities of data than for a set of floppy copyright notice in its ROM. Some height and microfloppy-disk drives, disks. programs such as Visicalc only work floppy disks remain the primary For most of the transportable com- correctly after locating the copyright data-storage medium. The disadvan- puters that use the Z80 micropro- notice in ROM. Most software will tages of floppy disks include occa- cessor, the de facto operating system work correctly, but in some cases you to sional incompatible recording for- is CP/M. Compatibility is reasonably need get a version of the program mats for 5V4-inch disks and the con- assured regardless of the type of specifically tailored to your computer. fusing differences between the computer, magnetic media, or dis- Before choosing a portable, find the various standards for the micro- play used. Practically every major software you want, and then make floppy-disk drives. software application package is avail- sure it runs on the computer you like. Before buying a portable or trans- able in a CP/M format. By using a portable computer, find out if it can standard operating system, you have Software read and write to disks from other access to a tremendous number of Bundled software is a great value. computers. The Kaypro II programs, programming utilities, and It lets you get the computer up and for example, can read and write languages. running as soon as you take it home. to disks created with a Xerox 820-11. But the issue of compatibility Manufacturers usually offer word- And the Kaypro Users Group has becomes much more complicated processing, electronic spreadsheet, software available that will enable the when computer manufacturers try to database-manager, and perhaps com- Kaypro II to read other disk formats. make their computer emulate the munications packages. Some por- Rather than carry a lot of floppy functions of another machine, as is table computers have as much as disks, you can opt for a portable with the case with the many IBM Personal $2500 worth of software bundled a built-in hard-disk drive. Portables Computer work-alikes. This con- with the hardware. Bundled software such as the Kaypro-10 tinues to be a confusing issue also enables you to try the various with its 10-megabyte hard disk and because three levels of compatibility programs before you buy a complete the Starlite HD20 with have emerged. system. its 20-megabyte hard disk can serve Incompatible disk formats or differ- But don't let the lure of bundled users with very large data-storage ent-size media characterize the first software sway your decision on needs. Both have a staggering level. For example, the DOT com- which portable computer to buy. You

46 September 1983 © BYTE Publications Inc Paae 30 may not like a particular software a portable computer, ask yourself one of a computer. package that is included with the more question, "Where do I need a portable computer you choose. computer most?" Do you really need Summary a portable isn't Selecting software is sometimes a a heavy-duty CP/M system that can Choosing computer very subjective decision. The soft- be transferred from the office to easy. The number of portables and ware and hardware must combine to home? Or do you need a computer the variety of available features make meet your needs. If they don't do that can go on the road for data col- the choice a tough one. But with the what you need, you shouldn't buy lection in the field? You may be the right background and some in-depth them. ultimate computer junkie who likes research, you'll be able to find one to work in pajamas in bed at 2 o'clock that suits your needs. Defining the Workplace in the morning. Your ideal working

Stanley J. Wszola is a BYTE technical editor. When considering the purchase of environment is critical in your choice

(EDITOR’S NOW: Excerpt from original article - directory of portable computers extracted).

September 1983 © BYTE Publications Inc. Page 31

Its Ken Pedersen Multi-user Systems Offer Substantial Savings

Efficiency goes up as costs go down.

uy eight computers for the price of sues in order to judge whether this invest- the name might imply, is based on one B three? If that is an offer that in- ment is right for him or her. central processing unit, or CPU. This terests you, perhaps you should be con- There are many kinds of multi-user sys- type of system allows more than one user sidering a multi-user desktop computer tems, but they can be reduced to two to run programs by allocating a portion of for your business. These systems can pre- basic forms: single processor and multi- its memory to each user and servicing sent a unique savings opportunity for you processor. Each of these has its own ad- each user when the CPU has time avail- and still provide the flexibility for expan- vantages and disadvantages relating to able. Thus, even the microprocessor and sion tomorrow— if you understand their cost, performance and the number of the system memory in this configuration limitations. users that system will support. The choice can be regarded as shared resources.

As more and more multi-user desktop that a particular business might make re- Cost effective as this is, there is a major computers are announced by manufac- lates directly to its own required mix of disadvantage. Because many users must turers on an almost daily basis, the poten- these factors. In order to get a better idea share the CPU, response time (that is, the tial buyer of these systems will find him or of which system might be right for vour length of time between a user request and herself confronted with a set of little- business, let’s take a brief look at each. the computer response) can often be long- known problems and issues unique to this er than desired. The limited speed of tcv processor type of computer. The customer needs to Single day’s popular eight-bit microprocessors, understand and be familiar with these is- The single-processor-based system, as such as the Z-80A, makes it generally unrealistic to expect these systems to support more than three or four users at a time. At the same time, these are usually Single Processor Architecture the least expensive of the multi-user computers, and, on a per-unit basis, are usually less expensive per user than single-user Memory and multiprocessor systems. Banks Finally, as newer systems sport faster and more powerful microprocessors, these multi-user, single-processor systems will be able to support more users and give better performance than the eight-hit sys-

B Single-user tems they are replacing. portions of Multiprocessor memory Multiprocessor systems are generally allocated as more powerful than singlc-pnxcvor sys D needed terns in that they provide more than one CPU per system. Typically, each user is given one microprocessor and a full com plement of memory to service his or her particular processing needs. With one ex ception, this allows the user to run completely independent from other users The exception concerns disk access Since these systems share disk storage Terminal units, they must wait for other users who might be getting data from the disk Mul- One CPU services all resource allocations, input/output and processing requirements ti-user systems in general have Wine hosier hard-disk systems because their capa< us

Desktop Computing December 1982 7luJ ti -User Systems Offer Substantial Savings. " fen Pedersen. UesA tap iOAput lng

Oecenber 1982. pages 48~S0.fi'. Reprinted by permission Copyright (cJ hr

Selection

and speed are generally a generation more software is to run on. Since a multi-user in general. These problems arise out of the

advanced than floppy disks. The hard system is one physical machine, there same factors that make the multi-user en- disk, then, can more than handle the re- generally is no need to buy the multiple vironment desirable in the first place: the quirements made on it by the multi-user copies of software that would be necessary ability to have more than one individual environment, and the user is, practically on single-station desktop computers. use common resources at the same time. speaking, independent from the other The growing popularity of multi-user The issues we will consider include the users. systems, however, has been of increasing following: concern to some software vendors. They • Data integrity. What happens when Efficiency trade-offs see lost revenues growing as more and two people try to update the same data at There is, of course, a price for this extra more business managers choose to take the same time? performance. Since every user owns, so to advantage of multi-user cost savings. • Proper protection of your data. speak, his or her own CPU and memory, For example, MicroPro International, • Security. How do you control access to these items are not shared, and the dupli- the vendor of Wordstar as well as other sensitive data files—for example, payroll cation of them adds extra cost to the sys- popular software packages, announced in files— and other powerful capabilities of tem. The result of this duplication, how- May 1982 that owners of multi-user sys- the computer? ever, allows the system to support more users and give a faster response time. Finally, there are variations between Multi-Processor Architecture single and multiprocessors that do not function independently, but assist the main CPU in increasing speed and reducing response time. In order to increase the physical number of users the system might support, some multiprocessor systems physically separate each set of CPU and memory from the others. In such cases, each system resides in the terminal, and cable connections are used to bring stations together at the common hard disk. Since the cables have relatively slow data transfer rates, this approach can slow

down the speed of the system, but it provides flexibility in the number of users the system can support. CPU Perhaps the most straightforward way and of seeing the financial benefits of multi- Memory user desktop computers is in their ability to share resources. Let us take, for exam- a .an. ple, a business that requires five user sta-

tions to meet its particular needs. If that Terminal Terminal Terminal business bought five single-station person-

al or business computers, it would also be Master Processor handles all input/output and resource alloca- likely to need a printer and a floppy or tions, but programs run with separate CPU and memory. hard-disk drive for each station. These peripherals alone could easily cost as much as $15,000. A multi-user system, however, has the tems would be required to buy, on a slid- We will discuss these issues with the inability to share these expensive peripheral ing scale, multiple licenses of the product tent to understand what the business pro- resources by controlling them from a dependent on the number of users that fessional needs to know in order to make

common, centralized unit and thereby al- the system could support. It remains to an educated decision for his or her partic- low the five users in our example all to be seen whether this becomes an indus- ular business needs. have common access to one printer and try trend or whether user and dealer re- Data integrity all to store their individual data and pro- sistance and poor enforcement will make

gram files on one disk-storage unit. There- this an isolated case. Nevertheless, shared The term data integrity refers to how fore, the cost per user of these systems can resources remain one of the better rea- we assure that the information in our

be substantially reduced from the single- sons for considering a multi-user desktop data files is what we believe it to be. For user systems. computer. example, an airline data entry operator, inquiring as to seat availability for a par-

Software issue Multi-user issues ticular flight, receives a response from a A similar, but less well-defined situa- Now that we have a basic understand- computer that there is one seat left on the tion, exists with software. Most software ing of the differences between the various flight. In just the instant after the infor- companies require that the end-user buy types of systems and how they can save mation was delivered to that operator,

one copy of the particular software pack- the buyer money, we can address the is- however, another operator working with age for each physical machine that the sues that are unique to multi-user systems the same computer sells that last seat and

December 1982 Duktop Computing Page 33

Selection

enters it into the computer. Our first op- no protection. Thus, when making a soft- simultaneous requests for data, floppy

erator now believes that there is a seat ware decision for multi-user systems disks generally give too slow a response to

available on the flight, when it really no where record locking is an issue, it is nec- be considered effective.

longer exists. essary for the prospective buyer to make Keeping these facts in mind, it can take

What happens now if our unsuspecting sure that the application programs as well up to 40 floppy disks to back up a medium

first operator tries to sell that now nonex- as the operating system offer and imple- volume (20 megabyte or 20 million char- istent seat? Unless the system knows spe- ment the record-locking feature. acters of memory) hard disk. This method

cifically how to deal with the situation, Does this mean that all your software can take up to several hours, be difficult to the results will be unpredictable. We do must implement record locking? No. For manage properly and, for today's business

not know for certain what has happened example, word processing usually does professional, is impractical.

to the data file, and therefore the file no not require it because it is unlikely that Cartridge-tape-backup mechanisms, on longer has integrity. there would be a need for having two peo- the other hand, cost relatively less (ap- As you can see, a single-user computer ple edit the same letter simultaneously. proximately $2,000 to $4,000), are reliable will never have this problem because When there are data files critical to your and can back up in 15 minutes the same there will never be more than one opera- business, however, and more than one hard disk that took 40 floppy disks and tor using the system at any given time. user will have access to them, you must two hours. For this reason, a backup But the prospective business professional make the decision as to how you will deal method similar to cartridge-tape backup considering a multi-user system must should be written in as a part of the mini- make sure that the above type of problem mum cost for the system. The possibility never occurs in his or her accounts receiv- of vandalism, sabotage or mechanical able or inventory system. The multi-user system is failure makes this extra precaution a good The most simple and straightforward part of the logical and necessary investment. solution is to assure that, in the environ- development of desktop Security considerations ment where the computer will be used, each user station is assigned a specific computer technology. As The last issue we will consider here is one that is too often overlooked when function that only it will perform. For ex- the microprocessor purchasing a multi-user desktop comput- ample, bookkeeping functions will take continues to become place only at the accountant’s user sta- er—the issue of software security. The more powerful, we will tion, and inventory updates will only be problem of security is simple: how to give allowed from the warehouse user station. see more and more users of the computer the power they In this way, the issue of simultaneous up- computers capable of need to perform the specific functions dates will they are responsible for, without allowing never arise. supporting multiple users This is, however, not always practical. them access to, capabilities and sensitive simultaneously. files Perhaps it is desirable to run a single pro- data that they do not need to have. gram in a multi-user environment where Some of the capabilities we are con- more than one user will he updating the cerned with here include the ability to do same file (for example, a sales order entry the following: system). In this case, the computer itself with the integrity problem. Popular ac- • Delete files from the disk unit. must safeguard the integrity of the files. counting packages that business profes- • Modify files, such as payroll or payables. Some vendors of multi-user systems sionals might be familiar with on single- • Rename files. have supplied their computer’s operating user systems could require modification or As we have seen, multi-user systems system (the computer program that con- be entirely unacceptable because of their have the cost-saving advantage of sharing trols the computer’s resources) with a inability to work reliably in a multi-user resources. But now we see that we must “record-locking” capability. Most simply environment. have some way of protecting and control' stated, record locking means that, when Proper backup of company data is criti- ling the confidentiality of key data files, is data (or records) are being updated, no cal to all computer systems, but is especial- well as prevent others from unknowingly other user can slip in and change the data ly important in a multi-user environment. or maliciously invoking powi rful during the update. This prevents the More than one user is now depending on ing system commands that will he harm problem we have been discussing and the system. You might have more data on ful to the integrity of the system in gives the data the integrity that we have the computer than a single-user system general. been searching for. would have. Thus it is necessary to make One way for a business professional sure that your multi-user system has an to protect the security of the system is Still not sufficient < adequate backup mechanism other than to purchase application programs ! at Unfortunately, after saying these a floppy disk for a backup. have a security feature built ini then things, there remains one last problem. Why not a floppy-disk backup? Let’s In this type of arrangement, the user

•• The mere presence of the record-locking step back briefly. The system you choose must type in a pas sword t the pi capability in an operating system does not will most likely use a hard disk as its stor- after invoking it and is not allowed a* mean that the application program actu- age medium. Hard disks can hold much cess to the program if s he cannot sup ally uses that capability. larger amounts of data and are also much ply the correct code.

Similar to a parachute, the record-lock- faster. This benefits the user in two ways. This solution, however, i* not idc.,! ing feature gives little benefit until it is ac- First, users avoid having to run back and First, not all applications have passu, r j tually used by the application program. If forth switching relatively low-capacity support. Second, it is often relatively ras*. the program is not specifically designed to floppy disks in and out of the machine. for a jx-rson with some programming use the operating system’s particular rec- Also, hard disks are much faster than knowledge to outsmart this kind of ,ie\ i, c ord-locking capability, this feature gives floppy disks, and, with the possibility of and gain entrance to the program with

Desktop Computing December 1982 Page 34

: Selection out knowing the password. Thus, the is to implement the password protection system will need and what programs the password protection becomes little more on the operating-system level, instead of user should be able to use. The password than a temporary annoyance for the indi- the application level. tells the operating system what kinds of vidual who is really determined to get ac- Operating-system-level protection re- programs the user should be allowed to cess to the information. Finally, password fuses the user access to the computer sys- use and the kinds of system commands protection of application programs does tem in general until s/he enters his or her that the particular individual may use. not address the critical problem of re- personal password. This password is given Thus, when an individual logs on to the stricting the availability of powerful to the user by the person responsible for computer, the system automatically operating system commands to the un- the computer installation. This person de- knows the limitations that it will impose qualified user. Therefore, a better solution termines what capabilities each user of the on the particular user. The data entry op-

Ten Steps for Choosing a Multi-user Desktop Computer Proper backup of company data is critical to all computer systems,

1 * Determine how many user sta- 6 Determine which applications but is especially If you need will have than one station access- tions you need now. more important in a multi-user more than eight, multi-user desktop ing common files simultaneously. Is it environment. computers are probably not yet practical to restrict this activity to a ready for you. single-user station? If not, the software that you purchase should implement will be allowed access to the data some type of record-locking protec- erator Figure how much hard-disk ca- 2 • entry program only and not be allowed to tion. pacity you need. Although this varies delete files, thus ensuring that the system widely between applications, a good Determine your security require- is secure. rule of thumb is to have five megabytes 7 While no system is foolproof, this meth- ments. Will there be data files that cer- (5 million characters) per user station. tain individuals in the organization od seems to be better than the previous one discussed. It is much more difficult to should not have access to? If so, the op- » Determine the dollars that you into, user erating system or the application soft- break and the need know only are willing to spend. If your figure is ware that you buy should have a de- one password, as opposed to remember- less than $2,500 per station (including monstrable security feature. ing a password for each program. Unfor- tape backup and printer, but not in- tunately, not all multi-user desktop com- cluding application software), go back puters offer this type of sophisticated op- 8 » Make your vendor demonstrate to step one and revise downward or re- security feature. Prospec- the multi-user environment you are in- erating system alize that your budget is not yet ready tive buyers need to measure their particu- terested in. Too often, computers are for a multi-user desktop computer. If purchased without the buyer seeing lar security needs in light of the systems your number is between $3,000 and are considering. the computer in question running as a that they $4,000 per user station, you will have a multi-user system. If you are consider- wide variety of choices. Summary ing a five-user system, and the vendor is of the logi- can only show a single-user configura- The multi-user system part your processing cal development of desktop computer 4 Determine tion, how do you know that the sys- your applications technology. the microprocessor con- power needs. Are tem will meet your performance re- As mathematically intensive? Will you quirements? tinues to become more powerful, we will run more than three users simultane- see more and more computers capable of

Is simultaneously. ously now or in the near future? fast 9 Be sure the system provides a supporting multiple users time a critical requirement? If Further, multi-user desktop computers response backup. Tape backup is probably a multi- offer substantial savings today as long so, then you probably need best here, but the system should of- can at least a 16-bit single- as the buyer understands the issues that processor or fer some backup system besides flop- processor system. are unique to these types of systems. py disk. While no one system performs all the functions discussed here equally well, the 5 Prepare yourself to do business • Buy a maintenance contract. multi-user desktop computer is an impor- with a single vendor. Because of the This is true for all computers, but is es- for considering a com- special integrity and security issues in- pecially important here. By purchasing tant option those solution to the challenges of doing volved with multi-user systems, find a a multi-user desktop computer, you puter business today. vendor who is sensitive to these issues are by definition trying to increase

and is prepared to provide software more than one person’s productivity.

that meets your unique requirements, A reasonable rate is between one and as well as installation and training. Al- two percent per month of the hard- Ken Pedersen has a philosophy degree and is actively though this may cost a bit more, the ware’s retail price for 24-hour service. interested in electronic and computer-generated music. comfort of knowing that you have a Be glad to pay it in order to keep your You may address any comments to Mr. Pedersen in care of single source for help is important. people up and running. Desktop Computing.

Desktop Computing December 1982 Page 35 Page 36

Technology by Ken Sheldon

Bit By Bit

Much excitement has been created by the development of the 16-bit computer. Its greater

memory, increased speed and multiplied functions have outstripped the capabilities of the more conventional 8-bit machines. There may be important implications here for users of

small computers. Many such users, however, are quite in the dark about just what all this

talk of bits and buses is about. Read on and Desktop will make you, if not an expert, at least an informed layperson on this “bit" of important technology.

y eighth-grade mathematics that computers use microscopic electrical The location of a piece of data—as op- M teacher explained the Theory of switches with ON and OFF (which we posed to the actual data—travels to and Permutations and Combinations (a fancy represent as 1 and 0), rather than coins from memory via a pathway known as

way of saying “possibilities”) in the follow- with heads and tails. Each 0 or 1 is a bit, the address bus. Because an address bus

ing manner: suppose you had a coin in each 8-bit grouping is a byte, and each that is 8-bits wide allows only 256 differ- front of you. There would be only two byte represents either a piece of data or ent locations for data storage in the mem-

ways to display the coin, heads or tails. If the address of the location of that data in ory, most 8-bit computers, by conven- you had two coins, there would be two the computer’s memory. Data might in- tion, have address buses that are two possibilities for each coin and a total of clude a letter of the alphabet, a number or bytes wide. The number of possible loca-

four possible arrangements: heads-heads, a punctuation mark, according to the tions in memory is thus 256 x 256 or heads-tails, tails-tails and tails-heads. American Standard Code for Informa- 65,536. One K of memory equals 1,024 Three coins would have eight arrange- tion Interchange (ASCII). For example, bytes, and 65,536 bytes equals 64K, which

ments, four coins would have 16, and so in ASCII, the 8-bit code for the letter A is is the maximum memory for most 8-bit on. For each coin that you added there 01000001. computers. In concrete terms, this is would be twice as many arrangements as An 8-bit computer then, has 256 possi- equivalent to 32 double-spaced typewrit- before. ble character sequences—which may seem ten pages of material. This might not have seemed exciting to like an excessive number until you recall The width of address buses for 16-bit my classmates, but to those of us reared that there are both upper and lowercase computers varies, but generally, the upper on a diet of secret codes in comic books, letters, numbers and punctuation marks limit is 24 bits—one 8-bit and one 16-bit the implications were obvious. With very that need to be represented. These ASCII sequence. The number of different pieces few elements, one could devise a code codes account for half of the sequences, of information that can be addressed with

with an infinite number of possible ar- which are standard on all computers. The this system is two to the 24th power or a rangements, each one to stand for a par- remainder of the codes are designated by little more than 16 million bytes of infor- ticular letter or word. For example, with the individual desktop computer manu- mation, the equivalent of 8,000 pages of just five two-sided coins, one could have facturers to represent functions available information.

32 possible sequences, enough for all of through special function keys, and to Faster than a speeding 8-bit the letters of the alphabet, plus punctua- organize the way in which the computer tion marks. And with eight coins, one will enter and retrieve information—the Not only do 16-bit computers store would have 256 (two to the eighth power) Basic Input/Output System (BIOS). This more information than 8-bit machines,

distinct sequences. kind of information travels to the com- they can process it faster. This results There you have it—the basic theory puter’s memory via an 8-bit pathway from the fact that in a 16-bit computer, behind an 8-bit desktop computer, except known as the data bus. the registers—the devices that hold infor- Dnktop Computing March 1983 7'it bv Sit, ~ Ken Sheldon. Desktop Conputinp. (lurch 19S.\ popes IS.

Seprjnted by pernission. Copyright ( ( .) by Ugyne itreen Inc . ML MOWS RESERVED. p aqe 37

Technology

mation while it is being processed—are and found that, in their opinion, 8-bit For now, there is some controversy twice as long as those in 8-bit machines. computers were far from dead. The rea- over what makes a “true” 16-bit desktop

This is akin to having two accountants in- sons given by most were the high cost of computer. As we mentioned earlier, 8-bit stead of one—they can get more work 16-bit machines, the lack of software computers have data paths that are 8-bits done. available for them, and the fact that the wide and address paths that are 16-bits A number of other computer functions 64K of memory available from 8-bit com- wide. A true 16-bit desktop computer has are improved through the use of 16-bit puters is probably sufficient for most users a data path that is 16-bits wide and an ad- technology. They include: at present. dress path that is up to 24-bits wide. Inevitably, however, the cost of 16-bit Then there are the "sort of’ 16-bit 1. The use of complex application pack- com- machines will come down, more software puters depending on your ages. The extra speed and memory of — point of will become available, and their advan- view—that are built 16-bit computers have made possible the around micro- tages will attract increasing numbers of processors with 8-bit data development and use of integrated soft- paths and buyers. A study released by Advanced ware packages with a number of functions address paths of up to 24 bits. The Intel Resources Development of Medfield, on a single disk, such as Lotus Develop- 8088 microprocessor, around which the Massachusetts, predicts that by 1986, ment Corporation’s 1-2-3. IBM PC and the majority of its imitators 16-bit systems will account for 68 percent are built, is just such a chip. The end 2. Friendlier use. It takes a lot of instruc- of the business-related desktop computer result of this technology is a computer tions a computer to the machine to make market. that has a larger memory capacity than truly “user-friendly” and 16-bit machines Manufacturers are already gearing up 8-bit machines and is much faster, have the room to do this. for this market, with a spate of new 16-bit although not as fast as a true 16-bit ma- 3. Improved graphics. Computers that machines. Desktop Computing’s New chine—which may bother some sticklers. can address a greater number of locations Products section for this month alone Finally, there are an increasing number can support higher-resolution graphics. contains announcements for new of manufacturers developing computers machines from Altos, Eagle, Fujitsu, 4. Faster computational speed. “Number based on 32-bit microprocessor chips or Microcomputer Technology and crunching,” or mathematically manipu- dual 16/32 chips such as the Motorola Televideo. Like IBM PC-compatibility, lating numbers, is made faster and more 68000. Hewlett-Packard and Callan Data 16-bit technology appears to be a band- efficient through the use of 16-bit Systems recently joined the ranks of com- wagon, and more manufacturers are machines. panies with 68000-based systems, includ- every jumping on day. ing Radio Shack, Fortune Systems, Cor- 5. Multitasking options. The additional vus and Charles River Data Systems. memory and speed of 16-bit computers Straddling the fence Does anybody really need that much can allow them to do two things at once, A. number of manufacturers, such as processing power? The answer is “Yes" for such as editing one file while another file Fujitsu, are planning ahead for the com- some business users and “No” for the is being fed to a printer. This, plus faster ing wave of 16-bit software, without writ- average user. After all, almost everybody computational speed, gives 16-bit coming off 8-bit technology completely. In its needs a car, but not everyone needs a sta- puters a high throughput, or level of pro- newly released Micro 16S, Fujitsu has in- tion wagon, let alone a Mack truck. ductivity. corporated both 8-bit and 16-bit micro- In the 32-bit desktop computer range, 6. Multi-user options. increased per- The processors. This strategy gives users access the distinction between a "super-micro” formance of 16-bit machines makes the to the large base of 8-bit software that is (buzzword watchers, take note) and a addition of satellite terminals easier and already in existence, but will allow them minicomputer is beginning to be difficult gives them more power. to use 16-bit software as it is developed. to discern, if not nonexistent. Bit by bit, Given the present pace of desktop com- desktop computers are growing more Is 8-bit dead? puter technology, the 8-bit microproces- powerful and— at least in terms of memo-

Given the impressive abilities of 16-bit sor in this type of machine may someday ry—larger. Fortunately, all that power is computers, one might wonder how much be an interesting but obsolete evolu- still being packaged in systems that can sit of a future 8-bit computers have. A recent tionary footnote, much like the human on a desktop, and are well within the con- issue of InfoWorld queried industry leaders appendix. trol of the individual user.

March 1933 Dafcttf Owy t Uj page 38

^ Community: Business

Purchasing Computer Power

Use a four-step outline to weigh the cost versus the benefits of memory or storage expansion for a small business.

Mark Phillips

“Purchasing Confwtcr Power. " Hark Phillips. PC_jtojJd. Pay 19PJ. pages 292- 296. Reprinted by remission Copyright (c) PC Uorld. ill RIGHTS RtStRVCU.

Volume 1, Number 4 Page 39

In a world where successful busi- to identify what a business expects to Hardware and Software Options nesses are made or broken by rela- achieve with storage and memory ex- Researching the alternatives for stor- tively small changes in productivity, pansion and to determine the most age and memory expansion to deter- the benefits provided by storage and cost-effective purchase. The outline mine the most cost-effective options memory expansion devices for the should include the following four for a business requires substantial IBM PC can be critical. Many manu- steps: time and effort. After considering the facturers have entered the field with 1) Analyze the features of the vari- benefits and disadvantages of each hardware and software products ous storage and memory expansion option, discuss the final contenders ranging in price from under $100 to devices. Businesses can choose with a knowledgeable salesperson or several thousand dollars. These prod- among a number of products to en- consultant. ucts include hard disks for storage ex- hance the productivity of the PC. pansion, RAM boards and electronic Roughly, these devices fall into three disk emulation software for memory categories: hard disk drives capable Hard Disk expansion, and software utilities such of mass storage, increased RAM ca- For the company that manages a as print spoolers for increased pacity and multifunction RAM great deal of information, a hard disk flexibility. boards, and special software utilities provides the greatest benefits. Al-

such as print spoolers that allow the though it’s usually the most expensive PC to perform several tasks simul- addition to a computer system (typ-

The Business Plan taneously (see Table 1). A more de- ically $1500 to $3000), the hard disk Choosing the best storage and mem- tailed discussion of these products offers tremendous amounts of stor- ory expansion devices for a company will follow later. age, is relatively easy to use, and op- is difficult enough for those who are 2) Examine the nature of the busi- erates more rapidly than floppy disk knowledgeable about computers. But ness. Does the firm require access to drives. If used as a centralized disk the choice is more difficult for the and storage of very large numbers of from which information is shared, a typical business person who is un- documents, customer files, or similar hard disk can support several com- familiar with the latest hardware and data? If so, a hard disk would be a puters in a network. software developments. He or she good choice because of its large stor- Some hard disk drives for the PC must research technical information age capacity. Does the company use can be installed internally (in place of

as well as balance business require- software (such as WordStar ) that re- one of the regular floppy disk drives). ments against budgetary restrictions. turns frequently to a disk drive for An internal hard disk significantly re- In general, purchasing additional program instructions or additional duces the fan noise of external units storage for the PC should be ap- data? If so, memory expansion with and makes efficient use of space in proached in the same way as pur- RAM boards and electronic disk em- smaller offices. External units are chasing any large fixed asset; while ulation software might be the wiser mounted in cabinets designed to not as large as some investments, choice. complement the PC’s styling. Tecmar storage devices such as hard disks 3) Consider the office environment offers a subsystem cabinet that is carry the same kinds of long-term and the employees who will use the identical to the PC system unit. Inside consequences. storage devices. Are space, noise, or are a separate power supply, addi- Determining the fixed assets a aesthetics critical? Who will operate tional expansion slots, and the hard company needs most requires an un- the PC? Is there a sufficient budget to disk drive in either 5- or 10-megabyte derstanding of a firm’s general busi- cover the cost of the device and possi- versions. Two alternatives are the ness plan, methods of operation, ble training? Is there more than one new XT, which comes with a hard predicted growth, and future mar- PC or are other units a future consid- disk installed, or the IBM hard disk kets. Surprisingly, many companies, eration? Does the business work with expansion unit for both the PC and both large and small, neglect to for- copy-protected programs that can't the XT. mulate a plan before plunging into be transferred to a hard disk? Computer consultants report that business. However, this plan is the 4) Create and implement a com- businesses frequently forget about key to successfully understanding a parative rating system. This system data backup. This issue becomes company’s goals and determining should evaluate the business require- important when you are dealing with where improvements in productivity ments determined in the previous the large amount of data stored on a are most needed. two steps against the advantages of hard disk. Critical data may be next

each product analyzed in the first to impossible to duplicate without a step. Budgetary restrictions must also backup system. One consultant says The Decision Process be considered at this point. that some of her clients had thought Once the business plan is established, they could effectively rely on floppy the next step is to establish a logical disks to back up data from a hard procedure for choosing appropriate disk. They had never stopped to real- storage devices. Doing so requires ize how much time and energy this following a specific outline in order

PC WORLD Page 40

• Community Software Utilities Rating System Perhaps the most cost-effective pur- To decide which method of storage backup method would take each day. chase for increased productivity is a and memory expansion is likely to Various backup systems are available. multitasking program such as a print bring the highest return on your in-

Corvus has designed a system that spooler, which dumps a file to be vestment, use a comparative rating stores backup data on a videotape reprinted into memory and frees the system. First, list the hardware and corder. PC to handle other chores. This type software options under consideration of software usually costs under $100, and then your business goals in order

so it should bring an immediate re- of priority. Assign a weight to each

Increased RAM turn on the investment as a result of goal according to its priority. Out of The memory expansion obtained time and salary savings. Using multi- four priorities, for example, the high- with RAM boards is cheaper and tasking programs in conjunction est priority receives a weight of 4, the more easily accomplished than the with RAM expansion should further next highest a weight of 3, and so on. storage expansion a hard disk pro- increase productivity. vides. Anywhere from 64K to as much as 512K can be obtained on memory expansion boards for the Hard Disk

PC. Prices range from $200 to $1000. Access time faster than floppy disk drive The additional memory is helpful Flexible, relatively secure mass storage with many programs. With more Easy to connect and operate memory, for example, WordStar performs print spooling and block Requires extra controller board and modification of PC-DOS to address hard disk moves more efficiently, and VisiCalc produces larger spreadsheets. An Backup more difficult than floppy disks (can use removable cartridge, cassette tape, and videotape) added benefit of RAM boards is that they don’t use desk space. Large external units require additional office space; internal units replace one Many manufacturers include elec- floppy drive inside PC chassis tronic disk emulation software free Some units may have objectionable fan and operating noise or at a nominal charge with the pur- Can operate in a network environment chase of a RAM board. This soft- Illegal to transfer copy-protected programs to hard disk ware addresses available memory just

Expensive: S 1 795 to $5000 like a disk drive. Electronic disks function with much greater speed RAM Board than mechanical disks. One risk in- Extremely rapid access (faster than hard disk) to electronic storage; certain volved in using electronic disks, how- programs (WordStar, SuperCalc) will operate more rapidly ever, is that all stored information is erased if the power fails or is turned Data stored in RAM sub|ect to loss through power outages off. As a result, data must be trans- Easy to operate ferred to other or it some medium Easy to copy data to other medium (floppy disk or hard disk) will be lost. No desk space required Electronic disk emulation is es- Quiet; fully electronic pecially useful to businesses that have heavy word processing demands, be- Other functions (clock/calendar, additional printer ports) combined on some boards cause it allows faster access to data than mechanical disks. Even mass Electronic disk emulation and print spooler software increase flexibility mailings on a limited scale can be Moderate Cost: $200 to $1000 (depending on optional functions such as handled when appropriate mail- clock/calendar and printer ports) merge software and an address list Electronic disk emulation software free or at a nominal charge with purchase are loaded onto the electronic disk. of RAM board Competition has brought multifunction RAM boards into the pic- Software Utilities ture. With only five slots in the PC Permit multitasking such as print spooling main system unit, expansion space is Operation easy and fast; improve productivity and speed of office tasks at a premium. Adding combination Quiet boards is an easy way to ensure system growth in the future, and they Inexpensive: $40 to $150 usually don’t cost much more than boards containing RAM alone. Table 1: Business Considerations for Hard Disk, RAM Board, and Software Utilities

Volume 1, Number 4 Page 41

Next, assign a score to each option The following discussion takes the computer. Smith purchased in- according to its ability to achieve hypothetical XYZ Company through ventory, spreadsheet, and word pro- your goals. For example, if mass stor- an analysis of the best hardware and cessing software. The company’s age takes your number one spot, give software options to meet its business budget prohibited additional the hard disk the highest score, say a requirements. purchases.

10, and the other devices propor- Smith is now interested in accounts tionally lower scores. If speed and receivable and accounts payable man- ease of operation weigh more heavily The Business agement. While the company could in your business, give the high score XYZ Company sells office supplies rely on its floppy disk drives for the to RAM expansion. Do the same and equipment to small- and me- bulk of its current requirements, with each business goal. dium-sized businesses throughout a Smith realizes account management To produce a score that reflects the city of some 500,000 people. During would be easier and quicker with importance of each option in relation each of the past three years, XYZ has larger mass storage. At the same to your business goals, multiply the shown a 10 percent annual increase time, she wants to manipulate more assigned weight of a goal by the as- in sales, which has been mostly offset of XYZ’s sales and inventory records signed score of an option. Total the by inflation. This year, as a result of to predict sales trends. However, scores and see which option brings the poor economy, the firm expects sales analysis software requires at the greatest benefit. income to remain flat, with sales of least 128K of memory.

Hard Disk RAM Board Sales Analysis Accounts Receivable/ Software Payable Software

Weight Business Goals Assigned Weighted Assigned Weighted Assigned Weighted Assigned Weighted Factor (in priority order) Score Score Score Score Score Score Score Score

4 Sales Analysis and 3 12 10 40 10 40 1 4 Projections

3 Cost Containment 2 6 10 30 8 24 8 24

2 Ease of Operation 7 14 10 20 3 6 5 10

1 Improved Business 8 8 5 5 5 5 10 10 Management Tech- niques (accounts receivable/payable)

Total Scores 20 40 35 95 26 75 24 48

Price Range $1795-5000 $200-51000 $350-$500 $800-51000

Table 2: Comparative Rating System for XYZ Company

Finally, decide which of the high- approximately $1.5 million. XYZ Complicating matters, a new of- est-scoring devices are most afford- maintains some 650 regular accounts fice-supply company down the street able. If the top-scoring choice and has from 100 to 150 walk-in cus- with extremely competitive pricing exceeds the budget, consider the sec- tomers daily. The average sale in- has begun to attract XYZ’s walk-in ond choice or a combination of less volves seven items totaling nearly retail traffic. XYZ’s budget allows expensive alternatives. The process of $100. XYZ extends 30-day credit to the firm to spend a maximum of elimination will determine the most its regular clients. $4000 for both hardware and soft- beneficial, cost-effective options for Last year, to help track inventory ware this year. But obviously the your business. and handle correspondence, XYZ in- company would like to keep over- vested in an IBM PC with 64K of head low by reducing expenditures memory and two double-sided disk for fixed assets. drives. Smith, the owner, and her as- sistant are the only people using the

PC WORLD Pane 42

XYZ’s final business priorities are: ease of # Community 1) operation 7 points, and im- sales analysis and projections 2) cost proved business management tech- XYZ’s dilemma can be summa- containment 3) ease of operation and niques 8 points— a total score of 32. rized this way: the firm could con- 4) improved account management She applied the same approach to a centrate on the relatively inexpensive techniques. RAM board and the sales analysis RAM card and see much more im- and accounting software (see mediate amortization of the cost. Or Table 2). it could select a hard disk and opt for Options Upon reviewing the capabilities a more long-term capital expendi- Smith then evaluates the hardware and costs of both software packages, ture, which conceivably could result and software best suited to XYZ’s re- Smith finds a hidden benefit. With in manpower and other overhead quirements. First she reviews hard the money saved by not purchasing a savings. disks and RAM expansion boards. hard disk this year, the company Earlier research showed the impor- could purchase the accounting soft- tance of increased internal memory ware as well as the RAM board and Goals with RAM for any complex analyses. sales analysis software. With the ac- To begin a logical analysis, Smith re- While a hard disk would make accounting software in place, XYZ views the business’ needs and estab- count storage more efficient, without could begin to phase in an automated lishes a list of goals for any new PC the expanded memory the hard disk business management system this accessories, including secondary really couldn’t assist the store’s im- year, thus accomplishing an even areas of convenience such as ease of lower priority goal. Total cost for all operation, space, and noise. Next, purchases would run approximately she examines the time spent each $1900: $400 for a multifunction month on bookkeeping. While the Purchasing additional RAM board, $500 for the sales anal- firm could realize some manpower ysis software, and $800 to $1000 for storage for the PC savings through automating its ac- the accounting software. counts, competition is the more im- should be approached in The succinctness and flexibility of mediate concern. this comparative rating system make the same way as XYZ is reasonably secure in its it ideal for analyzing the cost versus steady corporate customer base be- purchasing any large the benefits of any major purchase. cause the new firm refuses to extend Additionally, for those who use a fixed asset. credit. But walk-in business appears spreadsheet program, the listing and vulnerable. In spite of its inventory scores fit the format of VisiCalc or control system and an attempt to similar programs. With a spread- hold the line on prices, XYZ is hav- sheet, managers can perform any ing difficulty meeting the price com- mediate goals of sales analysis and number of “what if” analyses to see petition from the nearby store. XYZ cost containment. The sales analysis how various combinations satisfy must continue to attack overhead and software is a higher priority than the both business requirements and bud- excess inventory, and reexamine its accounting software because it ad- getary restrictions. market position. dresses the firm’s primary goal of Small businesses can easily follow Smith believes her money will be achieving a better competitive posi- the four-step analysis presented in better spent on a more powerful sys- tion; however, accounting software this article. After doing so, a com- tem for analyzing and forecasting would reduce labor costs. pany can rest assured that its decision sales and reviewing XYZ’s market about storage and memory expansion segment than on automating the has a foundation in a logical ap- firm’s account management tech- Rating praisal of reasonable alternatives, niques. Analysis of current sales Smith lists XYZ’s business require- rather than leaving decisions concern- could lead to better inventory con- ments in order of priority and then ing profitability to luck. trol. This in turn would help hold lists the hardware and software op- down costs and reduce lost sales re- tions that could support those resulting from items not being in stock. quirements, as well as the cost of Mark Phillips specializes in business So Smith values the company’s each. She judges the ability of each and financial writing in the Seattle need for automated accounting sys- option to achieve every goal by using area. tems below sales analysis. Although the comparative rating system de- these systems would be helpful. scribed earlier. Smith decides XYZ’s manual systems For sales analysis and projections. could be used for another year. Smith assigned the hard disk 3 points, cost containment 2 points.

Volume I, Number 4 Page 43

he printer is to the computer system what the speaker is to the

stereo: it is the device that enables the computer to communi-

cate with the outside world. And the choice of printer is as important to the usefulness of your computer system as the speaker is to the performance of your stereo.

HOW TO CHOOSE A PRINTER FOR Your Personal Computer BY BRUCE THATCHER

Choosing the right printer among the hun- most important factor. For others, it's the print

dreds available can be very confusing. How quality. For still others, the most important factor Bruce Thatcher is Di- fast should your printer print? How much should is low cost. The printer marketplace has grown rector of Peripheral you spend? What kind of print quality should you right along with users’ needs, and printer man Product Marketing for choose? How do you know whether the printer ufacturers are constantly developing new tech NEC Information Sys- will work with your computer? nologies to meet those needs, as well as refining tems, Inc. based in The need for a printer with a personal compu- Lexington, MA. the technologies employed in existing pi ter is threefold. First, computer output is easier All computer printers fall into one of two bn >.id to read on paper than on a video display terminal. categories: impact or non-impact. Thepnnt head, Second, printed output provides a hard copy rec- an electromechanical device, controls the sjxed ord of the computer’s transactions. And third, a and output quality of most printers printer enables a computer user to share informa- Non-impact pnnters transfer images to paper tion with others. without actually striking the paper Some inrx

Printers are used in so many places and for so pensive non-impact pnnters employ thermal r many applications that no one model — or even electrostatic print head technologies Lower

one technology — answers all users’ needs. For quality printing and high paj <

some users, speed (or “throughput”) is the single printing methods for many user ^ Ink jet printing

LIST “ ~Hou to Choose a Printer for Your Personal Conputer. Bruce /hatcher. I IS/.

Spring 1983, pages 108-110. Reprinted by permission. Copyright (c) /<4v f

by Redgate Publishing Co. ALL RICHTS RESERVED. Page 44

while high-quality and high-speed, is ex- matrix print heads. One advantage of the One company that manufactures

pensive, requires selected paper, is not dot-matrix printer is that it can print printers offers a ribbon with a life of more very reliable and is available in only a more character sets — even foreign lan- than 400,000 characters for the first handful of models. guages — without changing heads. pass, producing letter-quality charac- Impact printers employ a mechanism The print head or heads in a dot-ma- ters. The ribbon is then flipped over, for striking paper through a ribbon like trix printer hold a series of pins (some- printing 400,000 correspondence- the one in a typewriter. What actually times called needles) that strike the quality imprints, and can be turned again strikes the ribbon is either a fully-formed ribbon in matrix pattern, with one pre- and again, to print hundreds of thousands character or a set of pins that form a determined pattern for each letter or of draft quality characters. character. number to be printed. The design of the A serial printer has one print head and The print thimble, daisy wheel, print print head must be such that the pins prints one character at a time, in series. cup and golf-ball print mechanism are strike the ribbon with just enough force A line printer has a number of print heads used with fully-formed character to produce a clear imprint. The more dot which strike the paper simultaneously, printers. Their chief advantage is the imprints there are in the character, the printing an entire line at a time. Line

ability to print characters that look as closer it comes to approximating a fully- printers are faster than serial printers, though they were produced by a type- formed, typewriter-like character. Typ- so they are particularly useful for very writer or printing press. Character sets, ically, print heads have a9x7or9x9 heavy workloads. They are also more or sizes, may be changed on fully-formed matrix, although newer ones can have a expensive. character printers by a change of the matrix as large as 18 x 6. thimble or wheel. Dot-matrix dual-pass printing im- Despite the acknowledged use of proves print quality without adding addi-

computers in virtually all business en- tional pins, where the print head makes vironments, resistance yet remains to a two passes across each line of print, with work product .that looks computer-gen- the dots in the second pass slightly off- NTERFACING erated. Documents bearing corporate set. The effect is to “fill-in” each letter, in with the corporate density thus its legibility, letterhead, keeping increasing and The signals that determine what the for delivery outside of while the effective print speed. image, destined reducing printer will print are generated by the the office are more appropriately printed The leading drawback of dot matrix computer, and they must be conveyed fully-formed character printer. printers is the print quality. For docu- by a from the computer to the printer in a that will remain in-house, such as ments form in which the printer can receive these memos and status reports, them. The device that enables two elec- printed printers will adequately address tronic devices to communicate with each needs. low cost (the dot- r document The is called interface. other an HARACTER matrix has fewer moving parts) will like- U The interface is usually a printed cir- limited PRINTERS ly prove attractive to users with cuit board and cabling which together act distribution. document like a translator. There are many kinds of cost dot-matrix printers print As the personal computer buyer may Low interfaces, but they all fall into one of two That soon outgrow the memory, or electronic unidirectionally, like a typewriter. categories: they are either serial or par- is, the print prints from left to right storage of information on silicon chips, or head allel. If the computer sends all the bits of the system by the creation of an ever- and then returns to the left side of the data needed to generate a character one expanding database, so too may the page before starting the next line. at a time along a single wire, the printer

printer become outmoded unless it fea- needs a serial interface.

tures the versatility and flexibility that If the computer sends all the bits only a fully-formed character printer can needed to generate a character simul- provide. A well-planned printer pur- taneously along parallel wires, the chase will include consideration of the printer must have a parallel interface. volume of forms processed by many TTHROUGHPUT Serial transmission is slower, but can businesses every day. A variety of user- be used over longer distances. Serial installable forms handler can sub- Bidirectional printers print one line transmission is also used whenever the stantially reduce time-consuming from left to right and the next from right computer and the printer must commu-

forms preparation and thus benefit to left, increasing throughput. Some nicate over a telephone line. productivity. printers increase throughput further Serial transmission may be either syn- The fully-formed character printer is with "look ahead” or “short line seeking" chronous or asynchronous. In syn- not without trade-offs, however. They logic. With this print method, the printer chronous transmission, the computer include relatively high cost, and slow searches its memory while one line is must know exactly when each bit is to be speed, with multi-copy letter quality out- printing to determine the optimum place transmitted to the printer. This means put at 20 to 60 characters per second to begin printing the next, so that the there must be a precise timing clock built (cps). print head does not waste time passing into the transmission mechanisms. over empty spaces. This is particularly With asynchronous transmission, the useful for applications in which printer receiver (printer) and the transmitter

volume is important. (the computer) are synchronized by a Print heads vary in the number of start bit and a stop bit for each character. Dot-matrix characters they will print before wearing The number of bits transmitted per printers out. Some will print more than a half second is called a “baud” rate. billion characters before they need re- All the printer buyer needs to know is Dot-matrix printers, which are faster placing and are considered permanent. what type of computer he has: IBM, and typically less expensive, strike the Others must be replaced more fre- Apple, NEC. The dealer will recommend ribbon with pins carried in one or more quently and are considered disposable. the right interface.

LIST SPRING 1983 Page 45

while, one that prints 80 to 132 charac- that means testing by the manufacturer

ters per line on 8 V2 x 11 paper will proba- has shown the printer will typically run

bly do the job. If you want a faster printer for at least that long before anything goes that offers block graphics and prints on wrong — probably longer. MTTR ” paper up to 16 inches wide, buy one that means “mean time to repair, and is usu- prints 136 to 224 characters per line at ally expressed in minutes. A 15-minute

120 cps. For correspondence print MTTR means it usually takes about 15 Printers employ three kinds of paper quality, dot addressable graphics and minutes to repair that particular printer. feed mechanisms: friction feed, pin feed speed, look for a printer that prints from Buying a printer is a little like buying a and tractor feed. 200 to 350 cps, with up to 231 characters car — making the right choice is a matter With friction feed, single sheets of paper line. of weighing alternatives and deciding per are fed through the printer just as what features and options you need. they are in a typewriter: gear-driven The difference is in the range of op- rollers hold the paper in place, and move tions. Printers range in price from about

it up when it is time to print the next line. D $300 to more than $500,000. Obviously, The user must either feed the sheets n RELIABILITY— the person shopping for a printer to be through manually or use a device called a THE KEY FACTOR used at home or for a small business will "cut-sheet feeder,” which feeds the be looking for one priced on the low end sheets through automatically. The single most important factor to of the range. After deciding how much

With a pin-feed printer, you can use consider in choosing a printer is probably you can afford, your choice becomes a "continuous forms”: rolls of paper with reliability — both of the printer itself and matter of deciding what speed and horizontal perforations at regular inter- of its manufacturer. The best printer in features you need and want.

vals and sprocket holes along the sides. the world would be a bad buy if the man- Printer manufacturers are constantly Metal pins on the rim of the printer’s ufacturer could not supply parts or you seeking new ways to increase through-

platen, or roller, fit into the sprocket could not find a place to have it serviced. put, improve print quality, and increase

holes in the paper to keep it aligned as it As with anything else, it pays in the long the printer’s useful life. There are al- feeds through. run to choose a printer made by a reputa- ready dot-matrix printers with variable The limitation of the pin feed mecha- ble manufacturer — one with a long his- matrices that provide different speeds nism is that it accepts only one width of tory of providing quality equipment and and print qualities for different applica- paper. With a tractor-feed mechanism, service. The quality will not necessarily tions. And soon printers will have self- the pin feed sprockets are adjustable so translate into a higher purchase price. diagnostics: they will, in effect, be able you can use varying paper widths — typ- Quality is a function of a design decision to tell the user what’s wrong. ically from three to 16 inches. at the start of the manufacturing process As the cost of memory comes down,

Your choice of printer should be dic- where it is built in along with reliability. printers will have even more buffer

tated by what you’re going to do with it. In deciding how reliable a particular (memory) storage than they have now.

If you need print quality that looks as printer is likely to be, ask about its They will be part of electronic news- though it came out of a typewriter or off a MTBF and MTTR ratings. MTBF paper and mail systems in the homes and printing press, you may need a fully- means “mean time between failures,” offices in the years ahead.

formed character printer. If you simply and the rating is usually given in hours. If For the printer, as for the computer,

need a low-cost printer to use once in a a printer’s MTBF rating is 4000 hours, the possibilities for the future are infinite.

LIST SPRING 1963 J

Page 46 COMMUNICATIONS

The Basics of Modems

What to look for in a modem — from asynchronous dial- ups to synchronous full-duplex capability.

by Kenneth R. Guy

When Alexander Graham Bell in- When humans talk over telephone con- one of the basic Bell modem types. Since vented a device that allowed people to talk nections, they use certain, procedures to modems are needed at each end of a line to

to each other over wires, he did not know greet each other and establish who is call- modulate and demodulate, they must be that someday business machines would ing. Machines also must use handshaking used in pairs which are compatible, since communicate over the same wires. Since and similar electronic sequences so that an they must use the same modulation the telephone network is designed to carry orderly exchange of information can take scheme to talk to one another.

the continous tones of the human voice, it place. Data transmission can occur in While asynchronous transmission is cannot handle digital patterns unless a con- either asynchronous or synchronous suitable for low-speed, low volume data, version process takes place. Telephone modes. higher speeds and continuous data streams

equipment is compatible with the analog Asynchronous mode involves the require a more efficient line utilization

sounds of the human voice, but it is un- transmission of individual characters each method. Synchronous modems transmit

able to handle the on/off or Morse Code- time a key is pressed by a terminal oper- characters in a continous transmission type signals of a business machine. ator. Devices which utilize this type of with no break between each character. However, a terminal or other data transmission generally have no buffer, so (See Figure 2.) Both transmitting and re- communications device can transmit in- the communications link remains in a wait ceiving modems must maintain exact tim-

formation over phone lines if the digital mode until the next key is pressed. Asyn- ing through the use of an oscillator or

output of the business machine is con- chronous (or start/stop) devices generally “clock” which synchronizes the units. A

verted to analog format. The conversion operate at low speeds ranging from tele- continous stream of characters is divided from one transmission scheme to another typewriters at 50 bps up to terminals which into blocks. A wide variety of block is accomplished by modems. In effect, a transmit at 2,400 bps. Depending on mod- lengths are possible, from only a few char- modem MODulates a digital signal into ulation schemes and similar technical acters to hundreds of characters. Charac- analog form and DEModulates the analog criteria, the upper limit of asynchronous ters are stored in a buffer until a complete

signal back into digital form at the other data transmission is in the 1,800 to 2,400 block has been assembled. The block is

end. Thus, the word for modem is derived bps range. then transmitted at the maximum speed of

from the process for which it is used. Most asynchronous modems use fre- the modem together with added bits of in- In normal practice, a modem must be quency modulation or FSK (frequency formation used for error checking and used at each end of a data communications shift keyed) modulation. These modems similar housekeeping functions. line. First, the digital output of a business transmit a signal at one frequency to indi- Synchronous-transmission modems

machine must be changed into analog form cate a space, and they transmit at a differ- begin at 2,400 bps and can range to much for transmission over the phone network. ent frequency to indicate a mark. The most higher speeds, limited mainly by the upper

When the transmission reaches its destina- popular modems in this class are the Bell boundaries of available technology. From tion, the analog information must be 103/1 13 which operate at 300 bps and the a practical standpoint, the upper limit of

changed again into digital form so that it Bell 202 which operates at 1,200 bps. modems available for standard voice lines

can be understood or read by a computer or Modems from independent suppliers are is 9,600 bps. Beyond that speed, special

other business machine. (See Figure 1 .) often described as being compatible with line quality and other technical character-

TERMINAL MODEM MODEM c p “LTLTL U L KS!™- OVER^PHONE 5!9LT», OVER COMPUTER LINE OVER COMPUTER CABLE CABLE

Figure 1

The basics of tiedtins. " Kenneth R. Guy September 1983/Hardcopy . Hardcopy, Septenber 1981, pages 84, 86, 90. Reprinted by pe.rnission- Copyright (c) by So din Publishing, Inc. hit RIGHTS RESERVED. Page 47 COMMUNICATIONS

RANDOM TIME INTERVALS - START BIT

BIT VALUE 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 \ / 10 0 0 IDLE ASYNCHRONOUS BIT FLOW MARK CONDITION

THIRD DATA SECOND DATA FIRST DATA CHARACTER CHARACTER CHARACTER

1 = MARK 0 = SPACE LTLTI r 1_ bit value 0 1 0 1 000 1 00 11 0 1 001 000 1111 SYNCHRONOUS BIT FLOW

Figure 2

istics are needed. Synchronous modems Dial-Up vs. Private Lines Some customers utilize a private line employ a variety of modulation schemes for both voice and data. Many modems in- Each of the data transmission attri- which become more complex at higher clude a switch that allows normal voice far speeds. The Bell 201 modem operates at butes described thus can be used on conversations when data is not being trans- 2,400 bps in sychronous mode and nomi- either dial-up or private lines. As the name mitted. Private lines give users more con- nally defines this class of unit. The Bell implies, a dial-up line is established when trol over the communications link and 208 modem operates at 4,800 bps and the the site that wants to transmit data dials the allow the utilization of phone company Bell 209 operates at 9,600 bps, but neither number of the site that will receive the conditioning to control noise interference.

of these higher speed devices have a com- data. The connection is established It also allows users to perform line tests to

mon set of characteristics. Many indepen- through existing telephone company cen- assure that their transmission is not inter- dent suppliers produce synchronous mod- tral offices over the public switched net- rupted by degrading line quality. An im-

ems at higher speeds that are not compat- work. Dial-up lines can be expensive for portant benefit of private lines is the ability ible with Bell units. data users. Long distance calls are charged of the user to install equipment that will Data can be transmitted over a tele- on a time-sensitive, minute-by-minute allow the use of multiple data streams so phone line in several ways. When a line basis that can make lengthy data trans- that line utilization can be optimized. operates in half duplex mode, data travels missions uneconomical. However, when In order to standardize the connection

in each direction, but only one data stream data is transmitted on an infrequent of modems to terminals and business in one direction can be handled during a schedule to a number of different loca- machines, the Electronic Industries Asso- given time period. If terminal A transmits tions, dial-up lines are usually the best cation (EIA) has developed a common to terminal B, then B must wait to reply to type of connection. standard. Designated the EIA RS232C in- A until the first transmission has been Users who transmit large amounts of terface, the standard defines a pm arrange- completed. The line is then turned around data on a regular basis to a fixed location ment of data signals, timing signals, con- in that B transmits to A and data flows in may also use private (or leased) lines. trol signals, and ground wires that are the opposite direction. When full duplex These lines are technically similar to dial- needed to complete data transmission over transmission is employed. A can transmit up facilities but they are reserved and con- a dial-up or private phone line (Sec Figure

to B at the same time that B is also trans- tinually available for the exclusive use of 3.) The RS232C connector is the most mitting to A. the customer. In effect, the business or- commonly used method of linking termin-

The most common mode of transmis- ganization reserves a discrete path through als and modems, and it is functionally

sion is half duplex since most terminals the telephone system from point A to point similar to the CCITT V 24 interface that is cannot handle two-way communications B for a fixed monthly charge. If a user can used for the same purpose in other coun- at the same time. Full duplex facilities may transmit data over a private line for enough tries. be used to transmit data in one direction, hours each month to justify the fixed cost, Modem technology changes rapidly.

while the second data path is used to col- then a private line is usually more econom- Hardware costs are decreasing while mod- lect control information to monitor the ical than dial-up connections. In order to ems are becoming more sophisticated with

status of the communications link. It is make an exact comparision between the features designed to avoid errors and im- also possible to use a data link in "simplex cost of dial-up and private lines, such fac- prove the reliability of data transmission mode" — data traveling only in one directors as transmission length (in miles) and Most modems have indicator lights to sig-

tion. This is seldom used for data trans- total time of data calls, must be carefully nify that communication lines are operat-

mission since there is no return informa- evaluated along with cost of modems, ter- ing correctly. This is usually provided by tion path. minals, etc. indicators that correspond to the most im-

SepterrDe f i96J>«0'C}cooy Page 48

COMMUNICATIONS

who operate with several lines and a small number of modems, the following price ranges apply: -Transmitted data (BA)- Data • A 1 ,200 bps dial-up modem with -Received data (BB) — Signals > intelligent auto dial is priced between $550 and $1 ,000. .Transmitted signal element timing (DA)--* • A 2,400 bps full duplex dial-up «• Timing -Transmitted signal element timing (DB) — modem costs just under $ 1 ,000. Received signal element timing (DC) Signals • In the synchronous modem do- -Received signal element timing (DD) main with full-duplex capability and a standard array of test features, a -Request to send (CA)- 2,400 bps unit ranges from $650 to MODEM Clear to send (CB) — $750; a 4,800 bps modem costs be- (DATA •Data set ready (CC)- DATA tween $1,600 and $1,800, and a •Data terminal ready (CD) TERMINAL SET) 9,600 bps device ranges from -Ring Indication (CE) $2,500 to $3,000. Control -Data carrier detector (CF) Customer data needs typically expand Signals -Data modulation detector (CG)- and network requirements escalate. As Speed selector (CH) equipment becomes more powerful, users -Speed selector (Cl) often can improve the utilization of existing phone lines by acquiring more versa-

tile transmission devices. It is -Protective ground (AA)- common for Grounds -Signal ground (AB) -> large corporations with national networks to save thousands of dollars per month of existing phone bills by transmitting multi- (CONNECTIONS SHOWN AS DOTTED LINES OPTIONAL) ple data streams over existing phone lines. Users transmitting less data can employ EIA STANDARD similar methods to enjoy economies of RS232C interface scale that produce higher transmission (or CCITT recommendations V.24) throughput at lower cost without upgrading existing facilities. Figure 3 A typical data user with a VAX pro- portant signals in the RS232C interface. problems are affecting transmission. Pri- cessor at a central site may operate with

For example, when a connection is estab- vate line users can configure their modems two data lines to a remote location. A 300- lished with the phone line (or data carrier), to switch to dial-up connections when a bps line operates with teleprinters to send a carrier indicator will be illuminated. This failure is detected in the leased line. administrative messages between the two tells the operator that the phone line is Many modems now perform automatic locations. A higher speed 1 ,200-bps link is ready for data transmission. functions that previously had to be in- utilized to send order-entry information Many modems also have features to itiated by an operator. An automatic-an- from a remote display terminal to a VAX check the status of a line between modem swer feature allows a modem to respond to processor. pairs by sending a test signal. This type of an incoming call and automatically con- Such a company might expand the re- loopback shows the operator whether the nect to data terminal equipment (DTE). mote location by installing seven more dis- line can send data in both directions cor- This capability is useful at a remote site play terminals to handle the sharp rise in rectly. Loopback tests are also available which has data stored in a terminal and orders. The company might look for ways on more advanced modems to check ready to send. During night-time hours, to avoid using a separate phone line with whether modems and their attached busi- when data traffic drops off or dial-up rates two modems for each communicating ter- ness machines are functioning correctly. are lower, a computer center can dial the minal, a total of 14 additional modems and Modem and line testing can become highly remote site and receive the previous day’s seven new data lines. The manager of data technical with the use of specialized diag- business information — all without the in- processing might investigate the possibil- nostic equipment. This level of expertise is tervention of an operator. Modems with ity of installing a pair of 2,400 bps mod- normally employed on nationwide private- auto dial features have similar capabilities ems, together with a pair of multiplexers, line networks that must remain operational in the areas of initiating calls automatical- to concentrate the individual terminal data

24 hours per day. ly- onto a single phone line. This option ap- Most users can get by with less de- Modem Costs pears to offer increased transmission cap- manding test capabilities. Dial-up custom- Modem costs are a moving target. The ability at lower cost. 0E ers often keep spare modems available to general trend incorporates steadily in- Kenneth R. Guy is direction of sales and help isolate faults. When a malfunction in creasing features at progressively lower marketing of ComDesign Inc., Goleta, a modem is suspected, an operator can costs. Many suppliers provide volume dis- Calif substitute a spare unit to see if the problem counts for large purchases, and total cost (Editors Note: Next month Kenneth R. is eliminated. In the same way, an alter- may also depend on whether on-site Guy will discuss the basics of multiplex- nate dial-up line can be called up if line maintenance is needed. For customers ers).

September 1983/Hardcopy Page 49 Page 50 FOCUS

new cliche is abroad in the land of office A automation. Pundits, analysts and commen- tators have concluded that software, not hardware, Software is the key component of an QA. system. Software is clearly the rage. Venture capitalists are falling over each other to fund the start-up of Evaluation new software companies, and existing companies are being bought out at incredible prices. This discovery By of software comes as a surprise only to those who regularly watch television when nothing is being broadcast. Except in the case of a few old hard-wired Michael Hammer machines, the functionality of a modern office system is delivered by software applications running on a hardware base. Hardware is just a pile of electronics until complemented by software. Why, then, the

' as.' ion ' One reason is major force In bringing the soft- nels that bring these products to system. The factors that make a .".Arawarr ;s increasingly be- ware package to the office envi- the customer differ significantly system easy to learn are often „vrr ~.£ a commodity. both literal- ronment. The personal computer from those with which many orga- very different from — and In fact ly and figuratively There is delivers to an Individual s desk nizations are comfortable and fa- may be inconsistent with — those growing standardization (or at the computational resources of a miliar. In addition, OA and that make It easy to use. least similarity! among the hard- significant general-purpose com- personal computer software sys- The key issue In making a software components that form an puter. Software Is at the heart of tems have different characteris- ware package easy to learn Is to OA system. Systems integrators this capability. Such an Individual tics and objectives from software reduce the user’s anxiety factor have been increasingly acquiring could not be expected to write all products used In more conven- by making the system as familiar these components from the same required software, and a host of tional DP environments. Fbr these as possible. A system is easy to small set of suppliers. As a result, suppliers sprang up to develop reasons, organizations must de- learn If In fact there Is not very both value-added and differentia- and distribute this software. velop criteria and means for as- much new about It that the user tion are more and more often com- For the first two years of the sessing the appropriateness and has to learn. The goal Is for the ing from the soft areas: service, personal computer era, personal quality of software products. user to approach the system al- marketing, support and, In partic- computing and office automation The contemporary software ready familiar with many of Its ular. software. were widely viewed as disjoint. QA scene is awash In hyperbole and concepts and much of Its termin- Moreover, the last three to four products were closed-end, limited- cliches. Such terms as "power- ology. A system that requires a ca- years have seen the flowering of function devices without even the ful," "flexible," "user-friendly" sual user to learn a new mode of software packages, especially in capability of running additional and "easy to learn" are tossed thinking and an entirely new vo- the office systems arena. Until re- software. More recently, however, about with careless abandon. No cabulary can prevent a novice cently. office systems software the Industry has recognized that one Is quite sure exactly what from coming to grips with It. All was almost always bundled with lurking under every QA product Is these terms mean. However, ev- too often, computer Jargon finds the hardware: tt was developed a general-purpose computer, ca- eryone seems to agree these char- Its way Into systems designed by [directly or otherwise) by the sys- pable of supporting additional acteristics are all good things, and even the most well-intentioned. tems vendor and sold together software packages and thereby all vendors are certain their pack- Tb a non-technically oriented with its hardware base. As a re- acquiring a broader functionality. ages have them In abundance. individual, software systems ap- sult. the customer typically More than any other, the issue pear to operate by magic, and this bought a complete, fixed-function of user Interfaces and their ease system. The notion of software as of learning and use Is one in a separately configured, priced “The industry which Imaginations are given free ”A system that and purchased product was not recently recognized rein and extravagant claims are widespread. the norm. requires a casual that lurking under user to learn a new istorically, software every QA product is mode of thinking horeau once said. "Patrio- products (packages) were a general-purpose confined to relatively tism Is the last refuge of and new vocabulary H computer that can narrow segments of the DP indus- T the scoundrel." Today, can prevent a novice that remark might be better ap- try. Although packages were built support additional from coming to plied to "user-friendly." There Is and sold In wide varieties, their software.” ” major successes were In three no agreed-upon definition for the grips with it. areas: term nor any standard for what • Large-scale and complex sys- constitutes a truly usable system. tem software products, such as "Ease of use" often seems to be data base management systems, It Is now widely recognized that like pornography: We may be un- Is often overlooked in user Inter- whose construction would have the personal computer Is a funda- able to define It, but we know It face design. Users who do not pos- exceeded the capacity of user mental component of an office when we see It. sess an understanding of the organizations. system, and personal computer- "Ease of learning" and "ease of Internal operation of a system • Nonstrateglc applications for like capabilities (In the form of use" are often used Interchange- treat It like a black box and Induce large DP users — typically finan- personal computer operating sys- ably. The two concepts have some a model of Its operation from their cial applications from payroll to tems) are increasingly being add- relationships, but they are quite observation of Its behavior. People general ledger — where the ad- ed to products otherwise labeled distinct and often antithetical. On Inevitably build conceptual mod- vantages of ln-house development office systems. As a result. Indi- the whole, ease of learning refers els of tools they use. Such models (In terms of functionality) were viduals responsible for OA must to the simplicity with which a are not expressed In technical more than outweighed by the cost, now also develop guidelines and novice casual user, unfamiliar terms, but In terms of elements timeliness and reliability advan- techniques for evaluating and ac- with the system, can develop a and structures from other do- tages associated with package quiring software packages for per- sufficient comprehension of the mains with which the user te fa- acquisition. sonal computers and office system and Its capabilities to ac- miliar. (Fbr example, the user of a • Applications for small organi- products. complish some useful work with word processor may think of his zations with neither the expertise This responsibility represents a It. Ease of use usually refers to screen as corresponding to a sheet nor the resources to develop soft- major new challenge to OA and DP how readily a more sophisticated of paper and the operations per- ware themselves. groups. Vendors developing OA and experienced "power" user formed as corresponding to activi- The personal computer was a software and distribution chan- can exploit the potentials of the ties that could be done with a

Computerworld QA Evaluation", Michael Manner "Softvnre , ConputerUorld. June 15. 1985. pages 55 54. 56. 58. 59. Reprinted by pernisxion. Copyright (c) by Or. Michael Manner ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. Page bl FOCUS

typewriter.) to any Interesting complex prob- pability or ease of use for the more ple fact of bundling and integrat- It Is Important that the user'si lem. The utilization of such primi- experienced user. ing these tools will not conceptual model be operationally tives often entails additional The question of the Importance compensate for deflciences In correct A user should be able to steps, both In formulating a mode of ease of learning cannot be an- their individual functionalities. predict accurately the effect of of attack and In carrying It out. swered In general; It depends In a Office automation Is not synergis- any command by thinking about The user wants a system that al- major way on the characteristics tic. A collection of mediocre com- It In terms of the analogous model lows him to accomplish directly of the Individual application. If an ponents remains mediocre and basis for use. what he wants to do. A large col- application has a very high value does not achieve additional value An easy-to-learn system must lection of powerful commands Is to the user, the Interface must be because of its integration. As a be designed to be learned. Novices often the hallmark of an easy-to- he has developed in his mind. rule, an office system user does are rarely able to comprehend the use system. Confusion, not Ignorance, Is the not need rudimentary capability full capability and utility of a sys- However, simply tossing togeth- enemy of ease of learning. If a in a number of areas. Rather, the tem when they first approach It. er every possible desirable fea- novice does not know what a com- user requires extensive functiona- They should not have to learn sys- ture, plus the kitchen sink, does mand means, no great harm is lity in a particular area — the mo- tem facilities and concepts they do not yield ease of use; It yields a done. Trouble begins when he In- tivating application driving the not need. In order to use those mess. Consistency and a set of correctly thinks he knows what It use of the system. Other func- they do need. Modular design Is a unifying principles are the glue means and his observation of Its tions. while desirable, cannot be principle that applies not only to that holds together what would behavior does not match his ex- provided at the expense of the the Internal design of software otherwise be a chaotic collection pectation. At this point, the user’s core capability. systems, but to their Interfaces as of unrelated features. The entire frustration boils over; he throws Other factors besides function- well. The style of an Interface system must have an underlying up his hands and declares the sys- ality, ease of learning and ease of should be such that the user does logic that, when appreciated by tem makes no sense. It is very Im- use contribute to the quality of an not confront things he does not the user, provides a reliable portant that the system be QA software package. The quality understand until he Is ready for means of remembering the sys- designed In such a way that the of the documentation, both as a them. The command set should be tem's capabilities and even deduc- user’s apprehended model of Its learning aid and as an ongoing organized In such a way that mining the meaning of new con- operation provides an accurate reference. Is of major Importance. imal subsets can be readily structs. Even a sophisticated user -very bad Indeed to prevent him The software Itself Is Just part of learned and used. will not use all parts of a system from using It. For applications of To reduce a novice’s anxiety with equal frequency, and there- marginal value, where the user Is factor, the system should provide fore requires assistance In re- not compelled to employ the sys- assistance, feedback and a forgiv- membering features used less tem. a hard-to-learn Interface “The success of a ing working environment. Helpful frequently. Moreover, this user Is may discourage a user from ever software system will system prompts, menus, on-line likely to explore of getting started. the fringes a determined more documentation and the ability to system, searching for advanced be roll back regretted actions are capabilities, and should be by functionality and among the techniques employed equipped to do so on his own. n the whole, the issue of ease of use than by to achieve this kind of pleasant Natural and familiar concepts user-frlendllness is cur- whether it can be context. may be Inadequate to carry this rently being overplayed. off. be In- O But, although they may In the long run, the success of a learned in one hour the set of alanced against the fac- dividually complex, software system will be deter- or two. ” tors that make a system principles underlying the system mined more by functionality and easy to learn are those must be few In number. When ba- B ease of use than by whether It can that make It easy to use for some- sic concepts or exceptions to the be learned in one hour or two. The one who has already learned it. rules proliferate, harmful com- factors that militate toward ease plexity results. The simplicity, helpfulness and of learning at the expense of other the extended product that in- friendliness that characterize Part of a system’s efficiency Is an criteria are temporary and declin- cludes the documentation, train- It assists easy-to-learn system are usually determined by how well ing in significance. These include ing and support provided by the annoying and often counterpro- the user in avoiding errors and such issues as user populations vendor. The vendor itself must be waste. virtues of systems that ductive for more experienced us- The unfamiliar and uncomfortable evaluated as part of the software ers. The experienced user allow for graceful recovery from has with computer systems, and a mi- selection process. Can Its claims already Internalized a model of mistakes have been well-publi- lieu In which the use of automated be believed? Does It have the re- the Its cized. Attention should also be system and capabilities. systems Is still something of a sources to remain on the scene at "power” given to design features that In- Fbr a user, the princi- novelty. We are Inevitably head- least for the expected lifetime of pal design objective Is efficiency. hibit making such mistakes In the ing into an era In which computer its products? Careful lay- The experienced user knows what first place. keyboard literacy is the norm rather than Although careful evaluation of he wants to do and. usually, how out and command naming are ma- the exception, utilization of com- prospective QA and personal com- he wants to It. jor achieving do He needs a sys- steps to this end. puter systems is the standard puter software packages Is Indi- tem that allows him to get his A frequent user should also be mode of operation and extraction cated. a lengthy and costly work done quickly and painlessly able to personalize the system, of maximum capability from evaluation process Is often out of and that keeps out of his way. It whether to rename commands In available tools Is essential. In this the question. User demand for should also provide a rich set of a fashion more congenial to him, environment, users can be ex- software Is very high, and an QA powerful tools. The casual user to create new commands from se- pected to make the Investment organization that delays Its users find these tools sophisticated may quences of old ones or to cause needed to learn a system, provided while It conducts lengthy evalua- and even complex, and their num- certain activities to be performed It offers them substantial functions will soon acquire a reputa- ber overwhelming. However, they automatically at designated times. tionality that can be effectively tion for heel-dragging offer relief from frustration and In the best of all possible harnessed. In other \rords, the ca- In any event, there are too drudgery to a "power user," who worlds, a system would be both sual user may be an artifact and a many software packages, with has Invested the requisite time In easy to learn and easy to use. It transient phenomenon. new ones being Introduced all the learning and understanding these would achieve this by presenting Which brings Us to another time, to allow a user organization features. While perhaps not user- to the novice a subset of Its capa- contemporary fad; the all-inclu- to do a thorough review of all the friendly. a powerful and flexible bilities that are useful, but not so sive. integrated software package alternatives QA departments will system Is often most usable be- powerful as to be Intimidating. that provides a range of capabili- have to Identify external sources cause it allows a user to extract The user could acquire this easy- ties. typically with a more or less of Information and evaluation from the computer the maximum to-learn part of the system and consistent Interface across the upon whom they can rely for as- functionality with a minimum of gradually come to terms with Its functions, as well as the ability to sessments of software packages overhead. more powerful features. move conveniently from one sub- — assessments that will have to Thus, the designer of an easy- Alas, such designs are rare, and system to another. The particular be Interpreted In the light of the to-use system must anticipate the not just because of the blindness functions vary from system to organization's unique require- broad range of users' needs and of system developers. Many appli- system, but typically they Include ments and experience as provide a set of commands that al- cations do not readily lend them- word processing, records process- lows such users to accomplish selves to such a multilevel ing. spreadsheet and graphics their objectives as directly and Interface. In reality, we must con- tools. They may also Include such Hammer Is president of Ham quickly as possible. Minimization front the question, "How impor- things as electronic mall and a mer and Co., a Cambridge of overhead and conceptual effi- tant Is user-frlendllness?" We calendar. Mass., management consulting ciency are key design objectives. must confront trade-offs and Although It Is certainly prefera- firm specializing In the Impact of The experienced user Is likely to compromise. User-frlendllness Is ble to have a collection of Integrat- new technology He Is also an as find a small set of easy-to-learn usually achieved at the expense of ed tools rather than the same tools soclate professor of computer features terribly difficult to apply some factor, typically system ca- on a nonlntegrated basis, the sim- science at MIT Computervrorld QA —

Page 52

LAW

Copying Computer Software: What Risks, What Penalties?

branch of the law specializing in intellectual property. According to licly, and distribute the work to the

Ai computers and electronic infor- the 1976 Copyright Act, works writ- public. Those rights are divisible mation dates back to the first main- ten after January 1, 1978, are auto- that is, the owner can split them up frames. Much of this early comput- matically protected by copyright. and assign them to others as he de- er law was concerned with contracts Registration of that copyright with sires. He can, for example, sell distri- with vendors for hardware and soft- the Copyright Office of the Library bution rights for his program to a ware. Today those and other con- of Congress is an elective procedure. software manufacturer. cerns are coming into prominence Two elements are needed in order W hat the user gets with the advent of personal comput- to take out a copyright—the author’s ers as a consumer purchase. Some of ideas, and the tangible expression of What you get when you put down the legal questions raised by the de- those ideas. The idea for a plot of a your money for the package in your velopment ofpersonal computers are novel is not subject to copyright, but local computer store depends on traditional legal questions recast for the novel itself—the expression of whether you acquired your particular the electronic medium; others are those ideas— is. Similarly, the idea copy of the program through sale or wholly new questions raised by the for a spreadsheet computer program through lease. In the case of personal personal computer’s unprecedented cannot be copyrighted, but a specific computer software that distinction capabilities. computer program written to do the may not always be obvious. In this new column on computer spreadsheet can. If the disk of the program was sold

law. Personal Computing intends to Congress specifically intended the to you so that you own it (as you own

explore these questions and what 1 976 Copyright Act to cover comput- the copy of a book you buy), then

they mean to you, the personal comer programs as a subcategory of liter- under Section 1 17 of the 1976 Copy- puter user. This month the first col- ary works. Compressing the sub- right Act you have two statutory umn explores copyright law, and ex- stance of several sections of the rights. First, you have the right to amines the legal implications of Copyright Act into a single state- make as many copies of the program

copying or modifying software. The ment, copyright law protects 1 ) origi- as you need in order to use it or to

column was prepared in consultation nal works of authorship 2) fixed in store it for backup or archival pur- with Daniel T. Brooks of Computer tangible media of expression 3) from poses. You do not have the right to Law Advisers in Springfield, Va. In- which they can be perceived, re- make and distribute extra copies of volved with computer law for two de- produced or otherwise communicated the original program to someone else cades, Brooks holds degrees in law 4) directly or indirectly, with or with- any more than you have the right to and electrical engineering from out the aid of a machine or device 5) photocopy Moby Dick and hand out Stanford University. He is also the for a period of more than transitory copies. Second, you have the right to secretary of the 1 0-year-old Com- duration. modify the program to make it appro- puter Law Association, a profession- Under the Copyright Act, the au- priate for your use. But you don’t al society independent of the Ameri- thor of the computer program is the have the right to distribute the mod- can Bar Association. owner of the copyright. Generally the ified version of the program—even

author of the program is the person though part of it is your own work.

The author of a software package who writes it. The major exception is When you put down your money can protect his rights of ownership in for employees who wrote the program for the disk at the computer store, four bodies of law: trade secret, con- as part of their job; in that case the thinking that you bought the soft-

tract, patent, and copyright. In fact, a employer is considered the author. ware package, you may in fact have given software package may actually The copyright owner has five exclu- leased the disk for a one-time fee.

be protected by more than one set of sive rights. He is the sole owner of the How can you tell? If the disk of the laws. But commonly, personal com- rights to reproduce his own work in program is leased, the license that

puter software is protected under copies, prepare derivative works comes with the disk (sometimes vis- copyright law. based on the original, perform the ible through the shrink-wrap) should

May 1983 PERSONAL COMPUTING

LAW

doesn't, in most retail situations you text. About 85 percent of micro- outweigh the money to be gained by probably have a purchase.) The li- computer sales are to Fortune 500 bringing suit, the manufacturer will cense accompanying a leased copy is companies and professionals, making probably drop the charges. a contract which spells out the rights business users the biggest segment of Penalties for infringement you have. To ensure its enforce- the market. In the office environment ability, some manufacturers require the employer is often the purchaser The copyright owner is entitled to ac- that a prospective user sign and re- and copies are routinely made for the tual damages. In the case of a $200 turn a copy of the license agreement benefit of fellow employees. computer program, it’s difficult to before the company will deliver a ful- In order to pursue an infringement, specify what those damages would ly executable version of the software. the author or manufacturer has to be. One form of damages might be Usually the license terms for a leased find out that a violation has occurred. the purchase price that wasn't re- disk are more restrictive than the That may seem obvious, but discov- ceived for the lost sales. But actual ones governing owned copies under ery isn’t always easy. The individual damages are complicated and diffi- copyright law. The basic principle user in the home or office is often cult to show, so the 1976 Copyright with licenses is that unless the license immune from prosecution simply be- Act also provides for so-called stat- says you may do something, you may cause it’s impossible for the manu- utory damages that can be invoked not do it. Unless the license gives you facturer to police every individual instead. The statutory damages are explicit permission, you may not copy personal computer user in the coun- not less than $250 and not more than the program. You may not modify it try. There are instances where manu- $10,000 per infringement. The in any way. You certainly can’t make facturers have pursued computer amounts vary with the number of copies and distribute them. There is a clubs for wholesale copying. Micro- works infinged upon, but not with the concept of “fair use” in the Copyright soft’s reported action against the number of pirate copies generated at Act covering how much use you may Home Brew Computer Club on the any one time. make of someone else’s literary mate- San Francisco peninsula in 1976 is In addition, the manufacturer can rial for your own purposes, but per- one example. And there are many seek an injunction against the vio- sonal computers are so new that it is stories of manufacturers’ representa- lator and impoundment of the in- not clear how fair use applies to com- tives making unannounced visits to fringing copies. Injunctions are typi- puter software. computer clubs to warn members cally what people use copyright law Assuming you bought the disk, or against copyright violations. for, and they are a very powerful de- that the license agreement permits Software manufacturers rarely sue terrent. If the case goes to trial, the you to modify the program for your a commercial customer who buys in lawsuit can run for years. Even be- own use, one common question is how large volume and whom they’d like to fore the case comes up, one alterna- much do you have to modify a pro- keep. So they don’t often pursue a tive available to litigants is the tem- gram before it’s yours? The answer is violator if they think a lawsuit will porary restraining order or prelimi- you can’t modify it enough to make it put a damper on future relations. nary injunction. The certificate of yours. If you add new ideas, logic, More often they go after the profes- copyright registration is prima facie coherence and design while retaining sional pirate who is making and dis- evidence of the rights assigned under parts of the original program code, tributing black market software. the Copyright Act: “Here, your hon- it’s not clear what the resultant work They also tend to pursue an employee or, I am the owner of the copyright of is. It’s probably two works: your ad- who goes out the door with the tape this particular work, and this guy's aptations and the author’s original. trailing from his pocket and sets up a made copies of it. They weren't au- " In that case, if either of you wants to competing business, or the bitter rival thorized copies. Make him stop Of- distribute the modified program, you down the street who tried to steal ten that is enough to get the copy- have to get licenses from each other. their secrets. There are case£ of right owner a preliminary injunction customer-competitor lawsuits in If that preliminary injunction is When infringements are pursued which a user licensed a program, granted, in most circumstances the The typical home user doesn’t really made some modifications and case is over right there. Basically the care about all these legal points. He’s thought he had his own program, defendant is out of business, with an going to copy or modify a program and then went into business in enormous incentive to settle. because he needs to. So is the average competition with the original Finally, there are criminal penal- computer user in an office. The single manufacturer. ties for copyright infringement Fines biggest threat to the distributors of Finally, it has to be worth it to the of up to $10,000 or one year's im- computer programs is the copying prosecuting party to pursue charges. prisonment. or both, arc possible pun- that goes on in the commercial con- If the cost of a lawsuit threatens to ishments for willful infringement

PERSONAL COMPUTING May 1983 Page 54

LAW

“for purposes of commercial advan- questions, and essential long-term not be violating a license. But once tage or private financial gain.” Be- maintenance. If, for example, you try you hand a copy of either the un- cause it’s such a headache to bring to call some software companies for altered or the modified work to some- suit against individuals in the home help, the first thing they want to one else while retaining the original or office, manufacturers try to dis- know before they talk to you is the or a copy for yourself, chances are courage casual illegitimate copying serial number of your particular copy excellent that you have infringed on by coding programs so as to make of the program. Sometimes this is someone else’s copyright. copying difficult (which has, by the honored more in the breach than in way, given rise to a whole new indus- the observance, but the serialization //you have legal questions regarding try of nibble copiers to defeat those process does give the manufacturer personal computing and the law that codes). Manufacturers also structure the power to exclude you from the you would like to see discussed in their support to deny service to those support that is critical to you. future columns, address them to: with black market copies. Often the Trudy E. Bell, Associate Editor Rule thumb most important thing to a private of Personal Computing user is his ongoing relationship with In general, if you make copies or 50 Essex Street the manufacturer. He relies on this modifications for archival purposes Rochelle Park, N.J. 07662 for updates, modifications, follow-on or for your own use alone, you’re not Sorry, we cannot personally an- products, help with problems and violating copyright law, and you may swer or acknowledge questions. S3

PERSONAL COMPUTING May IV8J .

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ESSAY See what free software you can snare for little more than your time and phone costs.

Free Software: Is It Any Good?

There are some powerful programs that are yours for the asking—if you know who to ask

by James E. Fawcette, Executive Editor

f you're as skeptical as I am, you peers, or to genuinely help other peo- puter store. But if you don’t have the I probably think free software is ple solve a common problem. Often, time or inclination to become in- worth exactly what you pay for it. programs of widespread interest are volved in these groups, you can still

After all, if getting powerful applica- not only widely adopted, but go enter the world of free software as tions programs or clever computer through a series of refinements as easily as dialing up a computer bulle- games were as easy as logging onto a users add their own revisions, find tin board. Literally hundreds of these public computer bulletin board or ex- and debug problems, or expand the services have sprung up across the changing disks with friends at a local program's capabilities. country. In essence, they are a form user's group, how could vendors get As a result, some free programs of electronic mail, allowing users to away with selling programs for hun- have been thoroughly tested by thou- leave or retrieve messages from the dreds of dollars a copy? sands of users, and checked and re- computer-equivalent of a post office

The answer is straightforward: Al- written by dozens of skilled pro- box. Creators of free software can though there are authors who offer grammers. But finding these gems leave their programs in these elec- valuable software free to any user, can be difficult, since they’re hidden tronic mailboxes for anyone to use. finding these programs and figuring among literally thousands of free To access a bulletin board, all you’ll out how to use them is a challenge not programs, most of which are utilities need in addition to your computer is everyone is willing to face. But if you written to solve extremely narrow, a modem, communications software, truly enjoy using—and experiment- specific problems, or systems pro- and a telephone line. The more capa- ing with —your computer, searching grams of interest only to serious ble your system is, however, the eas- for these few diamonds in the rough programmers. None come with guar- ier it will be to download files. If large can be a rewarding experience. It’s an antees. (But then, what software files are needed or extensive on-line excellent way to learn about personal does?) Few have any kind of docu- time is anticipated, a powerful sys- computing, particularly how to use mentation, and the only kind of sup- tem with large memory, say 256k or telecommunications facilities —and, port you’ll find is from other users. more, a 1200-baud modem, and a as an extra bonus, you may turn up If you’re enthusiastic enough software buffer is desirable, though some good software in the process. about personal computing to be will- not essential. Most users tap into Sometimes the independent pro- ing to tackle these hurdles, then let’s public software with machines rang- grammers who write free software take a look at some ways to search for ing from Ataris to Apple I Is, are bit-freaks for whom program- useful free software, and give you a Bulletin boards range from vsidcly- ming is an ali-consuming hobby, but sample of a well-traveled public used commercial services such as often they're businessmen who began program. CompuServe to small networks sup using computers at work and became Many free programs are widely ported by local groups of enthusiasts proficient at writing their own appli- circulated among user’s groups, A list of 400 bulletin boards for Ap- cations programs. These amateur simply through exchanging floppy ple, IBM, Atari, Radio Shack, and software authors may then offer their disks. You can find specific user’s other personal computers can be ob programs to the general public to groups for each major brand of com- tained by calling the People s Mcs show off their achievement, to share puter in most parts of the country. sage System (Santee, Calif ) at (619) their accomplishment with their Try asking the salesman at your com- 561-7277. CompuServe already lists

January 1984 PERSONAL COMPUTMG

Reprinted ujt/i permission t'ron Personal Comput ing, January J <484. pane: 247 C45, 24/, and Copyright (c) 1/S3, Hayden Publishing Conpanv Page 56

Are any of these ESSAY programs truly useful? “Absolutely. ”

free software for the Radio Shack Ronald Kennedy—Press space bar to tion to represent the relationship be- Model 100 lap-size computer, written begin.” tween the four variables: linear, expo- by a special interest group. With no manual to guide us, we nential, logarithmic, and power

Log onto one of these services and pushed on bravely. After we pressed curve fit. you’ll see for yourself what you can the space bar, the program’s main Inspection of each curve usually snare for little more than your time menu appeared: makes it obvious which one best ex- and phone costs. For instance, by Y = f ( x ) REGRESSION presses the data. Our free program dialing up P-Chicago, a new bulletin- ANALYSIS made good use of color, plotting the board service, you can find Chess (a 1. ENTER/CHANGE DATA curves in green, purple, orange, and computer chess game, obviously). 2. ENTER DATA FROM DISK blue, making it easy to compare the Chasm, a Macro Assembler for MS- 0 DATA ENTRIES NOW IN curves when all four are overlaid on DOS programming, and PC-Talk MEMORY one graph. Distinguishing their plots III, a popular communications pro- TYPE NUMBER OF CHOICE, on a monochrome monitor is more gram for the IBM Personal Comput- THEN PRESS RETURN KEY difficult, however, but this isn’t a er. (PC-Talk’s writers ask for a NOTE: THE PRINTER ROU- substantial problem since each can be modest $35 donation.) TINES USED IN THIS PRO- displayed separately. After running GRAM ARE DESIGNED FOR through the other menu-driven Getting our toes wet USE WITH THE GRAPPER prompts, we were able to select the But are any of these programs really BOARD AND THE EPSON appropriate curve-fitting scheme, de- useful? “Absolutely,” says Woody PRINTER fine the X and Y coordinate ranges, Liswood, a senior compensation and The typo was a bit disconcerting print out the equations and X, Y benefits consultant with A.S. Han- (Orange Micro’s graphic board is the values, and plot the graphs. sen, Inc., a Larkspur, Calif., consul- Our experience with Regression grappler , not grapper).But lookingat tant group—and an enthusiastic the menu page was even more trou- Analysis was encouraging. It’s a good computer user. “Often, they’re better bling. Menu entries 3 to 7 were miss- example of public domain software than their commercial counterparts. ing. Where were they? Another wor- — it’s easy to use, does the job it’s

I regularly use a number of public risome question was whether we supposed to and does it well. Plus, domain programs in my work,” he could get any kind of printout, since you can’t beat the price. says. “Every CP/M user should have we lacked the specified hardware. Sample some of the hundreds of a copy of either Wash or Sweep 38, a There was no need to worry. As we computer bulletin boards yourself pair of disk managers, for example. worked with the program—simply and try to find a few sparkling gems There are many other good programs following the menu— the missing bobbing in the flotsam and jetsam of for accounting, statistical analysis menu elements appeared as needed, free software. and curve fitting.” and we got printouts of all the graph- And while you're capturing these With Liswood’s help, we dug up a ic images. The missing entries all per- treasures on disk, your search will be copy of a public domain program to tained to manipulations of data, valuable as an end in itself. Seeing try out the concept of using free soft- which were irrelevant until user in- first-hand, not in a manual, what oth- ware, with interesting results. Lis- formation had been typed or loaded er users have been able to accomplish wood gave us a copy of Regression into the program. After we chose “2. on their computers can be an eye- Analysis, written by a programmer ENTER DATA FROM DISK,” we opening introduction to the art of named Ronald Kennedy. We re- promptly got a catalog of the disk personal computing. And there isn't a ceived a disk with no documentation contents, and chose some data files better way to experience the power of other than a handwritten label that Liswood had kindly included for us to telecommunicating by computer than said, “Try running Hello and fiddle with. by tapping into a few electronic bulle- Hello2.” This might be opaque, and Regression analysis deals with tin boards and mail services and see- perhaps intimidating, to novice users. data that can be plotted against X-Y ing what’s available. Free software is

But we were brave enough to simply coordinates. It provides various algo- worth the price—and more. SI slip the disk in the computer’s drive. rithms (procedures) for creating

The program booted just fine. After graphic curves that best fit and ex- the disk spun a bit, a pretty, graphic press the data. Our program allowed image came up, framing the words us to plot the data points, then calcu-

“Apple II Computers,” and below it late and graph four different types of “Y = f(x) Regression Analysis by curves, each using a different equa-

January 1984 PERSONAL COMPUTING Page 57

Special Report

Choosing What’s Best For Tonr Purposes The Family Tree 0! Computer Languages

BY BERNARD COLE

To update an old saw, English is for talking to gentlemen, French is for talking to women, German is for talking to engineers, and BASIC is for talking to Ap- ples. But what about all those other computer languages? Are they secret tongues of exclusive programming societies? A few minutes of reading personal computer literature will prove that languages such as tremes. Nonetheless, this approach should yield a Pascal, FORTRAN, COBOL, C, and FORTH are alive valuable overview of both the individual languages as and well in the world of microcomputers. But how well as their relationships to one another. does the uninitiated user unravel the pros and cons of Low-level versus high-level: Low-level languages all these options? In this introductory article we’ll try give programmers direct control over details of com- to help by presenting some guidelines for understand- puter hardware such as memory locations, micropro- ing computer languages. Then we’ll do a little cessor registers, and input/output ports. High-level genealogical work, tracing the development of five of languages distance programmers from these details, today’s major languages and six of the less common forcing them instead to work with abstractions such as cybernetic tongues. With this background, you’ll be files, arrays, and variables. The lowest level is ready for the more detailed descriptions of individual machine language, and the highest level (at least in languages beginning on page 90. theory) is a “natural language’’ like English. Divide and Conquer To appreciate the benefits and drawbacks of a low- To make sense of the 200 or more distinct computer level language take a look at machine language, the languages, it helps to begin by broadly categorizing most fundamental way of communicating with a com- them as low-level or high-level, general- or special- puter. It consists of a microprocessor’s instructions purpose, procedural or problem-oriented, compiled or represented in binary form as on-off patterns of micro- interpreted, structured or unstructured, and interac- electronic switches. Assembly language is one step

tive or noninteractive. higher than this level; it uses alphabetic abbreviations Naturally, no computer language can be pigeonholed for instructions and symbolic names for memory cir- as neatly as these categories suggest—most actually cuits and data. Compare a machine-language command fall at some point along the ranges defined by those ex- (00100001 10001111 00001000) with an assembly-

~ Fron "The Fanily Tree oF Computer Inagujgei hy Bernard Cote ov>. , ar m, September 1888 Popular Computing the Septeither 19$} issue of Popular Conoutina nagauno opyright

Byte Publications. Tnc. Used ui th the Remission at' ftvic n>’b/- .m •" /> Page 58

language command (LD HL,MEMLOC) and its mean- the hardware. Special-purpose languages include C, ing Goad register HL with the value of the variable FORTH, Modula-2, and Smalltalk— all for systems MEMLOC). Programmers can work more accurately programming—PILOT for computer-aided instruc- and efficiently in assembly language than in machine tion, and PROLOG for logic programming. language; an assembler program translates their Procedural versus problem-oriented: Procedural assembly-language code into machine language. programming languages require the user to specify a Machine or assembly language provides almost total set of operations to be performed in a specific se- flexibility in tapping a computer’s capabilities. For ex- quence. Unlike native machine and assembly lan- ample, a section of program code may be treated as guages that require instructions in a form very speci- data or vice versa, and program code can even be fic to a particular microprocessor, procedural lan- modified while a program is running. Machine-languages are designed to be independent of particular guage programs can harness the specific strengths of a machines. These languages relate to the procedures particular microprocessor and its input/output facili- being coded, not to the specifics of the computer’s ar- ties. In applications such as systems software (operat- chitecture. A program written in a procedural lan- ing systems and the like), this level of efficiency and guage can be executed on any computer that has a flexibility is mandatory. translator for that programming language. Most of to- On the negative side, low-level languages require a day’s general-purpose languages are procedural. great deal of technical knowledge and attention to detail, creating potential stumbling blocks for begin- hile a procedural language specifies how ning programmers. Even professional programmers something is to be accomplished, a prob- find assembly-language programming slow work com- lem-oriented language specifies what is pared to programming in high-level languages. to be accomplished. The closer the programmer can come to stating a problem igh-level languages, in contrast, take care of Wwithout specifying the steps that must be taken to the hardware details automatically and solve it, the more nonprocedural the language. Ex- allow the programmer to think in terms of amples of such problem-oriented languages are pro- the application at hand. The single BASIC gram generators such as System 80, The Tool, Savvy, H command PRINT USING “###.##”; 1/100 and The Last One. might replace scores of machine-level instructions. Many professionals who program in procedural lan- However, with this convenience comes an inevitable guages say that problem-oriented systems are not pro- loss of efficiency and flexibility. Few high-level programming languages at all and that their use does not grams can attain the speedy performance of machine- qualify as true programming. But according to James language code. A few languages such as C and Martin, author of Applications Development Without FORTH offer some of the efficiency of machine lan- Programmers (Prentice-Hall, 1982), and other experts guage together with the power of high-level lan- who have studied the issue, the net effect of problem- guages. However, these languages are not well suited oriented programming is exactly the same as any to the beginning programmer. other sort of programming. Just as high-level pro- General- versus special-purpose: Most languages cedural languages were developed to relieve program- are created to serve specific purposes such as teaching mers of the burdens of dealing with machine-level programming concepts, controlling industrial robots, coding, problem-oriented languages make it unneces- or creating graphics. However, many languages are sary for the user to get involved in specifying the pro- extraordinarily flexible, and their ultimate uses far ex- gramming steps that must be taken to solve a prob- ceed the concrete plans of their designers. lem. Moreover, just as procedural languages generate General-purpose languages include BASIC, FOR- object code written in the computer’s machine TRAN, COBOL (business data processing), LISP Gist language, so problem-oriented systems now available processing), and, more recently, ALGOL, Pascal, for personal computers generate programs written in APL, and PL/I. The majority of programming applica- a particular symbolic code, whether assembly or pro- tions have been written in BASIC, FORTRAN, or cedural. COBOL. Interpreted versus compiled languages: On the Special-purpose languages, on the other hand, most basic level of hardware, a computer can execute enable programmers to solve narrowly defined prob- only instructions written in its native machine code. lems or unusual applications such as systems program- This means that a program written in a high-level lan- ming, where one must be able to control the details of guage must be translated into machine code before it

September 1983 Popular Computing Page 59

will run. Two types of high-level language translators Most programming languages allow you to design can do this: compilers and interpreters. A compiler well-structured programs, and numerous books ex- performs the translation in two steps. It first trans- plain how to do it. But what many programming lan- lates the whole program into machine language, and guages (especially the older ones) also allow is the then the machine-language version is executed by the design of poorly structured programs. Only the newer computer. An interpreter performs the operations computer languages such as Pascal and recent revi- contained in the program as it reads them line by line, sions of older languages such as SBASIC actually pre- using a built-in dictionary that gives machine-language vent you from using procedures that lead to illogical equivalents of high-level commands. program structures. Many of the problem-oriented While the interpreter must repeat the translation of program generation languages require that you enter a given statement every time it occurs—a rather ineffi- information about your application in a logically struc- cient process—the compiler can repeat the necessary tured way. statements without translating each time, a much Interactive versus noninteractive: As with struc- faster process. The drawback of the compiler is that it tured programming, the advantages here all lie on the makes it difficult to modify or alter statements within side of interactive languages. Surprisingly, though, of the program. Usually the entire program must be the traditional general-purpose procedural languages translated over again if changes are required. Thus for only APL and BASIC were designed from the start programs undergoing changes, revisions, or improve- for interactive operation. Moreover, Logo, PILOT, ments, which is often the case for the inexperienced and Smalltalk are the only members of the newer gen- programmer, an interpreted language is better eration of languages that may be characterized as because it permits interaction with the program dur- truly interactive. ing execution and makes changes immediately. In an interactive language you can communicate Depending on the specific application, various pro- directly with the computer both when you’re typing in gramming languages tend more toward one approach the program and when you’re running it. In addition than the other. COBOL and FORTRAN are usually to faster response time, here are a couple of other ad- compiled while APL is generally interpreted. Of the vantages that would lead one to choose an interactive available BASIC translators, about half are compilers language: and half interpreters. •Interactive editing: The process of developing a pro- Structured versus unstructured: Here we’re deal- gram alternates between running the program and ing not so much with characteristics of particular lan- changing or editing to correct the errors the pre- guages as we are with the qualities of programs them- liminary runs turn up. While noninteractive languages selves, whatever the language they’re written in. separate the editor and the translator, the interactive Lately much discussion has focused on the pros and program integrates the two, eliminating a number of cons of structured programming, but all computer pro- time-consuming intermediate steps. grams have some sort of structure. A more accurate •Immediate error detection: If you type an incorrect distinction is between good (logical) structure and bad line, a good interactive language will report it im- (illogical) structure. mediately. You can then correct the error while the n the same way that it’s relatively easy to learn purpose of the line is still in your mind. If the error the grammar and syntax of a foreign language was due to a misconception that you corrected, you like French or Spanish, it’s not too difficult to also avoid repeating the error on subsequent lines. master the basics of a particular programming Noninteractive programs support the detection and I language. What is not so easy is writing a pro- subsequent correction of errors only after the entire gram in a clear, logically organized manner. program has been typed in. According to Kenneth Orr, author of Structured A Brief Survey Systems Development (Yourdon Press, 1977), a pro- Each programming language, of course, does not fit gram is well structured if (1) its routines and subrou- neatly into one or another of the broad types we’ve tines are in a modular form in which each module is a defined. Most languages fall into more than one of the program segment containing a complete, logical categories. This is particularly true of the more thought; (2) its modules are hierarchically organized in recently developed programming languages, and the such a way that within each module there are nested categories are likely to get fuzzier in the future. As the logical subunits that are themselves structured and following chronological survey of widely used pro- contain further subunits; and (3) it uses straight- gramming languages indicates, the newer languages forward, readable code rather than slightly more effi- tend to be on higher levels of abstraction, less pro- cient but obscure code. cedure-oriented, more multipurpose, more natural and well-structured program has at least four ad- English-like in their syntax, and more structured than vantages. It is easier to debug during devel- the older languages. opment because the logical connections be- FORTRAN (1956): Initially developed for solving tween various instructions, routines, and problems in mathematics, engineering, and science. A subroutines can be clearly seen; it is more FORTRAN has found its way into such areas as busi- likely to be correct the first time around because of the ness and education because of its popularity as a teach- care that went into its design; it usually takes less ing tool in colleges and universities. Almost always time to create because it has fewer bugs to find and compiled, its grammar, symbols, rules, and syntax are fix; and it is far easier to maintain, that is, to update or correct at a later date. Bernard Cole is a freelance writer living in Berkeley, California

September 1983 Popular Computing Page 60

similar to mathematical nnovative languages were interpreted and compiled and English-language versions. In an inter- conventions. FORTRAN part of computing’s New Frontier preted version, anyone treats arithmetic opera- can write a program and in early ’60s, tions with commands that the when COBOL, then inspect, modify, and evaluate expressions and LISP, and BASIC were developed. correct it with a mini- substitute the results for mum of inconvenience. current values of vari- Microcomputer versions ables. String manipula- of BASIC have increased tion in FORTRAN is dif- in power to the point that ficult but not impossible. today they are more than Graphics-processing programs, database management adequate for a large number of business and commer- systems, and word-processing programs all have been cial applications. written in the language. PL/I (1964): Designed as a multipurpose program- COBOL (1960): Developed specifically for business ming language for solving both business and scientific and commercial applications, COBOL is characterized problems, PL/I incorporates features of both FOR- by programs stated in precise, easily learned natural TRAN and COBOL. On the FORTRAN side PL/I has words and phrases that can be read by nontechnical simple, concise statements, but like COBOL it has the users. The language offers many important file- ability to manipulate and input or output grouped organizing features and can deal with variable data records or files quite easily. It uses basic building lengths. Input/output procedures and report genera- blocks called procedures, which are blocks of instruction are its strong points. tions designed to perform stated functions. One pro- ALGOL (1960): A particularly powerful language, cedure can be hierarchically incorporated into an- ALGOL was originally developed as a general-pur- other, and any data declared in a procedure is auto- pose language for expressing formal problem-solving matically available to all procedures nested within. procedures known as algorithms. Although similar to PL/I can handle strings of alphanumeric characters or FORTRAN, it is more comprehensive and flexible. strings of bits. It also allows programmers to describe Also, thanks to its more formal structure it poses data in terms of arrays and other sophisticated fewer exceptions and is more readable. “pointer” structures. LISP (1960): Featuring impressive list-processing APL (1967): Among the general-purpose procedural capabilities, LISP is the choice of researchers in artifi- languages available for personal computers, APL has cial intelligence. The language is designed specifically the most comprehensive set of primitive operators to for the manipulation of nonnumeric data that often carry out such functions as random-number genera- changes considerably in length and structure during tion, index generation, factorial computation, and the course of a computer run. Because LISP defines a matrix formation and inversion. A very powerful lan- list simply as a set of items given a specific order, it of- guage with operators that carry out actions requiring fers a convenient way of representing such data as dozens of statements in other languages, APL is very English sentences, mathematical formulas, positions popular among statisticians due to the speed with in a game, logic theorems, or computer programs. This which algorithms can be developed and tested. But capability makes the language a powerful tool in ap- APL is not limited to numeric applications; it is used in plications such as the generation and verification of a wide range of business applications such as docu- mathematical proofs, pattern recognition, algebraic ment production, graphic analysis, data retrieval, and manipulation, simulations of human problem solving, financial analysis. The main reason for this is that information retrieval, heuristic programming, APL was designed to be a highly interactive, conver- linguistic analysis, computerized translation of sational language. Thus even a beginner can do mean- numerical languages, and explorations of new non- ingful work within minutes and still have a language of procedural programming languages. great power and range. BASIC (1964): Incorporating features of both FOR- Pascal (1971): Designers of Pascal wanted to create TRAN and ALGOL, this language was designed to be a language that encourages (some would say demands) very simple to learn and inexpensive to implement and structured programming. With a syntax similar to use. From the start it has been an interactive lan- ALGOL’s, Pascal is a “small” language in that it does guage; the user gets an immediate response to what is not allow a large number of different syntactic con- typed into the computer. Its major advantage to structs (unlike PL/I, for example). Pascal is intended beginning programmers is that it is available in both to be easy for programmers to learn and retain.

September 1983 Popular Computing Page 61

Smalltalk (1972): Con- any of the noteworthy FORTH into a language ceived as a tool kit that that conveniently meets would enable students languages created in the your particular needs. and teachers to explore a For example, if a statisti- 1970s—especially and subject or solve a prob- FORTH cal language is required, lem, Smalltalk uses a C—were designed with systems the necessary functions wide range of graphic can be added to the “objects.” As little as a programming in mind. library and subsequently year ago Smalltalk could used as new commands. be considered a special- Similarly, the library purpose language used could be easily custom- almost exclusively in the ized for sophisticated academic research world, but now that a number of electronic filing or complex financial calculations. business-oriented computer manufacturers (including Apple) and software designers (such as Visicorp) have What the Future Holds used it in their newest products, it could well be on its It is clear that over the short term traditional pro- way to a place in the mainstream of general-purpose cedural languages will continue to dominate in most applications languages. personal computer applications. Experts expect that PILOT (1973): Originally designed to introduce such languages will continue to evolve and that major children to the fundamentals of computer perfor- new languages will be introduced occasionally. mance, PILOT is now most often used in writing pro- Despite the enormous increase in the number of per- grams for computer-aided instruction in all subjects. It sonal and small-business computers, development of is especially tailored for such instructional tasks as programming languages will be much slower than in drills, tests, and dialogues and allows convenient com- the past. This is because the rapid proliferation of per- parisons between words or portions of words. PILOT sonal computers has drastically changed the environ- is not a good choice for complex computational prob- ment in which programming languages are developed. lems. On the one hand, software companies that find them- C (1974): A structured programming language that selves unable to produce enough canned programs to lends itself to systems programming as well as to more satisfy the demands of all the new users of computers mundane programming tasks, C produces code that are looking for ways to increase the productivity of approaches machine language in density and efficiency their professional programmers. On the other hand, while still offering some high-level language features though, many personal computer users want to write such as structured programming and systems pro- their own programs but have neither the time nor the gramming capability. A C compiler is simple, compact, inclination to learn a procedural dialect. and easily written—a professional programmer using According to the experts, these demands will favor current technology can prepare such a compiler for a greater development of nonprocedural program gen- new machine in no more than a few months. Because C eration languages. Such software packages are now is independent of any particular machine’s architec- becoming available for use on personal computers. A ture, it is suitable for writing portable programs. good example is The Last One, which generates FORTH (1975): Like C, FORTH is a kind of a high- BASIC source code. level assembly language designed for systems pro- One drawback (if it can be called that) of these first- gramming. FORTH is unusual in that it offers many generation program generators is that they relieve interesting features not normally associated with in- you of the coding only. You still have to go through the terpreted languages, such as allowing you to add new process of developing the overall design of the pro- commands. It maintains a system library of command gram. Indeed, such nonprocedural program genera- calls that is actually a list of addresses of routines that tors literally force the user into designing a structured execute the commands. You can use any of the exist- program. As such, they are not for the old-school, seat- ing library commands to build up more complicated of-the-pants professional programmer or for the ones. novice programmer who is unfamiliar with structured FORTH is not as fast as assembly language, but it’s programming. Artificial intelligence research centers much faster than interpreted BASIC. Its special fea- and software companies are working on “expert tures allow you to customize the language for a speci- systems” that not only relieve you of the coding but fic application. By defining new special-purpose com- also help you structure programs. We can expect such mands and adding them to the library, you can make expert systems to hit the market within a few years.

September 1983 Popular Computing COLUMN DEBUT WORD

Welcome to The Processed Word," a This means that all the menus and prompts new column devoted to word processing on are available to help you learn the program, by Terry Tinsley the pc and XT. In the coming months we 11 and then as you become more proficient, you review word processing programs and such can turn off the prompts to speed the pro- related software as spelling and grammar gram up and leave more of the screen free

Datz and checkers. We ll emphasize new and innova- for text display. tive programs of special interest, including Mode. Another fundamental difference T. Lloyd Dalz VisiCorp's VisiWord, Bruce & James's lA/ord- in the way word processing programs are or- Vision, PFS: Write, MultiMate, WordPerfect, ganized has to do with modality. Programs

and the new entry from NB1, a manufac- that require you to make extensive mode turer of dedicated word processors. changes are like cars with manual transmis-

But we ll start by surveying the various sions: You must keep them in the correct features word processing programs may gear" by entering and exiting the appro-

offer and defining some of the terms we ll be priate modes. For example, if you are typing using later on. This column will be very gen- along and then decide to go back and delete a

eral and elementary; if you're altogether new few words, you have to shift out of insert to word processing and haven't yet decided mode and into delete mode, erase the un- which program to use, you may find this in- wanted words, shift out of delete, and go stallment a handy reference of features to back into insert to continue typing. consider when shopping for a program. Each program handles mode changes differently. Some automatically return to in- Overall Program Design sert when you exit another mode, while Menu-driven versus Command-driven others return to a "neutral gear between Softivare. The overall organization of a word mode changes. Many require mode changes

processing program is what determines how for certain features but allow you to access

user-friendly it is. Menu-driven software others directly. Programs that keep mode

lists all command choices on the screen, dis- changes to a minimum are, for obvious rea- playing more specific menus as general sons, less awkward to use. choices are made. In contrast, command- driven software provides no menus and only Text Entry and Editing Features minimal prompts; consequently users must The Editing Screen. Most word proc-

be familiar with all the commands. Most essors display a status line at the top of the people find menu-driven programs easier to screen to provide you with such informa- learn. tion as the name of the document in mem- But the choice between menu- and com- ory, the command currently being executed,

mand-driven software is not as obvious as it the page, line, and column position of the might seem. The helpful menus and prompts cursor, the line spacing, and the current that make software so easy to learn also mode. In addition, there may be a "ruler

make it run considerably slower. Once that indicates the settings for tab stops and

you re familiar with most of your word left and right margins. A new trend, how-

Terry Tinsley Datz is a freelance processor's commands, you'll want to get the ever, is to display fewer elements on-screen;

writer and F. Lloyd Datz is a facul- job done as quickly as possible without stop- this leaves the editing screen free of clutter. ty member at the University of ping to respond to screen messages or wait Word Wrap. This standard word proc- Utah Medical School. They have for a succession of menus to appear. Fortu- essing feature functions as an automatic car- recently completed a book on word nately, some programs allow you to adjust riage return. Instead of looking up at the end processing for the IBM pc. the level of help to your particular needs. of each line to decide where to place the car- for the * IBM Personal Computer August 1983 "Ihe Processed Uord by Jerry Tinsley Datz and f . L loyd Datz, Softalk,

August 1983, pages 49-53. Reprinted by pernission. Copyright (c) by Softalk Publishing Inc. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. Page 63 ridge return vou just keep typing, letting the typed from being written over, text in front word. Some programs give you the option of computer decide where to end the line. of the cursor is pushed forward as you enter circumventing this problem by marking the When tvping extends past the right margin, the new words. If you're a fast typist, you word only if it appears as a whole word (en- any words that won t fit on that line are might be able to enter text faster than it can closed by spaces or punctuation). Capitaliza- automatically moved down to the left mar- be pushed forward. Therefore, some pro- tion can also cause problems. A word proc- gin of the next line. This feature is a real grams have a type-ahead buffer that acts like essor should be able to ignore case, if you timesaver but it may be a while before you a scratch pad, saving any text entered too wish, so that it will find both "computer" quit reaching for the return key when you rapidly to be displayed. When you pause, and "Computer" in response to the same near the end of a line. the computer catches up, inserting the text it command. On some occasions you'll need to con- has stored. If the buffer fills up, a message is Related to search is a very important trol line breaks more precisely. Most, but not displayed asking you to wait a few seconds function called replace. Once a word or all word processors allow you to turn off for it to empty. phrase has been searched for, replace lets word wrap when you're typing highly for- Other programs split the text at the point you automatically exchange it for a differ- matted text such as tables, forms, ad- of insertion and move everything in front of ent expression. In addition to doing a global dresses, or programs. the cursor off the screen entirely. Although replacement, some word processors will al- Cursor Movement When you generate this approach prevents you from losing key- so replace the specified word or phrase only text on a typewriter, the words originate strokes, not being able to see the remainder the first x number of times it appears or will where the typing element strikes the paper. of the sentence you're editing can be dis- show each occurrence to you in context and

On a word processor, text originates at the concerting. ask your permission to replace it. The abil- cursor position which is usually indicated When insertion mode is turned off, new ity to discriminate whole words is even more by a blinking line or square. Since entering text is typed over the characters under the important with global replace than it is with or editing text requires that you first move cursor. Overstrike mode is useful for cor- global search. Without that capability, if you the cursor to the desired location, cursor recting typographical errors. changed man to person, you would also, for movement commands are the most fre- Deletion. While all word processors let example, change all occurrences of manipu- quently used editing commands. you delete one character at a time, most also late to personipulate. The best word processors give you a va- allow you to delete larger amounts of text- The search and replace commands have a riety of ways to manipulate the cursor. In such as a word, a portion of a line, a screen- variety of uses. Form letters, contracts, or addition to horizontal movement by charac- ful, or an entire document—by means of one other documents with standard wording can ter and vertical movement by line, most pro- or two keystrokes. Because deleting is so be modified and used again and again, nev- grams give you the option to move by the simple, you have to be careful not to erase er losing their personal touch. Also, you can word, sentence, or paragraph; to the left or text accidentally. Programs that automat- reduce typing time and errors by entering a right margin: to the top or bottom of the ically save deletions in a buffer graciously symbol like for lengthy or hard-to-type screen: or to the beginning or end of the give you the opportunity to recover from phrases. For example, when typing the manuscript. such accidents. manuscript for "2010: Odyssey Two," The trend in word processing programs Cut and Paste. What makes word proc- Arthur C. Clarke could have typed is to allow you more and more flexibility in essing such a powerful tool is the ability it every time he referred to Sivasubramanian cursor movement. For example, most pro- gives you to rearrange sentences, para- Chandasegarampillai, the creator of the com- grams now allow you to jump to a specific graphs, and full pages of text with the press puter HAL Then he could have used the page or character This means, for example, of a few keys. Changes that would normally global search and replace command to that you can quickly add an entry to a res- require you to retype an entire manuscript change every occurrence of to the un- ume by moving the cursor directly to the de- can be accomplished in seconds. typeable name, thereby saving himself con- sired page number instead of having to Before you can manipulate a block of siderable time and effort. browse through several pages until you find text, you have to mark the beginning and Columns. Arranging text or numbers in the page you need. Programs that won't end of the passage. Then you can move the columns does not come easily to most word jump to a specific page number sometimes block, copy it to a second part of the docu- processors. As a result, programs vary sig- permit you to place markers at strategic loca- ment, or delete it. With some programs, nificantly in their column-handling capabil- tions to which you may want to return later. block operations can be performed between ity. Unfortunately, some do not recognize Scrolling Scrolling allows you to review two different files, so that text can be trans- columns as independent portions of text This a document by scrolling the text up or down ferred from one document to another. The means that any changes you make in one as if it were one continuous piece of paper. size limit for block operations is a function column will affect other columns that you Many programs allow you to vary the scroll- of both the word processing software and have set up, thus destroying your carefully ing speed, so you can slowly scrutinize the the memory capacity of the computer. planned (and laboriously achieved) format text for errors or quickly scan it to find a Search and Replace. Suppose you have a In short, if you frequently use columns or particular passage. Some word processors file containing several chapters of a book tables in your documents, look for a pro- are capable of extensive horizontal scroll- and you decide to edit Chapter 6 Instead of gram that has a specific mode to handle ing; this is a big help when you're working scrolling through the text until you find the them. with oversized documents, such as those chapter heading, you can use the search or Some word processors that can work with used in accounting. If you routinely work find command, telling the computer to lo- columns go a step further to perform sim- with wide documents, look for a word proc- cate the heading "Chapter 6" and bring that ple mathematical calculations, such as add- essor that can horizontally scroll at least 132 portion of the book to the screen ing, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing columns. WordStar, the all-time champion of The search function can also be used to across columns or generating subtotals to- horizontal scrolling, goes far beyond the call locate every occurrence of a word or phrase tals, and grand totals down columns

of duty to scroll 32,000 columns! Keep in mind, however, that the computer is Split-Screen Editing Sometimes also

Insertion and Deletion. To add text to a literal to a fault: If you ask it to find all called windowing, this feature enables you

document you insert it at the position of the occurrences of the word he, the letters he to view different parts of the same document or

cursor. To prevent what has already been will be found even if they are part of another portions of two or more separate documents

soft Oik Page 64 at the same time. In this way you can, for of the paper and the text. The left margin be bound, make sure that page numbers can example, view the first draft of a manu- setting depends on the pitch (see following be printed alternately at the left and right script in one window while you type the re- paragraph) and is the number of blank col- margins. vision in the other. Although this feature is umns from the left edge of the paper to the Headers, Footers, and Footnotes. A head- not a standard one, it is becoming more text. With pica type, ten columns represent a er is text that appears at the top of each page, widely available. If you need windowing, one-inch margin. The right margin is set by prominently displaying such information as look for a program that lets you scroll the entering the number of columns per line. A the name of a chapter or the title of a report. text in either window regardless of which standard setting is sixty-five. Footers, as the name implies, provide the window the cursor is in. Having to move the Pitch refers to the number of characters same sort of information at the bottom of the cursor back and forth between windows per inch. The most commonly used pitches page. Although many word processors au- each time you want to scroll just a few lines are pica (ten characters per inch) and elite tomatically print specified headers and/or makes the windowing feature less efficient. (twelve characters per inch). Unlike type- footers on each page, some programs limit

writers, word processors allow you to vary them to a maximum of one line. Formatting and Printing the pitch without changing the print ele- Footnotes present the formatter with a A word processor's formatting and ment (assuming you're using a dot-matrix real challenge. The program must decide printing capabilities allow you to control the printer). This means that you can change the how much space to reserve at the bottom of layout of your document. The best pro- pitch in the middle of a manuscript without the page, even though it doesn't know how grams use on-screen text formatting, dis- interrupting the printout. long the footnotes will be or whether the playing the text exactly as it will appear on Line spacing can also be varied as need- wr-iter will place an additional one just be- the printed page. An alternative is the use of ed. Although manuscripts are usually either fore the end of the page. Therefore, some nonprinting embedded commands to direct single- or double-spaced, many programs al- programs do not even attempt to offer foot- the printer to underline, right-justify, dou- so allow you to specify more generous spac- note capability. Programs that do support ble-space, or perform numerous other for- ing between lines. them vary as to how automatic the function matting functions. In this case, the text ap- Tabs are commonly preset to intervals of is. The more powerful programs handle this pears on the screen unformatted, with the five columns. Most programs let you change problem beautifully, automatically number- embedded commands scattered throughout. these settings to any column, making it easy ing each footnote and moving it to the ap-

Many programs compromise between these to format outlines and indented text. In ad- propriate page when its referring text is two approaches, requiring embedded com- dition, if decimal tabs are offered, numbers moved. Be sure to check on length limita- mands only for some of the more special- can be aligned automatically by their deci- tions; some programs set miserly limits, ized features. mal points. while others allow footnotes up to a page or Not being able to see the final appear- Justification. The feature that sets text more in length. ance of your document before printing created on a word processor apart from type- Pagination. Page breaks are usually indi-

makes it difficult to set up complex formats. written text is full or right justification. Ful- cated on-screen by means of a dashed line or Some programs will "print'' to the screen ly justified text looks like it has been type- other marker. This allows you to spot the first so that you can get a preview of what set, because the right margins are perfectly inevitable first and last lines of paragraphs your document will look like on paper, but straight. A word processor accomplishes this that are destined to be printed at the top or usually you have to get back into the editor by inserting just enough extra space be- bottom of the page, isolated from the rest of to make any changes. Many users are satis- tween words to align the last word on each the paragraph (these are often called orphans

fied with this approach and even prefer it, line precisely at the right margin. and widows, respectively). By adjusting the while others demand on-screen formatting. Inserting extra spaces between words can page breaks before you print your docu-

General Layout. Text layout is controlled produce unevenly spaced text with large ment, you can eliminate these unsightly by means of a series of format settings. gaps between some words. Microspace jus- creatures. Some programs automatically These are usually preset to commonly used tification, also called incremental spacing, control orphans and widows by seeking out default values, which can easily be changed. improves the appearance of fully justified isolated lines and repositioning page breaks

Some programs allow you to change the de- text by inserting tiny spaces (about l/120th to eliminate them. A related feature allows fault values permanently; others require that of an inch) between both words and letters. you to set conditional page breaks to ensure they be reset each time you turn the com- This evens out the spaces, giving the text a that groups of lines which absolutely must

puter on. A new trend is to store each docu- more pleasing appearance. stay on the same page (such as tables) do so. ment's settings on disk as part of the docu- Proportional Spacing. Ordinarily, both Hyphenation. While some people feel

ment file so that the format is ready to go typewriters and word processors set aside that hyphenation is unnecessary and never

whenever you work on that document. the same amount of space for each letter. use it, others are convinced that it is abso- Parameters commonly subject to format Proportional spacing can be used to pro- lutely essential for creating attractive, fully setting include the following: paper length, duce a more professional, typeset look by as- justified text. If you routinely work with full line height, pitch, line spacing, and tab stops. signing different widths to different charac- justification, you will no doubt find that the

Paper length is the total number of lines ters. This means that an "i" takes up less extra spaces inserted to even out the mar- on a page, including top and bottom mar- than half the space of a "w" on the printed gins make the words look too spread out un-

gins. Usually page length is set to sixty-six page. If you produce camera-ready material less some form of hyphenation is used. lines on a standard 8V2 X 11-inch page. or if your documents must have a very pro- Word processors handle hyphenation in Line height controls the vertical spacing fessional appearance, be sure that both the various ways. A surprisingly large number of the text. It is usually stated as the number word processing program and the printer ignore the problem altogether. Others allow of lines per inch. A line height of six lines that you purchase can achieve proportional you to insert ghost hyphens (also known as per inch is standard and compatible with a spacing. discretionary hyphens) at appropriate break-

paper length of sixty-six lines per page. Automatic Page Numbering. Most pro- ing points in long words; these word proc- Margins can be set just as they are on a grams will print page numbers at the top or essors will then divide a word at the ghost either centered or at the typewriter. The top and bottom margins are bottom of the page, hyphen, if the word falls at the end of a line. If are to the number of blank lines between the edge left or right edge. your documents Another common approach is to show you

for the IBM Personal Computer August 1983 Page 65 words that are likely candidates for hy- alternate color, usually red. small segments of text, such as a standard phenation— those destined to be wrapped closing for a business letter, that can be set down to the next line because of insuffi- File Handling up for quick insertion into documents. A cient space on the current line. Usually the File Directory. Most word processing collection of often-used phrases or sen- program places the cursor at a suggested programs begin by displaying a directory of tences can be created and stored in a file; break point but allows you to overrule its the files stored on disk. This directory often each of these phrases can then be assigned a choice before it inserts the hyphen. The hy- contains several pieces of useful informa- specific key combination (such as control-A) phen inserted in this manner will not print if tion about each document, such as its name, or given a short name for identification further editing moves the word away from its length in pages or bytes, the author's or When you need one of the macros, you just the right margin. A few programs hyphen- operator's initials, and the date the docu- press the appropriate key combination or en- ate automatically, dividing words into sylla- ment was created or last edited. Information ter its name, and the text is written to the bles according to a set of built-in rules. This about the length of the file is especially use- screen almost instantly. Macros can also be approach often leads to grammatically in- ful, since it gives you an estimate of how used to make format changing quick and correct breaks, because of the large number much disk space is still available. Some pro- easy. of words that are exceptions to the rules. grams keep a tally of the amount of space Document Assembly. The most powerful

Automatic Paragraph Reform. During the used by all the files on each disk and tell you word processors allow you to put docu- editing process, paragraphs may take on a how much free space remains on each. This ments together with the help of various files disorderly appearance as you insert, delete, helps you avoid creating documents larger that you've created and stored on disk pre- and otherwise rearrange text. Normally, in than the available disk space. viously. This file-merging process (some- order to prevent your getting a printout with Ability To Save and Continue Editing. If times called boilerplating) can be automated some lines dangling past the right margin the power going to the computer is inter- to help you create personalized letters from a and others consisting of only one word, you rupted or your equipment bombs out on mailing list or assemble several standard must remember to reform each paragraph in- you, the document in memory can be lost. paragraphs to produce a final document, dividually as you finish it. Some of the new- Therefore interrupting your writing fre- such as a contract or a will. Document-as- er programs perform this task automatically quently to save your work on disk is a very sembly capability varies widely among word so that you can edit to your heart's content good idea. Programs allowing you to exe- processors; some require you to interface a without worrying about cleaning up the cute a save without leaving the editor en- second program with the basic word mess afterward. These programs follow be- courage you to save your work more often. processor. hind you, reformatting each paragraph ac- On the other hand, those programs that Printer Control. A word processing pro- cording to the margin and line-space set- make file-saving difficult and time-con- gram's file handler usually gives you sever- tings you've selected. suming will tempt you to court disaster by al options for controlling the printing proc- Special Printing Features. Provided that not saving your document often enough. ess. A document can be printed one page at a your printer cooperates, many word proc- Automatic Backup. Some programs au- time using single-sheet feed or a continuous essing programs allow you to create special tomatically save the last version of a file each feed if the paper is tractor-fed Some pro- printing effects, including some not pos- time you begin a new revision. Then, if dis- grams also allow you to print multiple copies sible on a typewriter. Underlining (under- aster strikes, your original text will not be of the same document with a single scoring) is supported by most word proc- lost. Such automatic backup, however, is not command. essing programs, as is double strike; the lat- a complete substitute for saving your work If your computer has adequate memory ter produces a darker, solid-appearing print frequently. background printing may be possible by having the printer strike each character Automatic Disk Buffering. The maxi- Normally, when a document is being twice Boldface print can also be generated mum-size document that can be edited is reprinted, the computer cannot be used until by having the printer type each character lated to one of two factors, depending on the the printing is completed Background print twice, with the second impression slightly to word processing program. Some programs ing frees a portion of the computer s mem- one side of the first. This produces a very load the entire document into RAM; with ory so that you can edit one document while dark, thick print, suitable for titles, head- these programs, file size is limited only by printing another If you produce many long ings, and key words. system memory. Other programs are capa- documents or if rapid throughput is impor

Strikeout is the superimposition of ble of automatic disk buffering; in these, tant to you, you 11 appreciate t hi*- feature dashes over characters. It's sometimes used document length is limited only by the avail- Batch printing can also be used to save to indicate deleted text in a revised version of able disk space. Automatic buffering sys- printing time Programs that support this a manuscript; it's also commonly used in le- tems write and read portions of your docu- feature allow you to specify a list of docu- gal documents. Overprinting is similar to ment to and from disk as you edit. If you ments to be printed this list is sometimes strikeout, except that any character can be jump to a remote part of the document, the called a print queue The word processor au- printed over another, making it possible to program stores the portion you're working tomatically supervises the printing process generate accent marks over letters in foreign on and loads the new section into memory making as many copies of each document as languages and to combine several characters Although this means that you can edit you need Since printing can be done with- to form a symbol not found on the print lengthy documents in their entirety, it also out intervention, you re free to work on wheel Many word processing programs al- retards program operation, since the pro- other projects so enable you to create superscripts and sub- gram must occasionally ask you to wait In Coming Months. Next month we I! get scripts, provided that your printer can han- while it goes to disk. down to business and start reviewing w-ord dle them. The newest approach is to keep only one processors available for the pc First on the

Special-character printing is done by page of text in memory at a time This means schedule are two programs from Satellite sending a code to the printer so that charac- that as soon as you finish a page, it is auto- Software International WordPerfect and its ters present on the print wheel but not on the matically stored on disk, safe and sound in baby brother. Personal WordPerfect A keyboard can be printed. In addition, on the event of unforeseen disaster and readily printers with ribbon-color selection, ribbon accessed by page number for future editing shift causes marked text to be printed in an Keyboard Macros. Keyboard macros are

soft oik Page 66

Database Management by Edward. F. Sayle Assessing Your Data Management Needs

Before buying any database management system, you should determine what your data

management needs are and what kind of system is required to satisfy them. What kinds

and quanity of data should be entered ? How many ways do you need to access it? What

types and how complex will the reports be that are drawn from it? Ed Sayle surveys the

entire spectrum of data management to help you decide how elaborate and extensive—or how simple and limited—a system you may need.

erhaps the biggest obstacle a new- • How many ways will you want to be mon requirement in business and the pro- P comer to data management must able to access the file? fessions. Hundreds of available business overcome is that of semantics. The confu- software packages address it, • What type of reports will be drawn from each offering sion only begins with such terms as file, advantages. The better mailing list pro- the file and how complex must they be? multifile, sequential, access, grams, for example, include utilities random Will you need elaborate forms or will sim- for ISAM, hierarchical, Codasyl, networking adding, changing, deleting, ple listings suffice? Will the reports require reordering, and relational. After observing countless calculation—averages, medians, and so sorting and printing from easily under- demonstrations, the newcomer might forth? stood menus (options). Other programs gain confidence that finally the several provide filing of correspondence by key If you have problems with any of these types are understood, only to have a sales- words (subjects or topics) and recovery for basics, the best advice is to go back to the person say, “It stores data in a hierarchical review or printing of those meeting the drawing board. There are far too many mode, but recovers it in a relational criteria established by a key word search. options ahead which must be grounded mode,” or something equally as disruptive A host of bibliographic or research sum- in these factors. to the naive. A published review of a new mary programs offer a range of recovery database program might warn that al- Level one and printing options. Some inventory though it is advertised as relational, the programs maintain data sequentially, by At the low end, for example, the need reviewer suspects it to be of the network- indexed sequential access method may be for a small filing system on a given ing type. Each dealer visited has a recom- (ISAM), or on a random access basis, topic, which will be used later for a single mendation, but with so many systems on again menu-driven, to document the ad- purpose. Your word processor may be the market the prospective buyer may be dition or dispersing of items and extract- more than adequate to create and main- assured that the suggestions will be in ing a list of those items that have reached tain a research file. Once located, a conflict. or dropped below the reorder level. desired item may be printed out or writ- What it boils down to is the user’s desire What? The reader may have stumbled ten to another file using those word pro- for a data will management system that over this last one; the terms “sequential," cessing commands with which you are al- collect the information s/he wants and access” and “ISAM” were in- ready familiar. Similarly, most word pro- “random retrieve it conveniently. Those in business troduced deliberately as a lead-in to cessors will produce a mailing list and might want mailing or customer lists, cor- another question: if the program does print address labels at a speed limited only respondence files, personnel records, in- want it to do, does it really mat- by the capacity of the printer used. Also what you ventory or accounting. In the professions ter how it does it? possible is rudimentary manipulation of the need might be for an appointments For the answer must be an ob- the information—searching, sorting now, calendar, client files, bibliographic refer- vious “no.” (name, zip and reference fields are the ence, research data manipulation, check- most common needs), and merging into In sum, if a single file system meets all book control or patient billing. specific fields of other documents, the your requirements and is easy for you and Software programs to perform such so-called mail-merge function (“Among your employees to master, settle on it with functions range from less than $50 to my many satisfied customers in Keokuk only one caveat: it is probably not con- $1,000 or more. Obviously, there has to who purchased the 1980 Superblatt, figurable. This means that it will do what be a difference, and that rests with the in- Mr. Smith, you have been selected to it is supposed to do, but probably cannot tended use. Put another way, to deliver receive this special trade-in offer”). be adapted to serve different requirements firewood, do you need a truck or a luxury Rereading your word processor manual which may arise in the future. sports car? Borrow from the jargon of may establish that the number of entries database systems and address the prob- Level three you will maintain, the ways you wish to lem “sequentially” before pulling out the access them, and how you desire them to But what if your data management checkbook: be printed may already be at your needs require you to work with more • Do you need a data creation and man- disposal. than one type of data located in more agement system? than one file? The single-purpose software • What data will you put into it? Level two packages you have decided on in all prob- different • How many entries do you anticipate? Single-purpose files are the most com- ability will store their data in

Desktop Computing March 1983 “ putjnq, "Assessing Your Data Hanagenent Needs, Eduard E . Sayle, Desktop Con

Page 67

Database Management ways. This is no problem when the per- • Can the system be operated easily so up of the founding root, followed by sonnel files need not interact with inven- that you and your employees will never ancestors, to parents, sons/daughters and tory or other support files. You may, hesitate to run it? descendants. In technical terms, this however, desire interaction between per- means that all data is divided into positive response to both questions sonnel files and payroll. Or you wish to A “owners” and “members” in a rigid hierar- ends your search for a data management mesh information from both inventory chy not unlike a genealogical chart. Such system. It has also saved you $500 and invoices. In each case, the single- software usually assumes that all the data or more. purpose packages in use may be incom- will be processed in a certain sequential patible. order. An inventory program might Level four More and more publishers of software designate a firm’s various departments as There is a jump, financially have addressed the multifile problem, ex- quantum “owners,” with merchandise as their and technically, at this level, the so-called ercising methods both simple and com- respective “members.” Descend the tree Database plex. For the average user, the answer Management System (DBMS). to the department and, in turn, by further Purists will insist that this level consists of may be a consolidated file, one which branching, the desired merchandise item two types: Data Management Systems holds all the information that might is located. (DMS) and DBMS; for this discussion otherwise be held in separate files, and is For most inventories this would be ade- they will be combined. In the main they at once compatible with all the operating quate. But as anyone knows who has at- are, as one writer put it, “complicated lit- programs one needs. This is the basis of tempted to locate an item in a major mail- the multifunction software packages now tle beasts.” Yet, they transform the desk- order catalogue, “hooks” may be found reaching the marketplace. Such software top computer into a powerful tool per- throughout the catalogue, depending on forming functions that only a few years integrates all the operating pieces into a type and the department that sells them. ago were limited to powerful “mainframe” master program which will do word pro- A drawback of a hierarchical design in computers. cessing, spreadsheet, graphics and data- such cases is that should one wish to This type of software should accept base management, working interactively locate all “hooks” carried by the firm, data in format establish, with the same data. Multifunction offer- the you process every “owner” and every branching path ings by Lotus, VisiCorp, MicroSoft, the data as you wish, without your having to “members” would have to be explored to know how the information is stored. MicroPro and others may be all that are to render the final tally. The same might They usually permit accessing more than needed to address the multifile dilemma. prove the case if one desired to know Other off-the-shelf multifile software one data file at a time when posting, com- which department carried the “XYZ programs work interactively. Sometimes paring, consolidating, printing or generat- brand hook.” ing a new file is required. Your inventory the interaction is invisible to the user, but 2. Networking. Complexities arise in the and suppliers files, for example, could be generally it requires conscious response. hierarchical design when one attempts to For example, a high-end accounting pack- instructed to interact and provide a list of make data modifications (add, delete, up- vendors prices for order- age will automatically post information to and competitive date and retrieve), particularly when sev ing that next batch of paper. Or you may accounts receivable, accounts payable, in- eral people are using the system. The re- wish to compare the performance of ventory, and so forth, based on the entry sult is commonly error or unreliability salespeople a specific one makes to the general ledger. The in district with the What were called Codasyl proposals in- desktop computer operator need do noth- salary levels described in personnel troduced “networking” as a solution to records. The product desired is limited ing more. At a lower technical level, but some, but not all, of these problems. (If only one’s imagination frequently favored by many who want by and the scope you are confused at this point, consider of specific personal assurance that remote postings the DBMS. that purists now refer to hierarchical sys The prospective purchaser of such a sys- have been made, is software requiring terns as “sub-systems” of networking, yet will again to with se- disk-swapping. With these, as an exam- tem have cope the many will admit that network designs arc ple, once the general ledger entry has mantic challenge. Publishers of this type hierarchical in structure.) Using what arc of program have been shown to be quick been made, the computer prompts, “Load called “pointers” to relate the items t accounts receivable disk.” Depending on and easy in calling a specific software “re- each other, the network system permit-, lational,” yet by technical standards it the software, the entry is then posted much greater flexibility in accessing and might not be so. It may be “hierarchical” without further command, or the user exploiting these relationships. The um r ; or “networking,” or more than likely a must do so manually. A popular text stor- allowed to view the network of file- and', combination of two or more of the types. age program, which recovers correspon- wend through them. New connect i< in- From the user’s point of view, the actual dence and the like by key words, stores between such items can be establish' 1 a the key words and their index on the type seldom should be of importance, de- time and circumstance dictate spite sales pitches, if it is efficient, performs main disk. At conclusion of a successful The drawback is that pointers take .. all the housekeeping chores necessary and search it prompts the operator to load the space. In establishing a complex datab.i < completes its tasks with the speed desired. disk it designates so that the full text may with branch paths to satisfy differ--:, To aid in fighting your way through the be examined and manipulated. needs and users, it is p- that the

hyperbole and jargon, a short tutorial on - -- space required for pointers could :

Time for another decision the various types may be of some • the space of the data itself. Hus n i . assistance. If it appears to you that a software pro- always undesirable to achieve greater gram of the type described at these first 1. Hierarchical. As one manufacturer cess to information. There is t .. three levels will satisfy your needs, your touts it, “This sensible ‘family tree’ type of complexity in moving the data ar, decision making is now reduced to only design starts with the main subject and and some rigidity of stt two questions: then branches out to related informa- alteration, but for most user, th' fra

• Will it do everything you will ever want tion.” The aloof B-tree has now become a is well worth it—this may be all th--. it to do? more friendly “sensible family tree," made ever need.

March 1963 DnJrtof Oaapaltaf Page 68

Database Management

3. Relational. This structure organizes which you are comfortable that will per- the data into rows and columns, making mit you to eliminate some of the menu se- At least one manual quences as you become more adept in us- it possible to query any possible relationship between the various elements. Al- examined by this writer ing the DBMS. though the user does not see it, each of was incomprehensible 5. Documentation. Considering the cost the individual files is dumped into one and so loaded with data of most DBMS packages, dealers should large database in this format, making it be willing to let a potential buyer take the possible to address only those portions management theory and documentation home to be examined at for a specific report. Ever-chang- needed scant on practice that it leisure. This is essential. At least one man- ing combinations of data may thus be would be useless to the ual examined by this writer was incom- merged to meet ever-changing require- prehensible and so loaded with data man- ments, tasking the desktop computer to beginner. Documentation agement theory and scant on practice its full potential. There are distinct advan- will be a day-to-day that it would be useless to the beginner. tages to a relational structure, yet all may crutch for you and your Some examined were only marginally bet- not be incorporated into a specific brand sure that it ter if one ignored the stud charts and package: employees. Be Documenta- will fulfill that purpose. railroad track schematics. you • A single source of data with no redun- tion will be a day-to-day crutch for it will dance of information. Thus, if customer and your employees. Be sure that fulfill that purpose. information should change, only one cor- puter and storage media to be used with recting entry is necessary. In contrast, it, the prospective purchaser must ensure 6. Accessory programs. Relief for those with other database management types in initially that existing hardware or that in- wishing to embark on DBMS may be which structures maintain different list- for purchase will adequate. tended be found in the several accessory programs ings, each list would have to be entered being marketed to ease database use with- and changed. This is no small task in a 2. Word processor interface. Does the in- ’ out learning fully the DBMS’ “language. large-scale mailing-list environment tended DBMS coexist (“handshake” is These convenient utilities assist in in- where, for example, a person is on one list the buzzword) with one’s existing word structing the DBMS to accept input, pro- alphabetically, on another list by zip code, processing software, or will yet another cess queries and format output. They are and so forth, each of which must be al- word processing procedure have to be function-oriented, thus costly if a wide tered when there is a name or address learned? Some DBMS have complicated range of utilities is required. They also change. editors with far too many new commands consume even more space in memory and • Greater consistency and accuracy. Ap- to remember and require learning a con- on disk (see “capacity” above). On bal- plications programs are relieved of the fusingly different series of multi-key- 1. ance, examine the available utility pro- task of managing the data. Searching, strokes. grams at the same time you compare sorting and accessing data may require DBMS. Be warned that there are few less programming and time. 3. Language. Since the DBMS must be such utilities for appointment calendars, instructed to perform the many tasks of • More flexibility in the manipulation of accounting, inventory and the like, for which it is capable, some programming data. The user does not have to know the majority of DBMS packages. Your language is required. This, by itself, limits where or how the data is located or how it hinge a few packages to experienced program- final selection of a DBMS may on is recovered in order to link elements available accessory programs. mers. Others, although heralded as not together in new ways to generate different requiring one to be adept at program- types of reports. 7. Security. All the data of an organiza- ming, are still far too difficult for the tion eventually get dumped into the Other factors to consider novice. Some use interactive or compiler DBMS if it is to display full efficiency and languages with which the user might be This idyllic view of data management is potential. Some of this information is familiar, easing the task somewhat. Yet, marred by reality; the piper must be paid private, privileged or proprietary, and re- the user who feels comfortable with an in- to gain the advantages. Not consistently, quires protection. If such is the case with terpreter Basic, for example, must remem- but in general terms, the features of a spe- your intended application, examine the ber that its relative slowness will be cific brand software package are depen- security-access provisions of each sys- echoed in the processing time of the dent on price. A few of the things to tem. Some have no such security mech- DBMS. Other languages are said to be look for are the following: anism and may be scratched from the English-like, use English-like syntax, or list at an early stage. Capacity. The DBMS program, with words to that effect. Whatever the ease little doubt, will be the largest program in or complexity, the language must be 8. Error recovery. Does the proposed one’s desktop computer system. Data learned to exercise the DBMS. To this, DBMS have data safeguards? Since in- storage requirements often become im- the prospective purchaser must insist, structions must be in “exquisite detail,” mense, despite elimination of duplication “Show me.” what provision does it have to prevent of data. Accessory programs which ease you from sending data to a bottomless pit querying and reporting consume even 4. Menus. The first-time user will need from which it may never be recovered? greater resources. It is often advertised all possible assistance in navigating What capabilities does the program have that a “relational” DBMS reduces the through a DBMS. Here, menus play a in the event that you make what is often

amount of storage when compared to the vital role. Some software packages forego called a “fatal error?” Will it “crash” and other types. Our advice: look again. Since all but the most basic type of menu; lose all or a significant portion of your

introduction of a DBMS often tends to others overwhelm the user with endless database, or does it recover neatly with- require an upgrading of both the com- pages of menu selections. Find one with out such impact? One clue seen often in DMkt«p Computinf March 1983 Page 69

Database Management the manuals is a warning, “At this point 11. Training. Excellent training pro- puter operator or systems manager. Your make a back-up disk of your main data grams are available for many of the ad- office accountant, for example, is being ” file . . . Your data is an asset just as is vanced database systems. Consider their asked to continue to perform the function the equipment you use or the merchan- cost in your projections. for which s/he has years of training and dise you sell; it deserves equal protection experience. Now, added to the job will be from loss. 12. Time. How much time are you will- the functions of computer operator, sys- ing to devote to training yourself or your tems analyst and auditor. The DBMS 9. Forms. Without employing the more employees to manipulate the database and the accessory programs you select to this ambitious forms-generator utilities, most program? If you have employee turnover, make transition, in final analysis, DBMS expect the user to conform to are you willing to allocate time and must hold the human factor paramount. their creators’ program design. With a money for training new workers, either So far unsaid, but apparent in our few, you might as well change your line of on the job or through outside facilities? review of the advanced systems at level work; your records, forms and cross-refer- four, and some at the other levels as well, encing must be changed that dramatical- 13. Abilin to update. Among the is dealer support. Product selection should ly. Some dealers warn of the chaos that finalists in your selection process, try each not be by whim. It requires a dealer to may result in attempting to adapt data- for various updating applications. Add an work closely with you to choose the best base forms to those used currently in item, delete one and change another. The system for your particular operation, to manual systems. It may be that your ex- relative ease of some will surprise you; oth- write a library of those commands you isting forms are not of this era and ers will be condemned to a deserved fate. will use most often, and to install the pro- some compromise is not untenable gram for you. The services of a dealer with progress. 14. Human factcrrs. So far, this checklist qualified in applications of the software has shown that to achieve the efficiency and capable of giving the initial training, 10. In Speed. general, the more complex and productivity of a DBMS it may be first-echelon maintenance and continu- the slower it will database program, the necessary to work at making the dream ing advice will pay dividends on your sub- run. Placing too much of a burden on come true. The small businessperson or stantial investment. some systems mires them down. Ask for professional probably has considered use an identical, predetermined function to of a DBMS to facilitate in a more conve- be performed on each package examined nient and timely fashion work being done The author is a regular contributor to Desktop Com- if speed of processing is one of your impor- by office personnel or outside contractors. puting. Address any correspondence to him do Desktop tant considerations. There is no intent to hire a full-time com-

March 1903 DeafcUf 0ia>i rtM .

Page 70

SOFTWARE New spread-sheet packages do more than model

ALAN HIRSCH, Datapro Research Corp.

Highly evolved first-generation programs are giving way to integrated second-generation packages

Electronic spread-sheet packages are the most user work with a large number of interrelated values. popular business application programs for microcom- When a user changes a given value on the spread sheet, puters. More than l million spread-sheet packages have the program automatically recalculates any affected been sold since VisiCalc was introduced in 1979, one for values in seconds. The program not only makes every five microcomputers sold to date. More than 50 managers’ projections less time-consuming and more

VisiCalc clones are on the market, but a new wave of accurate, it also encourages them to ask more “what-if” “second-generation” spread sheets threatens to make questions and to make more complex assumptions. them obsolete. These second-generation programs Although originally intended for accountants, are billed as powerful, flexible, friendly, all-in-one spread-sheet programs are now being used by nearly microcomputer software solutions, but they are best everyone with a microcomputer who needs to juggle understood as the direct descendants of last year’s figures. Spread-sheet programs are used to produce diverse spread-sheet software offerings. budgets, action and profit plans and sales forecasts. They also help produce income statements, cash-flow Spreadsheet basics projections, currency conversions, expense reports and Why have business people embraced spread sheets so job-cost analyses. heartily? The reason is that ledger-sheet analysis is a Advanced first-generation spread-sheet packages are singularly tedious, repetitive and error-prone task. concise but powerful tools. They are available for 8- and Imagine this scenario: a manager of a large company 16-bit microcomputers running CP/M, MS/DOS, Apple, must submit a report that projects income for the next UNIX and other operating systems. First-generation five years. The manager must assume values for sales packages support analysis “grids” of hundreds of revenues, overhead costs, interest rates, repeat busi- lettered columns by hundreds of numbered rows. The ness and cost of materials. The manager makes a ledger packages allow horizontal and vertical scrolling across sheet containing all the information and submits it to the grid and split-screen displays for simultaneous the company’s controller, who asks that the repeat display of distant portions of the grid. business be assumed at 80 percent instead of 76 First-generation programs support column, row and percent. The manager must then recalculate all the cell (single-value) editing. With more advanced editing, ledger values that have been affected by this one columns, rows and cells can be right-, left- and change in the repeat-business category. Manually center-justified and can contain dollar, decimal, numer- recalculating the effects of this single change is so ic and alphanumeric data. Columns, rows and cells can arduous and time-consuming that very few managers also be displayed with underlined, flashing, reverse make more than two assumptions per category. video and color characters. Users can sort entire grids A spread-sheet program transforms a microcomput- by column or row values and can find and replace er screen into a huge ledger sheet. By simulating the specified data values. Spread sheets allow user-insti- rows and columns of a ledger sheet, the program lets a gated and automatic recalculation in user-specified or

~Nev ’ Spread-Sheet Packages Do Here Than ftodel. Plan Hirsch. ftini -fficro Svstens. MINI-MICRO SYSTEMS/June 1983 >Ajne 1983, pages 205. 206l 208. 21J. 212. Reprinted by pemission

Access Technology. These companies each SOFTWARE Systems and provide a pull-out or separate reference guide in addition to a user’s manual. Access Technology and Chang Laboratories supplement their manuals with separate, well-written booklets on the use of their machine-optimized order. “If-then-else” and other products. Boolean commands can be used to manipulate values, Second-generation spread sheets and preprogrammed average, depreciation, logarithmic, percentage and trigonometric commands are often The first wave of second-generation spread sheets is available. Many spread-sheet programs have been here, at least according to the vendors and their optimized for specific applications, and an active advertising campaigns. The number of advertising after-market of third-party spread-sheet models (tem- pages devoted to new spread-sheet software is stagger- plates) designed to run on popular programs has ing. Underneath the gimmicks, though, second- emerged. generation spread sheets share some basic characteristics. They require more main memory to run (typically Support and documentation 128K bytes or more), but they can address almost

Manufacturer support is of prime importance to unlimited amounts of memory. Many packages use spread-sheet resellers and end users alike. Manufactur- virtual memory to accommodate one or more large er support may include providing future program models, and can compare and combine several models. enhancements or simply being available to answer Software Products International’s ProCalc permits occasional dealer or user queries. The buyer should simultaneous viewing of four models. understand the manufacturer’s support program before The new packages also offer easier interaction with buying or licensing a spread sheet. other applications. Spread-sheet data can be trans- Vendor support can include: ferred back and forth between word-processing, data- • training aids in the form of audio and video base-management and graphics programs, and spread- cassette tapes and on-line, interactive tutorials sup- sheet vendors are beginning to build similar programs plied as part of a main program or on a separate into their spread-sheet packages. Graphics are an diskette; especially popular extra feature. Context Manage- • newsletters for dealers and users that offer ment’s MBA program was one of the first to offer suggestions on new program applications; graphic representations of spread-sheet-produced • telephone hot lines (preferably toll free) to answer grids, and HP, Lotus Development, Desktop Computer dealer and user questions; Software and others now offer integrated spread-sheet • free product upgrades distributed through dealers graphics. or directly to end users; Two programs are emerging as leaders among • dealer sales aids, including product displays and second-generation spread sheets. Microsoft’s Multiplan video cassette- or diskette-based demonstration pack- has quicklv become the most popular. Some of its ages. advanced features include sorting, global search and Given the complexity and flexibility of spread-sheet replace, menu prompts and an English-like language in programs, good documentation is vital to user satisfac- lieu of formulas to facilitate user interaction with the tion and reseller success. Documentation should be program. Multiplan also permits as many as six organized and indexed for the convenience of both noncontiguous parts of a model to be viewed simultane- novice and experienced users. It should include illustra- ously via window splitting. And, like most second- tions of “real-life” screen situations and many applica- generation spread sheets, it is fully compatible with tion examples. Sample models should be provided VisiCalc-produced files. Microsoft has marketed this either on diskette or in the manual. There should be a program very aggressively through an okm sales glossary to help the user understand the vendor’s department, and more than 50 word-processing, porta- colloquialisms, and a pocket reference or command ble-computer and microcomputer manufacturers have summary for users who have already read the main licensed the program to offer with their products. In manual. addition, Multiplan runs on virtually any microcomput- Physical appearance may provide a clue to the er, with versions available for Apple,

I Page 72 menus, a generous 255-column x 2048-row grid; and VisiCorp, once the runaway leader, now finds itself fast recalculation, on-screen sorting and graphic repre- scrambling behind well-mobilized and powerful compet- 0" sentation. 1-2-3 is priced at $495, or twice the cost of itors. It is readying its Visi “operating environment” 0 Multiplan or VisiCalc. Computer manufacturers offer- for delivery in December. Visi " simultaneously sup- ing an MS/DOS-compatible product can turn to Lotus for ports multiple applications and allows them to be freely licensing, but may be restricted unless their system interchanged. Besides its spread-sheet capabilites, 0 supports graphics. Visi " supports word processing, database management 0 Although some of 1-2-3’s graphics are quite crude and and graphics. The user interface to Visi " is a mouse do not fully exploit the IBM PC’s graphic capabilities, that connects to the game-control adapter port on an the fact that a spread-sheet array can be specified and IBM pc. Undoubtedly, VisiCorp will find itself not only quickly converted to color or monochrome bar charts competing with systems such as Apple’s Lisa, but also signals an end to the days of reading eyestraining with software companies such as Quarterdeck Soft- spread-sheet reports. Graphics capability is defining a ware, Microsoft, Digital Research and other firms that new category of spread-sheet programs—decision- will certainly introduce similar operating “environ- support spreadsheets. Standard spread sheets made it ments.” easier to generate ledger-style financial analyses, DSS The essence of a electronic spread sheet lies in its spread-sheet programs will make it easier to under- ability to assess the bottom-line effects of changes in stand them. components. But a few target- or goal-seeking spread

SPREAD-SHEET SOFTWARE GLOSSARY

Electronic spread sheets have modification of cell contents without some programs that permits the user brought a set of terms unique to the rekeying the entire entry. to lock in The contents of a cell, computer industry. Even the most e Entry: the value or information column or row permanently so that the experienced computer user may be contained with a specific cell. contents cannot be altered. hard pressed to decipher some of the e Exponentiation: a function that e Protected cell: an entry that has terms and expressions that accompa- enables the user to calculate the been locked in and cannot be ny these programs, and they’re more power of a number. For example, the changed. The unprotect statement than enough to baffle a novice. To result of 8 e can be calculated in a frees this cell. make matters even more difficult, single step without multiplying sxs • Range: the identifying coordi- many vendors use different terminolo- x e etc. nates of a block of cells. gy to describe the same things. e Function: a process through e Replicate: a command that • Active block: the cell on the which values with dependence on allows a row, column or block to be matrix that is highlighted by the other values are calculated. duplicated and placed in another cursor. Information can be entered, • Goto: a command that permits designated position of the model. altered or deleted by a user when the the user to locate any cell immediately • Rows: vertical divisions of the cell is active. by specifying the coordinates. worksheet that are usually, but not • Active cell: same as active • Global symbols: symbols that always, identified with numbers. block. are designated to be displayed in Together with columns, rows serve to e Average: a function that com- every appropriate cell. Examples of form the spread-sheet matrix. e putes the average of the values in a global symbols include asterisks () for Split screens: two or more range or block of cells. crude graphics displays, and dollar noncontiguous portions of one or • Blank: a command that will signs ($) to denote finances. more worksheets displayed on the erase the contents of a cell or a range • Grid: the display of a model screen and viewable at the same of cells. composed of columns and rows. time. • Cell: a coordinate position on the • Gridsheet: same as grid, spread e Spread sheet: the grid of display. The number of columns sheet, or worksheet. columns and rows on the screen. multiplied by the number of rows • Label: the name or title of a e Sum: a function that adds the usually equals the total number of column or row assigned by the user. values in all the cells of an entry cells. • Lookup: a function that com- range. • Columns: horizontal divisions of pares a value with a block range and e Template: same as model. the worksheet that are usually, but not delivers corresponding values from e Title: same as label. always, Identified with letters. Togeth- adjacent cells. • What If?: the premise on which er with rows, columns serve to form • Matrix: same as a grid. most spread-sheet programs operate. the spread-sheet mairix. • Model: a grid that represents New values can be substituted to • Coordinate: the intersection of calculated and stored data created by determine the resultant effect on the two numbers and/or letters that the user to assess the interrelation- other values. uniquely identify the column and row ship of variables. • Window: the view of the or a cell. • Order: a command found In most worksheet on the screen. This term is • Clear: a command in many programs that permits the user to frequently used when the screen is electronic spread-sheet programs that determine the order of calculation. For split into two or more windows. irretrievably erases all information on example, it may be necessary to • Worksheet: same as spread- the worksheet. caculate row-by-row across Instead of sheet. • DIF: a format in VisiCalc that column-by-column down or vice- • VisiCalc: the first and most allows other unrelated programs to versa. popular electronic spreadsheet pro-

share stored VisiCalc files. • Plansheet: same as worksheet, gram. It stands for visible calculation. • Edit mode: available in many spreadsheet. e Zap: Same as clear. programs, the edit mode permits easy • Protect: a command found in 1 11 Page 73 sheets allow users to define a result and work backward intend to break new ground. Next year, many will offer to see how it could be achieved. The target is entered enhanced packages that will integrate word processing, into the spread sheet, and the program holds it database management and graphics so skillfully that it constant by changing or asking the user to change other will render the current crop obsolete. First-generation variables. and early second-generation spread-sheet programs Software Arts introduced the first dedicated “how- are still not the complete personal-computer software could” program optimized for target seeking in March. environments their vendors promote, but they are Although not a spread sheet, it employs several among the most powerful microcomputer tools spread-sheet principles. Software Arts offers the available. program, tk! Solver, with a catalog of optional application-specific templates. Software Arts will sell Alan Hirsch is an associate managing editor at Datapro the program directly to the public and through OEMs. Research Corp., Delran, N. J., specializing in the analysis of It is apparent that vendors of this new generation of microcomputer hardware and software. integrated, extended-capability spread-sheet programs

Electronic Spreadsheet Vendors

Access Technology, Inc. Dynabyte, Inc. Microsoft Corp. Sorcim Corp. 6 Pleasant St. 521 Cottonwood Dr. 10700 Northup Way 2310 Lundy Ave. South Natick. Mass. 01760 Milpitos, Calif. 95035 Bellevue. Wash. 98004 San Jose, Calif. 95131 (617) 655-9191 (408) 263-1221 (206) 828-8080 (408) 942-1727 Circle 824 Circle 835 Circle 846 Circle 857

American Business Systems, Inc. Ferox Microsystems NEC Information Systems, Inc. Structured Systems Group 445 Union Blvd. 1701 North Ft. Myer Dr., 6th Fir. 5 Militia Dr. 5204 Claremont Lakewood, Col. 80228 Arlington, Va. 22209 Lexington. Mass. 02173 Oakland. Calif. 94618 (303) 989-3730 (703) 841-0800 (617) 862-3120 (415) 547-1567 Circle 825 Circle 836 Circle 847 Circle 858

Antech, Inc. Grid Systems Corp. Osbome/McGraw-Hill SuperSoft, Inc. 788 Myrtle St. 2535 Garcia Ave. 630 Bancroft Way Box 1628 Roswell. Ga. 30075 Mountain View, Calif. 94043 Berkeley, Calif. 94710 Champaign, III. 61820 (404) 993-7270 (415) 961-4800 (415) 548-2805 (217) 359-2112 Circle 826 Circle 837 Circle 848 Circle 859

Business Planning Systems H & A Computer Systems, Inc. Peachtree Software, Inc. Systems Plus, Inc. Two North State St. 30 Hotaling PI., Suite 204 3445 Peachtree Rd., N.E.. 8th Floor 1120 San Antonio Rd Dover. Del. 19901 San Francisco, Calif. 94111 Atlanta. Ga. 30326 Palo Alto. Calif. 94303 (302) 674-5500 (415)434-3517 (404) 239-3000 (415) 969-7047 Circle 827 Circle 838 Circle 849 Circle 860

Businessoft International Corp. Hewlett-Packard Co. Professional Software Technology, Inc. United Information Services, Inc. 24 Jean La. 19447 Pruneridge Ave. 55 Wheeler Ct. 6626 Convoy Ct

Monsey. N Y. 10952 Cupertino, Calif. 95014 Cambridge, Mass. 02139 San Diego. Calif 921 1 (914) 352-0021 (408) 725-81 1 (617)497-2077 (619) 560-7070 Cirde 828 Circle 839 Circle 850 Circle 861

Chang Laboratories, Inc. Hourglass Systems Radio Shack United Software Co. 10228 N Sterling Rd. P.O. Box 312 One Tandy Center 2431 E Douglas Cupertino. Calif. 95014 Glen Ellyn, 111.60137 Fort Worth, Texas 76102 Wichita. Kansas 6721 (408) 725-8088 (312) 690-1855 (817) 390-3549 (316) 684-5281 Circle 829 Circle 840 Circle 851 Circle 862

Comshare Information Unlimited Software Ross Systems, Inc. Vector Graphic. Inc. 1935 Cliff Valley Way, Suite 200 240 Marinship Way 1860 Embarcadero 500 N. Ventu Park Rd Atlanta. Ga. 30329 Sausalito, Calif. 94965 Palo Alto. Calif. 94303 Thousand Oaks. Calif 91320 (404) 634-9535 (415) 331-6700 (415) 856-1100 (805) 499-5831 Circle 830 Circle 841 Circle 852 (800) 235-3547

(800) 322-3577 (Calif > Context Management Systems Intelligent Systems Corp. Simple Soft, Inc. Circle 863 23864 Hawthorne Blvd., Suite 101 225 Technology Park 480 Eagle Dr. Suite 101 Torrance. Calif. 90505 Norcross. Ga. 30092 Elk Grove. III. 60007 VisiCorp (213)378-8277 (404) 449-5961 (312) 364-0752 2895 Zanker Rd Circle 831 Circle 842 Circle 853 San Jose. Calif 95111 (408) 946-9000 Creative Software Concepts, Inc. Lifeboat Associates Software Arts, Inc. Circle 864 P.O. Box 349 1651 Third Ave. 27 Mica La. Binghamton, N.Y. 13902 New York, N.Y. 10028 Wellesley, Mass. 02139 (607) 722-3235 (212) 860-0300 (617)237-4000 Circle 832 Circle 843 Circle 854

Cromemco, Inc. Lotus Development Corp. Software Products International 280 Bernardo Ave. 55 Wheeler St. 10343 Roselle St., Suite A Mountain View, Calif. 94043 Cambridge, Mass. 02138 San Diego, Calif. 92121 (415) 964-7400 (617)492-7171 (619) 450-1526 Circle 833 Circle 844 Circle 855

Desktop Computer Software, Inc. MicroPro International Corp. The Software Toolworks 303 Potrero St. 33 San Pablo Ave. 14478 Glorietta Dr. Santa Cruz, Calif. 95060 San Rafael, Calif. 94903 Sherman Oaks. Calif 91423 (408) 458-9095 (415) 499-1200 (213) 986-4885 Circle 834 Circle 845 Circle 858

MINI-MICRO SYSTEMS June IB*) Page 74 MICRO MISSION THE NEW WAVE OF COMPUTER GRAPHICS By Alexis Driscoll and Robin Howard

omputer graphics in business applications is fast be- C coming an essential tool for time-pressured managers. Sales of graphics software are projected to grow at a rate of 40% per year through the '80s, making graphics one of the fastest growing markets in software. What can DP managers do to meet the growing need for graphics without increasing the drain on their personnel and systems? One solution is distributed graphics for microcomputers. Graphics is a valuable tool for managers for several reasons. Studies have shown that visual presentation of information markedly increases both the speed and volume of comprehension. Meetings are on the average 28% shorter, which is a boon to managers who are estimated to spend up to 60% of their time in meetings. Ease of comprehension aids the manager in reviewing and analyzing data. In addition, graphics presentations are attractive to business users because they have been shown to be more persuasive. As a result, the demand for business graphics (Continued on Page 78)

is increasing and will continue to do and software dedicated to graphics, the programs must serve. Until re- so. The type of situation that requires offer some excellent graphics capa- cently, presentation was the primary business graphics places a special When all graphics ca- bilities. However, when they are function of business graphics, and it burden on the department, creating a contrasted with personal computers is still the most basic and first-used pability is located in problem for the information manag- that have off-the-shelf software, application. er providing graphics. Executives op- the DP department, there are several trade-offs to consid- The more important the presenta- erate in a data environment funda- the increased demand er. tion is, the more aesthetic options are mentally different from production The first trade-off is cost. Turnkey required of a program. How much applications. Decision support and for nonstandard out- systems cost in the range of $35,000 control over the visual image is re- the presentation of analysis often re- put places a new strain for up to approximately six units. quired? User needs may be defined quire data over a longer time frame. Add-ons cost approximately $12,000 within the following parameters: on the facility. so- stand- They involve more summarization One to $15,000 each. By contrast, a • Graph types. How many are and less detail. When the analysis in- lution is to cut loose alone micro unit including hardware there and how sophisticated? Can volves current or projected data, that and software costs less than $5,000. those nonstandard, you overlay one graph on another, data is often dynamic, sometimes In many cases, the hardware is al- such as a line above bars? Can you variable or uncertain and often diffi- nonroutine tasks by ready in place, reducing the expense place two graphs side by side on one cult to define. implementing micro- to a range of $200 to $600. axis, such as a line beside bars? Can In addition, the situation giving The second trade-off is the cost- you create horizontal bars? Can you rise to the demand is different. Ad computer graphics benefit ratio. In the realm of micros, have more than one graph on a sin- hoc needs and last-minute changes software. cost is not the distinguishing feature. gle page? are frequent, making rapid turn- Even if both the cost of the micro and • Range of axes. How many vari- around essential. Presentation software are considered, when com- ables can be displayed, including graphics are often customized, re- pared with a turnkey system, it is legible labels? Some programs can quiring close interaction between possible to purchase approximately accept many data points but cannot the manager and the program. er's perspective, the ability to inter- 80% to 90% of the capability for 10% legibly display 24-month labels. Can When all graphics capability is lo- act with the program eliminates the to 15% of the cost — or less. you control the frequency or appear- cated in the DP department, the in- problems of an intermediary be- The last trade-off involves the tac- ance of labels? creased demand for nonstandard tween the manager and the system. tical issues raised by a turnkey sys- • Control of axes. Does the pro- output places a new strain on the fa- Managers can get the graphs they tem's cost. A high price provides an gram calibrate the range? Can you set cility. One solution is to cut loose want. This interaction is essential argument for centralization of the the range? those nonstandard, nonroutine tasks both to analysis of data and to cus- expensive resource in order to maxi- • Color selection. How many colors by implementing microcomputer tomizing graphs. Secondly, since mize utilization. This centralization are available for screen presentations graphics software. they or their staff create the graphs is directly contrary to the intent of and slides? How many can be dis- Business graphics on microcom- themselves, they control the turn- distributing graphics capability to played on the screen at one time? puters resolves the problem from around time. They get the graphs the user. Much of the ease of access, Can the users specify background as both sides. Use of micros relieves DP when they want them. if not ease of use, is sacrificed. well as foreground color? Does a col- services of tasks that are unnecessary Turnkey systems, which provide Before evaluating programs, it is or program display on a mono- or inappropriate. From the manag- hardware (usually minicomputers) essential to determine the needs that chrome monitor?

Computerworld / Extra! Copyright .198.1 ny CP Co/vrunicatJons/Inc . , Franinghan, no lit701 Reprinted Cron COM’UmwaRLD OFFICE PUTOIPTION or CCTtPUTtRUORLD EXTRA". Page 75

• Text on graphs. How many titles others. Programs vary in the time it software that interfaces with a broad COMPUTER GRAPHICS are there? What types: axis or leg- takes to process an entry. More im- range of peripherals. ends? Are they vertical as well as portantly, programs vary in the time Software must be able to utilize horizontal? Can titles be placed any- it takes to load, change graph styles, the logical intelligence of peripher- where on the graph such as numbers change data and transfer data. When als. Without this ability, the perfor- on top of bars? How many fonts are multiple charts are produced, time mance of peripherals such as plotters possible? Can you create word becomes an important factor. and printers will be constrained with charts? How many fonts can appear Once users' needs are determined, regard to such items as scaling, fill on one screen? the programs to meet those needs types, font styles and color. of use can- • Selection of fill, line, mark and grid can be evaluated. There are several The importance of ease type How many options are there? criteria to apply. not be overstated. Managers need a Can you specify them or are they in a A program chosen for one applica- program that is easy to learn and fixed cycle? tion, such as analysis or presentation, easy to use. The first prerequisite is As managers have become more should contain a breadth of options either menus or English-like com- room shortly thereafter When first accustomed to visual data through associated with that application. If mands. Menus have the advantage of surveyed, many potential users can- the use of presentation graphics, de- the program contains several appli- being easy to learn at first, but a com- not conceptualize their graphics mand for analytic graphics has in- cations, such as analysis and presen- mon complaint is that more experi- needs. However, once graphics is ac- creased and will continue to in- tation, opt for sophistication. Some enced users find them awkward and cessible to them and they become fa- crease. Many simple forms of anal- multiple applications programs, par- slow. If a high turnover of users is miliar with its capabilities, either di- ysis may be performed within cer- ticularly within integrated pro- expected, then menus may be the rectly or through others, applications tain micro graphics programs. grams, are excellent introductions to best choice. However, users who ex- multiply. Users also become more so-

It is essential to determine the so- graphics, but are outgrown very pect to use the program frequently phisticated in their skills. In addi- phistication of the analysis to be per- quickly even by inexperienced users. will likely opt for a command inter- tion, some of the demand for graph- formed. Trend analysis should be Expect user sophistication to grow face with English-like commands. ics comes from the recipients of considered. Is spotting trends visual- rapidly at first. Similarly, expect a If the program is meant to custom- graphs, not the creators. Executives ly the extent of analysis or is curve proliferation of data requests and opt ize graphics or experiment with data, soon discover the value of graphics

fitting required? How much statisti- for a program that most easily se- it should be easy to use. Standard for- presentations and demand more of cal analysis is required? Is drawing a mats are only easy for producing them. For all these reasons, it is wise trend line sufficient or should the standardized graphs. It should be to allow options for expansion when program generate points along the easy and quick to change your mind making initial purchases. curve as well? if the program con- about the type of graph, graph ele- Although expansion may be an Data transfer and manipulation tains several applica- ments and data input. It should be upgrading to more sophisticated pro- should be considered. How exten- to preview the graph while it is grams or hardware, it may also be tions, such as analysis easy sive is the data? How much manipu- being created. just a proliferation. The two should lation does it require? Some pro- and presentation, opt When choosing between two com- not be mistaken. Not every applica- grams transfer data, with varying for sophistication. Ex- parable programs, choose the one tion requires an 8-color plotter or a degrees of ease, between spreadsheet with better documentation. Docu- statistical package. Planned expan- programs and graphics programs. pect user sophistica- mentation that is thorough and easy sion will consider upgrading equip- Some programs allow simple data tion to grow rapidly at to understand is the key to users ment, but also the provision of a vari- manipulation within the program it- learning the program and develop- ety of options regarding speed, self. first. Similarly, expect ing their skills. It should include a quality and capacity. Do managers receive information a proliferation of data tutorial with exercises for the novice The micro invasion of the office is routinely? If so, there are programs and a variety of reference materials a fact. But microcomputing is person- that allow the creation of standard- requests and opt for a for the experienced user On-screen al computing. The name is an index ized graphs similar to those pro- program that most eas- tutorials are an excellent tool for of its use. It is not a replacement for duced on a mainframe. Parameters of overcoming reluctance to interact the tasks normally performed by DP ily data from the graphs can be established once, acquires with the program. Look for a com- departments* but rather a supple- and subsequent users need only edit a multitude of sources. prehensive reference section within ment. It has the added advantage of data. the manual and foldout or pocket relieving DP of current tasks that , Once an application profile has charts for quick reference. In addi- drain its resources, tasks that are bet- been developed, there are two other tion, look for comprehensive Help ter performed elsewhere variables to consider: desired output quires data from a multitude of screens within the program. Graphics is an excellent example and time. Output varies considerably sources. Telephone customer support, in of such a task. With the advent of mi- in quality, time and cost. For particu- Currently, there are no truly por- which the manufacturer answers crocomputers, many nonstandard, ad lar informal presentations, mono- table graphics products available for user questions about the program, hoc graphics tasks can now be locat- chrome charts produced on a printer microcomputers. However, some can deflect much of the onus of trained where they belong — with the are quicker and less expensive than products can become standards in a ing and troubleshooting from infor- user. color charts produced on a plotter. micro environment if the same pro- mation managers. Support varies Graphics is just being introduced These options, as well as the ability gram is available on several of the among vendors. Some have formal into the business environment in to create slides and transparencies, major brands of micros. In an envi- customer support programs, while quantity. Now is an ideal time for are not only a function of the hard- ronment in which several brands are others deal with questions on an ad professionals concerned with infor- ware, but also of the software's abili- already in place, user training is sim- hoc basis. Some have toll-free num- mation management to intervene to ty to interface with it. Some pro- plified. In addition, user retraining is bers; others do not. Since questions assure that this new wave of infor- grams also allow the presentation of not required as users change or add will continue to arise as user skills mation processing is properly man- sequenced displays on the monitor different brands. develop and equipment is added, aged.

in place of slide shows. The addition of peripherals will quality customer support is an essen- Driscoll is a marketing consultant and

Where software is concerned, less constitute the richest and most pro- tial time-saver. a Masters candidate at MITs Sloan

time is not necessarily a function of lific growth where graphics is con- When micro graphics is intro- School. Howard is a product manager more money. Some programs that are cerned. The ability to grow in a logi- duced to a firm, the use of graphics for Business 6r Professional Software. comparably priced are slower than cal and controlled pattern requires and its variety of uses tend to mush- Inc., Cambridge, Mass

Computerworld/ Extra! Page 76 # Review

The Communicators

Larry Jordan

Telecommunications can broaden your horizons and Since those early days of PC communications, many make your computer more useful. This look at the most powerful smart-terminal communications programs have important features of communications programs will been released for the PC. Some were initially designed help you select the one that's right for you. for CP/M-based computers and have been converted to operate under PC-DOS; other new packages have been written specifically for the IBM PC. My latest count showed over 20 commercially available packages and 5 When my IBM PC was delivered in February 1982, public domain packages. Due to the large number cur- I selected a communications software package easily. rently available, it is more difficult than ever to choose a The only two available were COMM. BAS, which came package. To make the task easier for a PC owner just get- on the PC-DOS disk, and the IBM Asynchronous Com- ting into communications, I have described the charac-

munications Support package. I did not know much teristics and capabilities of communications packages. I about personal computer communications at the time, have also briefly reviewed 12 communications packages but the thought of being able to operate the office main- and developed a summary matrix that shows how well frame from my house intrigued me. Without knowing communications capabilities have been implemented in

what I was getting into, I immediately purchased the these packages. IBM Asynchronous Communications package, a Hayes Smartmodem, and an asynchronous communications

adapter. After putting all the pieces together and making several awkward attempts to communicate with the of- Essential Characteristics and

fice Prime computer, I really started rolling. I could use Capabilities my modem to converse with the Prime, and the modem with other software package, no single commu- would dutifully follow my every whim. I could also As any churn out hundreds of lines of FORTRAN without going nications program is likely to satisfy all wants and needs.

is find that pro- anywhere except to the refrigerator for a soda. I felt I had The best one can hope for to a package additional all I would ever need for communications until I dis- vides most of the essential features and some covered electronic bulletin boards. nonessential but desirable features.

The first time I called a local bulletin board I Although business and personal applications of learned that my communications software was not quite communications software are often different, some

as capable as I had thought. There were software patches common communications capabilities are required by (a fancy word for software enhancements or error cor- both. Business and personal applications must usually

rections) and games available on the board, but I had no have the ability to send and receive disk files and to com- way of capturing the program listings as they scrolled by municate in terminal or conversation mode. Business on my monitor. software, however, will often have to support the volume

By talking with friends I learned that I needed soft- of large files that are transferred in many business com- ware that would transform my IBM PC into a smart ter- munications applications. The following paragraphs dis-

minal with the ability to send and receive disk files. The cuss the common capabilities needed in these two types IBM Asynchronous Communications package was sup- of software. The unique features of each are discussed later in this article. posed to provide that capability, but it had many limitations. After several futile attempts at modifying the IBM package, I gave up and started adding enhancements to the COMM. BAS program. It was at about this time that Communications Parameter Selection

I received my first copy of an absolutely wonderful com- To properly communicate with another mainframe or

munications package called PC-Talk. Not only did this microcomputer (called the host system ), you must be able package give me the smart terminal capabilities I needed, to select the appropriate communications parameters re- but also excellent documentation and easy-to-follow quired by the host system. These parameters include source code. baud rate, number of data bits, type of parity error- “The Co/municater s. “Larry Jordan, PC dorId. June 1983. pages 74. 76. 78. Volumc 1, Number 5 79-87. 84. Reprinted by permssi on. Copyright (c) by PC Porld. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. Page 77 # Review checking, and number of stop bits. The communications Feature software may provide default values for these param- Data capture direct to disk file eters, but it must also provide the option of modifying the default values both before and after a connection is Data capture to memory buffer made with a host system. On-line display of capture buffer

On-line editing of capture buffer

Filtering of received control characters Duplex Mode Selection A communications package should provide a way to Optional add/delete of linefeeds switch between half-duplex and full-duplex modes, be- Upload wait for host prompts cause business and personal communications applica- Upload text throttle (delay between lines) tions often require connection to both half-duplex and Menu of prestored uploadable strings full-duplex host systems. Most information services and bulletin board systems operate in the full-duplex mode, Transmission of prestored strings but other microcomputer and mainframe systems may Transmission of a true break signal operate in half-duplex mode. Tab to space conversion

XMODEM protocol file transfer

Command and Conversation Modes Protocol error-checking file transfer in Communications software should be operable a com- XON/XOFF support during file send/receive mand or a conversation mode. The command mode is Non-ASCII (binary) file transfer required for off-line communications between the PC Operation with non-auto-dial modem keyboard and the communications software to perform functions that do not involve the remote host system. For Auto-dialing telephone directory example, operations such as changing a telephone num- Auto-dialing modem support

Auto-redial of last telephone call

Auto-redial of last call until connect

I felt I had all I would ever need for Modem/telephone hangup

Return to operating system without hangup communications until I discovered Elasped time of call display electronic bulletin boards. On-line switch between originate/answer

On-line selection of duplex with toggle

On-line selection of comm parameters ber in a dialing directory or viewing selected commu- On-line listing of selected parameters nications parameters have to be conducted without On-line printer on/off toggle interaction with the remote host system. When off-line command mode functions have been completed, how- On-line viewing of disk directories ever, the software must able to return be to the on-line On-line viewing of disk files conversation mode to continue interactive communica- | Deletion and renaming of disk files tions with a host system. 1200 baud receive/download operation

Save/reload of customized parameters Error Handling Batch operation from operating system

A software package’s ability to handle data errors is vi- Command file power/flexibility tally important. A good package should either warn you Remote takeover and operation before an error occurs, so that preventive action can be taken, or provide a clear error message when an error Efficient use of available memory does occur. The package should also allow you to con- Display of help files tinue with communications despite a minor error. Opera- Line 25 abbreviated help menu tions that can result in significant errors should also be Ease of command key use designed to let you abort a command before the error is made. For example, if an attempt is made to return to Quality of user manual the operating system before captured data has been saved, you should be told that the data will be lost. You then should have the chance to go back and save the data before finally returning to the operating system.

Volume 1, Number 5 Page 78

# Review XON/XOFF Support File transfer applications that involve data transmission Data Capture rates greater than 300 baud often require the XON/

Data capture, also called downloading, is the process of XOFF communications speed-matching protocol. This storing received data in memory or in a disk hie. Most protocol allows the software designer to use less memory communications applications will require this capability. (RAM) for a communications receive buffer (an area re- Some packages allow data capture directly to a disk hie, served to hold incoming data) because communications whereas others allow data capture to random access memory for later storage in a disk hie. Some packages provide both options. Most hobbyists don’t need capabilities other than direct-to-disk capture, but some business You should not have to reboot the applications require the memory capture option so that computer each time a communica- the captured data may be modihed before it is written to disk. tions session is completed.

Some communications packages also let you select the type of data to be captured. You can elect to capture only incoming data transmitted from a host system, only outgoing data entered from the PC keyboard, or both in- speed-matching will not have to be handled solely by the

coming and outgoing data. This option is good for busi- buffer. When the buffer begins to fill up as the result of a

ness applications, but most hobbyists can live without it. speed mismatch, the software tells the host to stop send-

If only local keyboard input is being captured, a hie can ing data by issuing an XOFF character. When the buffer

be opened and a series of batch mode commands entered is emptied, the software signals the host to resume send- into the hie. Then the hie can be closed and immediately ing data by issuing an XON character. Most mainframe put into operation. Frequent use of this option can im- computers use this XON/XOFF protocol, so business ap- prove the efhciency of data communications and reduce plications that involve Hie transfers with mainframe com- communications costs for a business. puters can make use of the capability.

Data Upload Manual and Auto-Dial Modem Support

The term upload is used to describe the process of trans- Even though you might have only a manual-dial modem, ferring a local disk hie to a remote host system. Both when selecting a software package it is a good idea to business and personal communications make use of this get a package that will support both manual and auto- capability to transfer hies containing memos, reports, dial modems. Having a communications package that data, or programs to remote Computer systems. supports only manual-dial or auto-dial modems limits

flexibility in hardware configurations. With the current rapid increase in modem capabilities and the rapid drop Data Capture to Printer in modem prices a new' auto-dial modem may become a

A communications package should have the ability to si- necessity long before expected. An auto-dial modem multaneously display and print out data as it is received might also have to be relinquished for a period of time over the phone line. Sometimes it is necessary to print a for repairs, resulting in the need to use a spare, manual- computer conversation with another person or the menu dial modem. of hies that can be downloaded from a bulletin board to eliminate repeat listings of the menu during download hie selection. You may also want to get a printed record Dialing Directory of sessions with time-sharing systems for future refer- When a software package allows the storage of tele- ence. This feature is particularly useful when transac- phone numbers that can be used with auto-dial modems tions result in fund transfers. to access remote systems, the package should also allow

A single key toggle that turns the print function on the user to list the directory of available telephone num- and off without interrupting the transfer of data is also a bers. Numbers that are buried in command or batch files desirable feature. This option allows the user to send text are inconvenient to locate when they have to be dialed selectively to a printer by pressing one or two keys. Soft- without using the command or batch file. It is also good ware that requires you to go into the command mode to to have a brief summary listing of the major communica- turn the print function on is cumbersome and requires tions parameters that will automatically be invoked when either an interruption of incoming data flow or a pause a number is dialed from the directory. in outgoing data transfer before printing can be initiated.

This frequently results in the loss of desired data as it scrolls off the screen. Originate/Answer Mode Switch To receive a call from a remote terminal or another computer, the modem must be switched from the originate

Volume 1, Number 5 Page 79 mode to the answer mode. Manual-dial modems provide to list the strings quickly while logged on to another sys- a switch that activates the mode change, but intelligent tem; it is easy to forget which string goes with each key, modems may be switched manually or through software so a quick reminder is sometimes necessary. control. Communications packages often allow you to switch from one of these modes to another by pressing one or two keys. Break Signal Many mainframes and some information services require a break signal to interrupt program execution. A com- 1200 Baud Modem Support munications package should be able to send a 200- to A communications package should be able to support 600-millisecond sustained high signal (equivalent to a both 300 and 1200 baud (bits of data per second) com- logical 0) with one or two keystrokes. This signal will munications. The ability to upgrade from a 300 baud interrupt a program in progress or get the immediate at- modem to a 1200 baud modem without buying a new tention of an information service system. communications package can save software and training costs. Almost all communications packages use different commands to perform the same function, so changing to Operating System Required a new package means that communications users have to Care should also be taken when selecting a communica- learn new commands. tions package, because available packages may operate only under PC-DOS, CP/M-86, or the UCSD p-System. Some packages will run under only one of these systems, Return to Operating System but others are available for more than one operating sys- A communications package's ability to return control to tem. A package designed to run under one system will the operating system is often overlooked when a package not operate under another. Files downloaded using a CP/ is being evaluated. You should not have to reboot the M-86 communications package cannot be accessed later computer each time a communications session is com- under PC-DOS because the disk formats are different. pleted. Entering a simple command should enable you to leave the communications program and return to the operating system to perform other computer operations. User Help Files

Many packages use a function key or an Alt-key com- Help files are important in frequently used communica- bination to provide a shortcut back to the operating sys- tions packages. They are also helpful for the user who is tem. Other packages require you to go through a series not accustomed to a particular package. Help files are of menus before returning to the operating system. Either not a replacement for a good user manual, but they pro- option is acceptable, but the single- or dual-key shortcut vide a quick reference for the keys required to perform is faster to execute and easier to remember. certain functions. These help files should be readily accessible and written in clear, concise English.

Disk Directory Listing

Another useful feature is the ability to list the disk direc- Documentation

tories of all disk drives. When you are uploading files, A communications package is incomplete without a good

this function allows you to select files for transfer. When user manual. A package that contains all the features de-

you are downloading files, it allows you to select file scribed above is of little use without a manual that tells

names that are not currently in use. If the program stores how to use the features. A manual does not have to con-

communications parameters in disk files, the disk direc- tain the background information on communications,

tory listing provides a menu of parameter files. For pro- but it must fully explain each feature.

grams that support batch file operation, this option

allows a menu of available batch files to be displayed. User Support

When all else fails, you must be able to get support from Prestored Strings the software publisher. Good user support means that a

Frequent communications with systems that require log technical person is available when needed to help solve on commands can meah a great deal of repetitive typing. applications problems. No communications software-

In such cases prestored character strings that can be package is perfect, particularly new ones on the market, transmitted to a host system are a useful feature for both and most of the problems encountered cannot be solved business and personal applications. Many communica- by a software salesperson. Before purchasing a software tions software packages for the PC allow prestored package, you can check with local IBM PC user groups strings to be uploaded with one or two keystrokes, mak- and other people who own and use the package to be

ing this feature even more convenient. When prestored sure it is well supported. strings are provided by a package, the user must be able

PC WORLD Page 80

# Review by the host and the PC’s communications package is not adding one, the data received by the PC cannot be listed

and edited until linefeeds are added. If data is being re- Additional Desirable Features ceived in the conversation mode and neither the IBM PC

Many commercial communications applications require several software features beyond those described in the previous section. The PC must deal with mainframe Prestored character strings that can communications idiosyncrasies, which may include communicating in more than one character code (for exam- be transmitted to a host system are a ple, ASCII and EBCDIC). Business communications may useful feature for both business and also require frequent large file transfers or multiple file transfers beyond the scope of personal communications. personal applications. Differences in work hours and time zones may also require unattended-operation communications capabilities.

software nor the remote station software is adding line- Upload Throttle feeds at the ends of data lines, each line will overprint When files are being uploaded to a mainframe system, it the previous line on the PC monitor, making it difficult may be necessary to match the file transfer rate with the to read the data. response of the mainframe. Some host computer systems will not allow you to send a line of data until you are prompted to do so. The prompt, a signal indicating that Binary Data Transfer the mainframe is prepared to receive more data, may be A full-featured communications package should allow a letter, a character, a number, or a combination of all the transfer of non-ASCII files. It is often necessary to three. Data sent before the prompt is received are usually transfer machine code files, rather than source code, to lost. Uploading a file to such a system without providing protect the source code from being stolen or modified. a mechanism to wait for prompts results in the trunca- Some BASIC language communications software will not tion of each line; a subsequent listing of the file will send or receive machine code, because some of the bi- show the beginning of each line missing. To match the nary strings contained in the files appear to the commu- upload speed of the IBM PC with the system response of nications program as end-of-file markers, causing the a mainframe, it is sometimes necessary to throttle the transmit or receive mode to terminate abnormally. Busi- upload. ness applications usually require that communications Communications software packages provide several software be designed to overcome this problem. types of upload throttles. The three major types are time delays, character receipt delays, and character prompt delays. A time-delay throttle allows you to select the length Protocol File Transfer of the time delay between the upload of each line of The term protocol file transfer is used by many software data. A character-receipt delay throttle allows you to vendors to describe special file transfer techniques. These specify the number of characters that must be received techniques are different for each package, but they gener- from the mainframe before a new line of data is up- ally do the same thing. The protocol signals (sometimes loaded. A character-prompt delay allows you to specify called handshaking) used by these packages allow them the exact character string that must be received from the to transfer text, data, and machine code files and to per- mainframe before a new line of data is sent. form sophisticated error checking to be sure files are transferred properly. The handicap in using these pro-

tocol file transfer techniques is that the computers on Linefeed Control both ends of the communications link must be using the Some communications software packages add linefeeds same software; there is no standard that governs these after each carriage return received or transmitted, but protocols and no two are exactly alike. This means that a others do not. Business communications software should business must standardize its communications software let you decide whether to have linefeeds sent following to take advantage of protocol transfers. each carriage return or added after each received car-

riage return. Without this capability, transferred files may have to be edited to remove or add linefeeds and Remote Control conversation mode communications may be difficult to Some IBM PC communications packages allow users to perform. call in from a remote location and take over the opera- If a linefeed is being added to each transmitted line tion of a computer as if they were sitting in front of it. by a remote system and another one is being added by To perform this function both systems must be using the the PC’s communications package, the received data will same software. Businesses can use this capability to have a blank line between each line of data. If linefeeds are not being added to the end of each transmitted line

Volume 1, Number 5 Page 81

# Review Tab-to-Space Conversion The IBM PC sometimes uses tab (Control-I) characters transfer files to or from an unattended computer. For ex- to represent spaces in stored files. These tab characters ample. a branch office can send a file to the home office save valuable disk space by representing up to 8 spaces in another time zone before or after normal working each. Other systems, however, do not always follow the hours. same convention. To keep files that contain tab charac-

ters intact, it may be necessary to convert tab characters into spaces. Several IBM PC communications packages Command Files provide a facility for turning this automatic conversion C ommand files allow the storage of several parameters in on and off by issuing a command from the keyboard. a disk file tor repeated use. These files may contain many or all the software package commands that can be entered from the keyboard. Communications parameters Telephone Hangup such as parity and number of data bits may be modified, Some business communications involve systems that do and a telephone number can be automatically dialed by a not automatically break the telephone connection when command file. you log off. To break a connection with one of these systems, you should be able to execute a software command that “drops the line” when an auto-dial/auto-answer mo- Batch Mode dem is being used. Without this option the modem Batch mode operation is similar to command file loading might have to be turned off to break the connection, and and execution, but it supports several commands not frequent off/on cycling of a modem may shorten its life. supported by command files. A command file can modify communications parameters and dial a telephone number when used with an auto-dial modem, but a com- External File Manipulation munications operator must take over to continue the ses- It is often necessary during a commmunications session sion after the communications link is established. A to delete old files as new ones are created. It may also be batch file can modify communications parameters and necessary to rename files created by a communications dial a telephone number, but it can also continue the software package (for example, a command file) or those communications session after the connection with the re- that have been improperly named during file download- mote system is established. Log on messages can be sent ing. It may also be necessary to run a BASIC program or and tiles transferred between the IBM PC and any other execute a DOS command (for example, a FORMAT or system without operator assistance. A batch file may also CHKDSK command) during a communications session. be written to delay execution until a specified period of These operations can be done more quickly and easily if time has elapsed. they can be performed without exiting the software package. The IBM PC communications packages that provide these options should save a company time and

Character Filter money if fiie transfers are performed frequently. Some mainframe and microcomputer communications software transmits control characters. These characters do not print on most computer terminals, but the charac- Auto-Redial ters are printed on an IBM PC. To eliminate these annoy- Some local information services used by hobbyists run ing and sometimes confusing characters, the program on microcomputers and allow only one user at a time, must filter them out of the incoming stream of data. while others have a limited number of incoming connec- Some PC software packages allow the user to turn the tions. The telephone numbers of these services are fre- filter on or off by executing a command string. Business quently busy. Instead of manually redialing a number applications that require remote demonstrations of soft- from the keyboard, an auto-dial modem may be software running on a computer that transmits control char- ware controlled to redial a telephone number until a con- acters would benefit from the filter option.

protocol can be Translation Table The XMODEM Translation tables allow the program to redefine incom- used to receive binary files, but the ing or outgoing character codes. Any of 256 codes can host computer must be able to send be redefined so that a different character code is passed to the IBM PC than the one received, or a different char- files using that protocol. acter code is sent out through the communications port than was entered at the keyboard. EBCDIC code for a given character can thus be converted into ASCII code. Certain can redefined as nulls or spaces or characters be nection is made. Software packages that offer this left of the translation table entirely so that can be out capability also provide an alarm signal that gets the they will be filtered out of incoming or outgoing data.

Volume 1, Number J .

Page 82

# Review The initial step in selecting a software package is to assess your communications needs. A list of all essential

features should be developed, followed by a list of desir- user’s attention when the carrier signal of a remote sys- able features. Only then should available communica- tem is finally detected. It is often necessary to use an auto-redial to get through to a bulletin board system on weekends or holidays. Public domain and inexpensive

Elapsed Time of Call BASIC programs are excellent

It is convenient to have an elapsed-time-of-call indicator learning tools. when communicating with a time-sharing information service. Information services generally charge a rate based on connect time, so the elapsed-time indicator can help save connect-time costs. This feature can also serve tions software packages be considered. An evaluation as a reminder of costs when calling a long-distance num- matrix similar to the one shown in Table 1 allows you to ber to get in contact with a host computer system. place communications packages in proper perspective by showing their strengths and weaknesses graphically. As part of the evaluation of communications soft- XMODEM Protocol ware, experience with any package is valuable. Public Most CP/M bulletin board systems use the Ward Chris- domain and inexpensive BASIC programs are excellent tensen protocol to transfer files. This pro- XMODEM learning tools. You can experiment with these simple tocol is similar to the protocol file transfer technique programs and learn a great deal about communications described earlier in this article in that it requires a pro- through trial and error. There are many bulletin board tocol-matched system; the XMODEM protocol, though, and private host systems operating in major metropolitan is in the public domain. (See “XMODEM Comes to the areas that can be used as guinea pigs during this learning PC.”) Software that supports this file transfer technique process. Mastering a simple BASIC communications pro- allows the user to take advantage of 99.6 percent error- gram will help you evaluate the capabilities you will need free file from CP/M bulletin boards. The downloading for serious communications. XMODEM protocol performs checksum error detection for transferred blocks of data, and blocks containing errors are automatically retransmitted. Larry Jordan is a freelance writer who manages power plant startup engineers for the NUS Corporation. He has Evaluating Communications Software coauthored the book Communications and Networking for the IBM PC, to be published this summer by the The evaluation and selection of a communications pack- Brady Company. age may not be an easy task. Changing needs and capabilities in a business environment and changing budgets in a hobbyist situation contribute to the complexity. But

as is the case with other software packages, decisions have to be made based on the best information available.

(EDITOR'S NOTE: Excerpt from origins.! article - discussion of specific communication packages extracted)

Volume 1, Number 5 . Q\ Page 83

( V N ( ' u. -W i.l.l v .XI The open vs rinsed ismh- also put. hie eompat ibility is the abili addresses the relationship be- iv to move easily iiianipiilatahlc tween hardware and suit ware. Is information between applieal ions flic iiiimiiiiu; ol "integrated soft- there unvtlmig in the way the programs. In tile most advanced ware" can vary from one soll- hardware and soli ware interact form, this ability should lake wai'c vendor lo another. For that afleets where and how the place regard less ol location (on users, however, the lerin clearly integrated software can be used'.’ coresident programs, between eomhines two elements: ease ol Apple Computer. Inc.'s l.isa ex- peers or to a higher processing use and software availability, be- emplifies this type ol system. level the mini or mainframe). cause ease ol use and software User interface: The most im- In higlilv integrated software.

availability are kev issues in the portant part ol an casc-of-use cri- ( halites made in one application selection of desktop computer terion m, tv be a common would be reflected automat teallv

hardware, it is appropriate lo ex- command structure that presents in all relevant ol hers. amine how they are influencing a consistent user interlace. Base Multitasking vs. single-task- desktop development and jnsl of use provided bv the integrated ing: Does the software provide the ability to perform more Ilian what is meant bv integrated sol I ware should also respect the ’ one application .it the lime sol t ware. user's growing proliciencv or iti- same The various integration levels l're(|iient usage. This may impjy Multitasking capability (also of current mieroeompnter soil- some sort of intelligence in the known as concurrency) is provid ed bv some of the integrated soli ware oi l crimes can best be under- software at least the ability lo stood through an examination of suppress or resurrect levels ol ware vendors. It allows the user the following key issues: open vs. help. The decree of integration is lo work on multiple tasks concur closed systems, user interlaces, also reflected in the levels ol help rcully. switching among ilicm in lilc compatibility levels, multi- offered, such as the use of graph- a way that reflects ordinary work tasking vs. single-tasking and ics-bascd guidance (or icons), patterns. Single-tasking capahili hardw are sol (ware requirements. menus, mice, mneinoiiies or on- tv is the operating procedure ol Some current offerings will be line textual help. stand-alone applications pack examined with an eve to how File compatibility: File enm- awes; it is also the operational Ihev address these issues. patibilitv is frequent Iv an impor- mode of some integrated pack ages, although Ihev have reduced Open vs. closed systems: Will tant reason behind t he the required to switch lie the number or Ivpc of a ppl it a- development of a desktop com- lime tween applications by pulling tions that can be performed be puter aeqnisil ion policy . Simply restricted bv the software and them all on a single disk how the software is employed'.’ If CnncuiTciil processing, pariicii not. the svslcm is an open svs- l.irlv m conjunction with windowing. laeililales quick referencing lem. II applications are restricted, transfer be it is a closed system. Context and inlormalion Management Systems. Inc.'s tween ap|iliealions. to (lie end ol MBA is a closed svslcm. mimicking the way a poison works on a given pro|eel

Mi ill il .isk lug should not In- < mi

I used wiili mull iproeessing. a In lure desktop computer capabililv

Mull ilasking is a subset ol mi ill •

processing Multitasking Is ,i lea- lure ol some integrated software

COUPUTERUORL 0 OFFICE OUT(71ATION or COIPUTEROORLD EXTRA"

Computer-world QA Page 84 o\

packages [and the concurrent these Interfaces into the less pric- CP/M operating system); multipro- ey desktop computers Is and will to result of the cessing Is generally not employed continue be a at the microcomputer level be- greater availability of memory and cause of the limitations of most Decreasing memory prices — which faster processing. current microprocessors. encourage the utilization of fixed-disk The use of graphics-based guidance is more advanced in Lisa options — and increasing processor than in the DG and Honeywell ex- n a multitasking environ- speeds will continue to spur the amples. Their strength lies in ment, the processing power incorporation of multitasking into their file compatibility with other members of their product fam- I of the unit Is shared among multiple applications on a one-at- desktop hardware and software. ilies. something Lisa fails to a-tlme basis. The user works on provide. one application with the process- The software integrators pro- ing power of the desktop computer vide an environment that is at directed to that application. The least hardware-independent, un- user may stop work, suspending like the software lntegrateds, the actual processing of the appli- which are tied to hardware and a cation while he switches to anoth- • Hardware/software Inte- addition, the safety of single ven- proprietary operating system. integrators function er application. Because of the grateds. dor sourcing means that, if some- Software industry-standard, not pro- speed Involved, the suspension of • Software Integrators. thing is wrong, only one vendor Is with prietary, operating systems — for processing Is often totally trans- • Integrated software. to blame. With hardware/soft- example, CP/M, MS-DOS and, parent to the user. • Associated software. ware Integrated units from mini- soon, Xenix for the 8-, 16- and 32- In a multiprocessing scenario, The hardware/software inte- computer vendors, the benefits of blt processors. the processing power Is split grated* are epitomized by Apple's a coherent family of processing In theory, software integrators among applications. All applica- Lisa; their systems (both hard- units Is also achieved. can accept an unlimited number tions appear to the user to be pro- ware and software) have an ex- Some entry-level desktop com- of applications packages — possi- cessed simultaneously. The tremely tight, synergistic puter users not partial to a certain bly from diverse sources — and processor Is In fact still processing relationship. In Lisa's case, the minicomputer family may be con- run them concurrently. There- them one by one, but alternating operating system Is proprietary, fused by the seeming myriad of fore, these software integrators instructions from each Just and applications that can be per- hardware and software choices. provide an open system in con- enough to process them as Jobs. formed are limited to those initial- They may adopt the hardware/ trast to the software lntegrateds' An analogy of multiprocessing ly provided by the vendor or software lntegrateds. such as closed system. could hr based on the circus per- developed by a third party under Lisa, as the safest route to desktop Windowing capability Is a fea- former who sets a series of spin- license. computing. However, the desktop ture the software Integrators ning plates In motion. The In either case, the required ad- computer with only a proprietary share with the lntegrateds. Files performer must move from plate herence to a proprietary operating operating system might not be- are transferable between applica- to plate, setting each In motion, system means the hardware/soft- come a standard with high-vol- tions that can be performed con- then returning to each to give It ware lntegrateds are essentially ume sales. In that case, vendor currently. Tb varying degrees, the enough of a push to keep It spin- closed systems. software development may lag, software integrators also provide ning till he is able to return with Data General Corp. and Honey- and third parties may lose the in- a common command structure or the second, third and fourth well, Inc., with their Desktop Gen- terest and Incentive necessary to consistent user interface and are pushes and so on. eration Series and Microsystems develop applications. supported by specific hardware Visualizing how application 6/10 and 6/20 respectively, have The user must be willing to ac- requirements. The principal ex- windows would work In both sidestepped this problem by split- cept the limitations imposed by a amples of software integrators are types of environments helps to il- ting their operating environment. restricted set of embedded appli- Visicorp.'s Vision and Quarter- lustrate the differences between Each of these units supports an cations software and be content to multiprocess- deck Software's Desq, each of multitasking and operating system proprietary to wait until the vendor or licensees which requires 256K bytes and a ing. In a multitasking environ- the company and compatible with are ready to provide additional ap- ment, one application (or more) rigid disk. These two examples il- its minicomputer line. Their soft- plications he may want. lustrate that, even within the neat appears in freeze-frame, while ware and hardware therefore are The hardware/software inte- application is live yet general category of software another single highly Integrated, which ensures grateds provide a multitasking ca- in another window. With multi- integrators, distinctions exist. file compatibility at both the desk- pability; In the case of Lisa, two or all of windows, The distinctions reflect the raison processing. the top, level and above, as well as a more applications can be run con- d'etre of each of the providing representing more than one appli- common user Interface through- currently. More than one applica- cation. are live. companies. out the product line. tion can be worked on. each Decreasing prices — memory What opens these systems Is viewed on a single screen in a se- which encourage I he utilization of that each also supports industry- ries of windows. Graphics-based isicorp., of San Jose. fixed-disk options — and Increas- standard operating systems — guidance and selection by point- Calif., touts Vision as an ing processor speeds will continue CP/M and MS-DOS — that allow ing by means of a mouse are user- to spur the incorporation of the applications environ- the desktop computers to take ad- interface devices designed to V ment, not an operating system. multitasking capability Into desk- vantage of vast quantities of avail- make desktop computer usage Vision is alleged to be indepen- top computer hardware and soft- able applications software written easier. These user interfaces were In addition, the increasing dent of both machine and operat- ware by third parties. first used In Xerox Corp.'s Star to availability of 256K-byte ing system, sitting on top of the use and The advantage to the user of a address the ease-of-use issue. The operating system and providing a iti - coprocessors will encourage hardware/software Integrated Importance of that issue is evident nesting place for a variety of ap- t In incorporation of multiprocessing capabilities at the desktop plications packages to be run con- computer level. currently. Initially, it will be Hardware/software require- offered for the IBM Personal Com- puter, Wang Laboratories. Inc.'s ments: i lie hardware and soft- with only a ware required to make the The desktop computer and Texas Instruments, Inc.'s Integrated software operational proprietary operating system might not Professional Computers and one of Digital Equipment Corp.'s desk- varies by package Those at the become a standard with high-volume higher levels of Integration have top computers. more specific hardware require- sales. In that case, vendor software Is Vision open or closed? Theo- ments In terms of processor development may lag, and third parties retically, It is open — applications that can be run under Vision are speed, mass memory and so on. may lose the interest and incentive How providers of Integrated soft- not limited by the hardware/software address each of these Issues necessary to develop applications. ware configuration, except for Illustrates the diversity In the def- memory requirements of each ap- inition of (he term "Integrated.'' plication. However, in order for Although categorizing can be third-party software vendors to hazardous, particularly In as fast- link with Vision, certain Visicorp. paced a market as desktop com- specifications must be met. No puter software, the Yankee Grouj unit Is the guaranteed common in the adoption of these devices by data transfer Is possible between has established four categories ol command structure and total file the hardware/software integrat- applications without it. Integrated software; compatibility of applications. In eds. However, the incorporation of Vision's windowing capability

Computerworld QA Q\ Page 85

allow s the multiple applications go feature. It allows the system to By basing its offerings on a sin- exist. Under MBA. applications bring performed to be visible on truly mimic the way a user works. gle disk, each of these integrated are performed concurrently and one screen concurrently. Its "con- This kind of almost porous soft- software packages addresses a can be viewed simultaneously In a sistent user Interface” uses a ware that accepts Its program major ease-of-use issue. The user series of windows. Lotus' 1-2-3 mouse and nine English com- content from the user will be an is not required to swap diskettes performs its applications serially mands. A bar of commands sits at Increasingly Important feature of with each application change — a and does not use windows, al- the bottom of the screen, plus desktop computer software. time-consuming and possibly er- though it is very easy to switch be- commands unique to each appli- Windows and mice are also a ror-prone process, but a neces- tween spreadsheet and graph. cation In every window. Initial ap- feature of the Desq system, but sary one with nonlntegrated The multitasking vs. single- plications supported are spread- the keyboard can be used equally software. These integrated soft- tasking approaches manifest sheet. WP. data management and well. ware packages also offer the ad- themselves In different hardware graphics, all from the Vlsi-stable In terms of hardware require- vantage that all files are requirements. MBA requires 256K of applications packages. Vlsl- ments, Desq is not much different Internally compatible and a com- bytes; 1-2-3 requires only 128K corp. Is after all. In the applica- from Vision. It, too, requires mon command and help structure (Release 1A. which is compatible tions software business. 256K bytes and, minimally, a 5M- is provided. with the IBM PC-XT and several Therefore, the applications of the other computers and peripherals host house will come up first and requires 192K). Both require two will be more synerglstically double-sided disk drives. Integrated. Both of these packages are Vision was Introduced In No- mouse-free and rely on keyboard vember 1982. with promises of commands, mnemonics and high- availability by summer of 1983. lighting for commands. Both come Currently. Vision is not expected with tutorial/demonstratton to ship until at least late fall of In the hardware/software lntegrateds, disks. this year. In designing Vision as It software and hardware are bundled. In Associated Software: Associ- has. Vlslcorp. has attempted to ated software is the final form of trade on its rather impressive rep- the software integrators, the software the so-called integrated software utation and to consolidate Its hold serves as the Integrating repository for discussed here. The term "associ- on a huge installed base of Vlsl ated" reflects the loose degree of applications users. By providing a a variety of single application packages. applications integration provided means of linking all Visi applica- by package vendors. As with pre- tions together. Vision extends the viously categoried offerings, some life of individual single-applica- applications are more closely as- tion packages In an Increasingly sociated than others. integrated desktop computer High-end associated software Is world. The licensing of third-party defined as a series of individual software vendors (plus provision applications packages (usually of development tools and so on) from the same vendor) that share can help to extend the life of exist- a common user Interface. In addi- Vlsl ing products by expanding byte disk. Quarterdeck introduced owever, the software tion, a common file structure al- the applications line. the Desq at Comdex — Spring in At- that is available to the lows transference of data Desq. from guarterdeck soft- user is limited between applications that run ei- lanta in April and promised its re- H in this ware. Inc. in Santa Monica. Calif., lease for September of this year. type of system to a given set. ther serially or concurrently. Low- is a software integrator that uses Company sources now schedule Therefore, although one of the cri- end associated software can be its lack of a software defined as a series of applications Installed the release for October — Just like teria for desktop computer prod- base to Its advantage. Instead of Vision. uct purchase — ease of use — is packages — again, usually from a trying to protect its past revenue Of the two announced software met, the other — software avail- single vendor — that share file base. Quarterdeck | S seeking to be integrators, Desq's approach may ability — is not addressed. compatibility potential, which can a universal link. be the best immediate solution to Priced at 8695, MBA offers be loosed through a utility Quarterdeck claims Desq will the complexity of today's desktop spreadsheet, graphics, data man- program. offer users the ability to integrate computer software market. Its agement and some WP (8,000 Microsoft Corp.'s Multl-Tbol ex- their favorite MS-DOS-based off- proclaimed ability to support a characters). At $495, 1-2-3's pert systems will probably be the the-shelf applications packages myriad of products reflects the di- principal application Is spread- most closely related high-end as- -— regardless of their source — versity of currently available soft- sheet, which is enhanced with Into a common-command, multi- ware packages and the trouble graphics and limited data man- tasking vehicle. This ambitious users now face in Integrating agement capabilities. The 1-2-3 plan makes Desq the ultimately them. However, both Desq and Vi- WP is basically nonexistent and open system. Like Vision, Desq al- sion still have to prove their merit will be added later this year. Given lows users proficient in certain in actual operation. Questions ex- the fact that WP closely follows applications packages (or from ist as to how Desq's close to uni- spreadsheet as the second most companies that have standardized versal approach can retain the frequently performed application, Each type of on certain software formats) to nuances of Individual packages it this capability is a necessity. Be- integrated software bring that expertise with them supports. cause the applications set Is limit- provides atility for the into the integrated environment. Integrated Software: Two cur- ed in both cases, these integrated broad spectmm of This means familiar command software vendors provide closed rently available integrated soft- desktop computer formats resident in those pack- ware packages meet the criteria systems. ages can be used or, with Desq, In- assigned to our category of the Both Integrated software pack- users today. tercepted by the Desq program same name. Their physical inte- ages are seeking to make their of- and front-ended by a common set gration, common command struc- ferings, if not open, at least less of Desq commands. Quarterdeck tures and Internally compatible closed. Lotus in particular Is claims to be able to handle any files place these two packages in working to connect 1-2-3 to the package that runs under MS-DOS, the category of Integrated soft- outside world — to the service bu- except those whose performance ware. reau offerings of ADP Network is somehow tied to actual hard- MBA from Context Manage- Services via ADP's Datapath and ware. According to Gary Pope, ment Systems, Inc. (Torrance. to corporate mainframes through Quarterdeck's executive vice- Calif.) and 1-2-3 from Lotus De- Its relationship with McCormack soclated software offerings Two president and founder, the firm velopment Corp. (Cambridge. & Dodge Corp.'s Interactive PC. In are currently available. Financial has successfully tried about 70 Mass.) offer a given set of applica- both cases, data resident else- Statement and Budget, and are packages in-house. tions resident on a single disk. where can be downloaded Into billed as "powerful additions ' to Desq provides another interest- This differs from examples of the 1-2-3 at the desktop level, manip- Microsoft's best selling MultIpUn ing feature, which results from its two previous groups: In the hard- ulated and uploaded, without electronic worksheet Both ran “artificial intelligence-like" lan- ware/software lntegrateds. soft- reformatting. run on Apple II. 11+ and lie with guage. said to be similar to Small- ware and hardware are bundled: Although both MBA and 1-2-3 64K bytes and one disk drtvr. or talk and Lisp. It allows the system in the software integrators, the are slngle-dlsk-based. closed ap- under MS-DOS with I28K bytes to learn functions as performed software offering serves as the in- plications systems using Internal- The associated nature of the by the user, to be stored and re- tegrating repository for a variety ly consistent user Interfaces, software provides a file transfer used — a sort of program-as-you- of single application packages. some significant differences do capability and a common com

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mand structure, in an effort to Each type of Integrated soft- the industry standards or an addi- promote follow-on sales to a user ware discussed provides utility for tional processing level to commu- base familiar with the applica- the broad spectrum of desktop nicate with will find themselves tions vendor's general modus ope- computer users today. None of with a dearth of applications soft- randl. This group consists of them may prove to be long-term ware. Fbr this reason, Apple may users with whom Microsoft has solutions for integrated desktop elect to support MS-DOS with Lisa developed a reputation for reli- computer applications. Based as it before the end of 1983. ability — a large group, given the is on a prevalent, industry-stan- For smaller organizations prevalence of Apple and MS-DOS- dard operating system and provid- where requirements for commu- based desktop computers. ing a compatibility and a common nications to internal mainframes Multi-Tool Word is another ad- interface for a large number of di- and mints is not an issue, the soft- dition to the Multi-Tool series, verse applications packages, Desq ware lntegrateds may provide the with the same hardware require- may be the short-term solution to best solution. The software lnte- ments. It differs from the previous software integration. This could grateds could provide a core appli- two in its heavy use of a mouse for be true particularly In cases of cations package — spreadsheet, selecting and executing com- user proficiency or some substan- WP, graphics, data management mands. An expert level allows the tial user investment in diverse — with a receptacle for an indus- user to abandon the mouse and software, according to the Yankee try-specific applications package. utilize command keys. This pack- Group. These packages would be written age also provides up to eight win- For the long term, two of the by third parties, to be loaded in by dows within its single WP abovementloned types, reflecting the user. In addition, links to out- application for viewing a series of different market populations, side data bases such as those be- documents and moving text may have greater success. In larg- ing pursued by 1-2-3 could among them. Multi-Tool Word can er organizations, certain hard- provide access to additional data. also Incorporate printed files from ware/software lntegrateds may Again, a common command and Multiplan and other Multi-Tool provide the best solution. These help structure would be provided application packages. are the hardware/software lnte- and file compatibility ensured. With its reliance on the mouse. grateds that combine a propri- In both cases, how successfully Multi-Tool Word is a step toward etary operating system with an the issues of user interface, help an advanced hardware version of Industry-standard operating sys- and file compatibility are ad- other Multi-Tool applications tem, thereby providing file com- dressed will determine the market packages. They will most likely be patibility, common user Interface success of the Integrated designed to run under a 3.0 ver- and a large amount of available software. ca sion of MS-DOS, providing multi- software at and above the desktop tasking capabilities, windowing, processing level. Examples are mouse cursor control and possibly Data General, Honeywell and, be- Icon graphics. These features will fore too long. IBM. Increase the hardware require- Hardware/software lntegrateds Carr is a consultant at the ments, no doubt to Include 256K without a bridge between their Yankee Group, a consultingfirm bytes and a hard disk. proprietary operating system and based In Boston.

Coniputerworld QA Page 87 FOCUS

np raditional roles of data processing and busi- JL ness professionals are being revolutionized. Business users are increasingly asking for automation to simplify department management, development of business plans and scheduling of personal activities. In response, the computer professional is becoming less of a project design specialist and more of a consultant in grooming the business professional for computer self-sufficiency. These new relationships mark a healthy spirit of cooperation among key corporate resources, and that in turn has led to the emergence of the information management center, the personal computer and fourth-generation languages as resource facilities for companies.

These tools bring self-sufficiency growth of this new marketplace. merged with selected information some key features. Ease of use Is to end users and guide them In be- Perhaps less well known but in production, purchasing and most important. The language coming responsible for the devel- equally powerful are the fourth- billing systems. When internal re- must be as comfortable and clear opment and maintenance of their generation personal computing sources are combined in this man- to use as English. Ease of use also own tasks. languages. These general-purpose ner, each department or extends to the ability to create a software tools are easily applied individual becomes responsible file and perform simple data en- on a larger organizational scale to for the information it references try. More complex data entry, aid- ne management Informa- accomplish the same personalized or acts upon, rather than for an ed by formatted screens, editing tion systems (MIS) man- approach to solving individual entire system. The focus is on the and data manipulation is also im- ager described his O and departmental problems. specific business problem or ac- portant to ensure that informa- department's philosophy this Originally offered in the mid- tivity, not on the preparation and tion is entered accurately. way: give our "We users the tools 1970's, fourth-generation lan- manipulation of data. As a result, Another key criterion is the and guidance they need to auto- guages have recently come Into users of these languages feel com- ability to reference a file and mate their own solutions. They their own, often acompanying fortable with the computer as a quickly produce reports that in- can create exactly what they need data management systems. Many tool to solve their own problems. corporate specific information at the time It's required. If needed, also have links to related special- DP departments have found and calculations. And. while rela- we re available with the assis- purpose functions, such as word that fourth-generation languages tional data management may not tance and guidance they may need processing, document retrieval enable them to provide faster re- mean much to an end user. It Is an to be successful." With experi- and financial modeling. With sponse to their user departments, Important consideration; it allows ence, business users become these integrated fourth-genera- particularly in handling ad hoc that user to extract information adept at using the computer as a tion language systems, the user queries and reports. These are of- from multiple file sources and to tool to solve tactical and strategic has ready access to multiple func- ten time-sensitive requests for build a customized view of a prob- problems, and DP staffs can focus tions on a single hardware system summary reports or minor lem. Relational data structures attention on the operational prob- and does not have to be concerned changes to standard reports; they replicate traditional manual sys- lems of the corporation. with loading on new software for may look like simple cosmetic tems and allow the user to con- In addition, the latest wave of each operation. changes, but they typically re- centrate on results, not data personal computer products has Fourth-generation languages quire a fair amount of system How is the fourth-generation dramatically influenced what are appealing for a number of rea- staff time to format or reprogram. language Integrated Into the mod- managers and professionals have sons. They incorporate familiar With the fourth-generation lan- ern business entity? Based on the come to expect from their comput- English commands that are easy guages, end users can easily col- type of business, the computing er resource. Fbr the business user to understand and to apply. The lect and print only the informa- resource may be centralized and who has experienced the frustra- commands are powerful: A few tion they need. When end users managed exclusively by the DP tion of waiting in the DP backlog words accomplish complete tasks, are able to handle these requests department or distributed to us- queue, the promise of these new for example, designing a file (DE- themselves, applications backlogs ers. Applications development tools that solve problems at a FINE), adding data (ADD), locating are reduced dramatically and the may also be handled completely level more individualized and with information based on very specif- DP professionals can focus their by MIS or by the end user Often It a minimum of effort has great ap- ic criteria (RESELECT FOR) or expertise on larger applications. is a combination of the two The peal. Management is no longer In- printing a report (REPORT). With The advent of personal comput- personal computing phenomenon terested in the computer solely for one day of training, computer ing languages has given DP pro- is clearly stimulating the move to Its role in handling conventional novices can implement a complete fessionals and business end users ward the localized use of the re operational tasks such as payroll, application from describing the a choice of tools for a given appli- source and Increased end-user accounts receivable, purchasing data file, designing a unique for- cation. Personal computing lan- responsibility for applications and order entry. Now It is seen as matted data entry screen, to writ- guages are preferable under the development. a management tool for Identifying ing special reports. On the other following conditions: Overall, we can Identify four and analyzing long-term trends hand, systems analysts can proto- • Quick application Implemen- common computing environ and issues of strategic importance type and test an entire application tation is key. ments: traditional centralized to the business. in less time than would be spent • It's a one-time request. computing, departmental sys- There are several ways of per- on the system specification using • Modifications to the applica- tems. OA and personal compui sonalizing the computer. Obvious- conventional methods. tion are anticipated. Ing. The first two are classical ly, one can use a personal Fourth-generation languages • Leverage through Integrated examples of computer use within computer. Personal applications, provide tremendous flexibility. tools such as business graphics or organizations QA and personal such as the many spreadsheet Focused departmental applica- word processing Is desirable. computing are new Implementa systems, are also available today. tions are quickly developed to ac- • Local control and mainte- tlons. often discussed but still In These options are the best known complish a single purpose, as in nance is preferred. the process of formal definition because of the newness of the establishing an order flow track- For a personal computing tool Traditional computing Is moat technology and the resulting me- ing system. This system, or ele- to be an effective end-user sup- familiar because It has been used dia Interest in the explosive ments of it, can easily be linked or port resource, it must contain longest. Here, the computer re

source Is centralized In one self- Implementation of systems to staff. Fburth-generation language ualized level. contained department that automate departmental activities systems with their inherent data Regardless of the computing handles all the computing re- and give the administrative and management capabilities have environment and management quirements of the entire organiza- professional users basic tools for been linked with word processors, orientation, the fourth-generation tion. In this environment, the self-sufficiency In data entry, file text management systems and language Is the one tool that can fourth-generation language Is Inquiries and customized report- document retrieval systems to sat- be integrated at all levels. used both as a prototyping tool for ing. The centralized DP resource isfy the requirements of these of- Today, ease-of-use fourth-gen- designing and testing complete carries on the design and mainte- fice professionals. eration language systems link application systems and as an ap- nance of key operational applica- word processing, financial model- plications development tool used tions and is available to the ing and business graphics with by programmers and analysts to department as a technical re- data and text management and design and maintain departmen- source for problem resolution. ersonal computing, the even with specialized departmental level applications. With fourth- In QA and personal computing, fourth environment, Is en- tal applications. This new ability generation languages, projects are the computing tools (terminals P tirely subjective. The pur- to combine information manage- complete and ready to use In one- and software) are applied purely pose of the personal computing ment resources with special-pur- quarter to one-tenth the time re- at the discretion of the individual tool — the computer, the comput- pose tools has made possible new quired by conventional methods. or department. Many organizaing software system or the com- and better ways to handle tedious Departmental systems are a tions are tending to overlap or puting language — Is to equip the and cumbersome manual process- variation of the centralized com- merge these two departments. user to define a problem in his es and to gain insight for problem puting theme. Local departments In QA, the focus is twofold. The own terms and summon the re- solving. Professionals can now have their own computing re- most common use is to enhance sources of the computer to sojve use electronic filing and retrieval source for managing local Infor- the productivity of secretarial and that problem. Used In this way, systems for access to documents mation requirements. In many administrative staff In preparing the fourth-generation language for litigation support or competi- companies, departments have use and handling documents. How- and Integrated software tools for tive research. Data and text man- of a dedicated minicomputer for ever, QA tools like text manage- data management, business plan- agement systems can be used for this purpose: In others, many de- ment and document retrieval ning, business graphics and docu- producing an analysis of a budget partments share a common com- systems also enhance the decl- ment retrieval can be applied to vs. actual Incorporating variance pany system. Fourth-generation slon-maklng effectiveness of Improve managerial Insight and explanation. Business planning languages expedite the design and managerial and professional effectiveness at a highly Individ- systems can be linked to informa-

FOCUS

tlon management for cost single product that runs ence cues embedded in the The fifth-generation screens, pointers to sym- estimating and sales on the personal micro, the user Interface. The work- language will be cross- bolic pictures and touch- analysis. departmental mini and the ing screen may be spilt compatible with the oper- sensitive screens are here corporate mainframe Is Into multiple windows to ating systems of all major today. Software products the key concept. By this allow several processes to computer systems — are beginning to merge s powerful and definition, the true fifth- be monitored at one time. mainframe, minicomputer multiple functions into productive as the generation language can- Multiple functions will and microcomputer. Infor- one package. fourth-genera- not be an adaptation of work simultaneously so mation will be able to be These are key events on A systems available today. accessed for Individualized the way to the final solution language systems documents can be pre- have been In responding to The fifth-generation pared with text, charts and problem solving, regard- tion — one product, with the demands of the per- language systems now In models, "cutting and past- less of where it is located. relational data manage- sonal computing revolu- development promise to be ing" on-line. The ultimate objective ment at the core, a single tion. they are not the final a completely new class of At a minimum, the of the fifth-generation sys- consistent user interface, answer. Products able to product and are destined fifth-generation language tem is to make the comput- compatibility with com- respond to a broad range to redefine the concept of will combine data manage- er terminal as comfortable mon operating systems of application require- user-friendly. We'll see a ment. business graphics, a business tool as the from micro to mainframe ments today — from data much higher level user In- WP, free-text retrieval, desk, where business doc- and networked for infor- management, to QA. to fi- terface than Is currently spreadsheet analysis and uments are always within mation sharing on a global nancial modeling — are available, with new fea- electronic mall. They will reach — to be touched, perspective. This solution still In the evolutionary tures that combine the also incorporate the best of read and filed. And work- will provide truly integrat- state, the result of linking best of today's hardware communications and ing with that Information ed software systems for several separate products. and software products. networking technologies to will become as easy as decision support. QA The Ideal Is a single They will be self-prompted expedite corporatewide wielding a pen. complete product specifi- systems requiring only a sharing of Information, re- As dramatic as these cally designed to accom- cursory orientation and gardless of the geographic concepts may sound today, modate all the computing minimal training because location of the business fa- the new generation is Cochran Is president of needs of the business pro- of their close similarity to cility. All the mechanics of clearly in sight. In fact, el- Henco Software, Inc., a fessional with one consis- conversational English the transfers will be trans- ements of it are already software firm In Wal- tent user interface. A and the extensive refer- parent to the user. available. Windowed tham, Mass.

Computenrorld QA Page 89

7. Page 90

RANDOM ACCESS

Modems let personal computer Communicating with users be geographically independent, but because popular modems are generally limited to no more A Mainframe than 120 characters per second, transmission of large amounts of data may be too slow. fleoplileople in business are beginning to prepare commands and input p If you use your personal com- to appreciate that technological co- data for the larger machine. Thus, puter at work, it’s possible to run existence between computers of a manager with a number of sales- direct lines from it to the main- different sizes and capabilities is people in the field might give each frame. Your computer specialists becoming easier to achieve. Under- one a personal computer to input will probably connect the two using lying this is the awareness that records and prepare figures and an RS-232C (or RS-422) interface to teaming then consolidate all a personal computer with the information a port on the mainframe. Because its big mainframe brother can be from a given territory in the main- each line takes up a port of its own, very useful. a partnership frame. Such however, the connection can be allows for more efficient use of • Remote-user capability. Using quite inefficient and expensive both computers. The hefty main- telephone interfaces, personal com- unless you put in at least four solid can concentrate large, puters can function as though they frames on hours of use per day. unwieldy jobs—number crunching were native terminals for larger A, more efficient way to connect and dealing with huge databases— systems. The capability for remote to a mainframe is with a local net- and the personal computer can han- use can tie the personal computer work (sometimes called a local area dle the lesser to a public subscription service for tasks. network or LAN). Such a network stock market updates, news, travel While a personal computer user can concentrate many users and might have any of reservations, bill paying, shopping, number good sometimes other equipment such reasons for tying in with main- and more. Programs can also be a as printers into one special high- frame, the following advantages run on the service’s computers, capacity port. Xerox’s Ethernet are most often cited: and its databases can for be used and Datapoint’s ARCnet are two • information storage. Program or data transfer. local networks that have often • Database access. There are nu- Because mainframes are more been used to establish communica- merous private and public special- powerful, it’s sometimes easier to tions between mainframes and interest databases on larger sys- prepare data on a personal com- microcomputers. Local networks tems that can be accessed by a puter and then copy it to a main- are in their infancy and admittedly frame for microcomputer. Whether they’re programming work. If still have substantial standards from your company’s library or a you have an IBM 370 at your office problems that need to be overcome pay-by-the-hour service, these and an Apple at home, you can take before they reach their full poten- a project in larger databases effectively home the evening for tial. Some custom engineering is enlarge the world your personal review and then put it in the main- usually required for each installa- computer is privy to. frame in the morning to continue tion. • Mail services. mainframes working on it. Many Most connections with main- • with online services have mail sys- Resource sharing. With access to frames also require special soft- tems that allow users to read mes- a mainframe, a computer user can ware. The connection that you do sages from senders who may be in typically use high-speed printers establish is only as good as the soft- another office down the hall or and plotters for creating hard copy. ware program that tells your com- around the world. personal com- In addition, mainframes usually A puter how, when, and where to puter user would have access to have some kind of archiving facility look for or send data. Because most so data can be stored easily and the mail system from his or her personal computers come with an reliably for an extended period of home and be able to receive and RS-232C port installed, you transmit replies from time. This particular safeguard the comfort shouldn’t need special hardware of a living room. reduces the burden of making for your machine. backup copies with your own per- So how do you talk to a main- If you work with a mainframe sonal computer. Another benefit of frame? By far the most popular and are interested in hooking up a resource sharing is that informa- method of connecting with a heavy- microcomputer, talk to your data- tion stored in a mainframe is ac- weight is the modem. Modems are processing personnel. If you’re in- cessible to any number of people commercially available from com- terested in linking to a public sub- who might need it. puter stores and range in price scription service, your computer • Remote computing. While you’re from $100 to $1000 depending on dealer should be able to give you away from the mainframe location, transmission speed, features, and more information. the personal computer can be used immunity to telephone-line noise. —Mark Levine and Joel Williams

April 1983 Popular Computing " Iron 'Connunieating Uith a ftainfrane " by FIark Levine and Joel Billions, appearing in the April issue oF Popular Conputlng nagarine. Copyright (e) 1981 Byte Publications, Inc. Used uith the Pernission of Byte Publications, Inc. Page 91

Finding a Proper Translation

How to exchange information between different computers without re-entering all the data? Some surprising solutions are available for this nagging business dilemma.

By Amy E. Smith

Anne D., of Acme Inc., got an Apple computer tend to utilize ascii (American Standard Code for several years ago for word processing and spreadsheet Information Interchange) for encoding data, ascii code applications. This worked fine until last year, when includes alphanumeric characters as well as some Acme yielded to the microcomputer invasion and standard typing commands like tab and carriage purchased several dozen IBM pc’s for its employees, return. Thus, according to Jack Bader, vice president of including Anne D. Anne was faced with somehow The User Group, St. Louis, Mo., a data-processing getting all her old files into her new computer, a consulting firm, an ASCII file sent from one problem compounded by the fact that both machines microcomputer to another can probably be read by the were entirely different in terms of hardware and receiving computer with little problem. operating systems. The crux of the problem is getting the files from one Anne’s husband, Steve, faced a similar problem in his computer to another. By far the most popular method job as a corporate accountant. His department had a of doing this is to literally phone it in. Modems and CP/M multiuser system. The people in sales, however, special communications software, like Crosstalk from had 16-bit MSDOS systems. When Steve and his staff Microstuf, Atlanta, Ga., and bstam, from Lifeboat requested information from sales, it had to be printed Associates, New York, N.Y., are required at both the out because the cp/m computer couldn’t read msdos sending and receiving ends. One user dials up the other diskettes. Steve’s secretary often ended up entering all computer via the modem, and the communications that information into the department’s computer. software enables the computers to exchange files. If these situations sound familiar, they should. One of the most popular communications software They’re on the rise these days in many businesses. packages, Modem 7, is free. A “public domain” People now are increasingly faced with the problem of program, Modem 7 is generally available from cp/m trying to get two different computer systems to user groups. A computer user with Modem 7 on his exchange information, usually because they are computer can communicate with any other computer upgrading to a new system or because they have to that uses Modem 7. Modem 7 is also widely used for share lnformation with someone who has a different downloading (sending data from a larger system to a type oLcomnuter. While users often feel they have no smaller one) and uploading (sending data from a smaller other choice but to re-enter everything, there are some system to a larger one) software to and from computer solutions available. bulletin boards. Users have to surmount three types of translation A problem often encountered with this method, problems: exchanging data files, exchanging programs however, is ensuring that all of the file comes over the and transporting data o_n differently formatted line. “Errors creep in because you’re dealing with Ma

diskettes . The difficulty of overcoming each problem Bell,” says Jack Bader. “If a lineman jiggles the wires, varies with the type of computer — whether you’ll probably lose bits.” To avoid this, many microcomputer or mainframe — under consideration communications software packages include error and the method that one attempts to use to deal with detection and correction — a method of double checking the situation. that the information leaving the computer is intact upon Most microcomputers have common communications its arrival at the other. If the data does not arrive protocols and codes that enable them to exchange complete, it is retransmitted until its integrity is information fairly easily. For instance, microcomputers confirmed. A word about text formatting commands used in data Amy E. Smith is a staff writer for Business Computer files: most of these are control characters (e.g. PB in Systems. WordStar, the command for boldface print) and vary

BUSINESS COMPUTER SYSTEMS/SEPTEMBER 1983

“ ’"Finding

198J. pages 86,88-90. Reprinted by perm ssion. copy/ 1 on t c) bv CHWltn PuttUsiting Conpany, Division of Peed Holdings Inc. Ail RIGHTS RTSTA Page 92 with software. Therefore, text Tight-lipped like VisiCalc or WordStar, for use formatting commands may not be Getting larger systems like mini- on other computers. However, recognized with the rest of the file. computers and mainframes to users often have programs they’ve If the receiving computer runs the exchange information with each written themselves on one system same word processing software other or microcomputers can be that they wish to use on another; originally used to format the file, more difficult. Larger systems often while this is not outside the law, it is then the commands may be recog- use non-ASCii code sequences, for trickier logistically. nized also. example, IBM’s EBCDIC (Extended A computer program has two Users don’t have to worry about Binary Coded Decimal Interchange kinds of codes. The source code, or receiving a total jumble of charac- Code). Even if microcomputer users English-like programming lan- ters, however. Remember, carriage can get a file from the mainframe, guages like fortran, basic, or returns, spacing and tabbing are all the computer won’t be able to read COBOL, is fairly similar on all printable ascii characters, meaning the file because it can’t read the computers. Object code is the that they are standard code encoded data. machine language the computer sequences and would be sent with Some companies make and sell understands and is specific to a the file. devices that enable ascii and microprocessor. The source code is non-ASCii computers to exchange reduced to object code, with the Bank on it information. One company, Affiliat- help of intermediary software Users also can take advantage of ed Concepts Inc., Santa Barbara, known as compilers and assemblers. public data banks as aids for Calif., accomplishes this through a The compilation process is proces- exchanging files with other comput- type of media conversion — from sor specific, Jack Bader points out. ers. Some data banks, like The magnetic tape used as back-up “A cp/m compiler will be different Source or CompuServe, provide media on larger computers to from one used on an IBM PC or Wang storage areas and limited transla- microcomputer diskettes. Accord- Professional Computer, because the tion capabilities for subscribers. To ing to Dominic Camardella, vice object codes of all those machines use such storage space, users call president of marketing for Affiliat- differ. Source codes have to be the data bank via a modem and ed Concepts, Affiliated’s Tapexchg compiled to two different object deposit the files to be sent to converts non-ASCii files on main- codes on different processors.” another computer. Later, the files frame magnetic tape to ASCII code The recommended method for are downloaded in a form that the on a diskette for S-100 microcom- translating a program from one receiving computer can use. puter systems. The Tapexchg sys- computer to the other is to treat the If two computers are located near tem consists of software and a source code as a data file. The “data one another, they can take advan- circuit board that plugs into the file” is sent, like any other data file, tage of common serial communica- computer. All that is needed is a to the receiving computer via tions protocols by being directly tape drive connected to the micro- telecommunications or by directly connected via their RS232 ports, computer. loading a diskette. Once the file rather than using modems (and Another company, Nuf Computer arrives, the user recompiles it to therefore costly telephone line Co., Newton Upper Falls, Mass., the object code for the new time). Three lines are wired — makes a similar product to convert computer. At this point, the ground, transmit and receive — and both tape and disk media formats program is in fairly good shape to be data communications software is into disks for the Xerox 820 used by the new computer, although used at either end. Connecting microcomputer. Nuf president John it may have to be debugged to some computers this way often eliminates Marlin points out one of the device’s extent. the problems inherent in telecom- main advantages: “It’s simpler, and Translation of programs can’t be politically more astute, to be able to done as universally as for data files take magnetic tape off the main- because object codes vary. A Public data banks like frame and get data files that way, program written for a Z80-based, instead of dropping 3270 ports CP/M computer won’t run on an IBM the Source and (gateways from remote terminals to PC. Programs can be translated CompuServe offer mainframes) into an office or between computers with the same department. It’s also easier for edp processor, however. A Z80-based users a way to operators to simply hand you Intertec SuperBrain computer can exchange files with magnetic tape when you request probably run a program for a data; they’d rather not be bothered TeleVideo computer. other computers. trying to get it to disk.” Another translation dilemma users face is moving data between Cracking the code differently formatted diskettes. Un- Getting a program that runs on like the IBM standard format on munications, such as data loss. one type of computer to run on a 8-inch floppies, 5V4-inch diskette Communications through RS232 different one is more difficult, formats vary widely. For example, ports also is faster than that over legally and logistically. Depending it’s not possible to take a disk from a phone lines — up to 19,200 bits per on the owner’s software licensing CP/M machine, pop it into an MSDOS second versus 300 to 1200 bps for agreement, it may be against the microcomputer, and expect it to most common modems. law to copy commercial software, work. However, it is possible to

BUSINESS COMPUTER SYSTEMS/SEPTEMBER 1983 Page 93

convert data on diskettes formatted hold information, one in the form of text files and source code — can be one way so that they can be read by data bits, the other in the form of converted, but once converted, the another computer. books. And both have directory file cannot be changed back with the information identifying the data Wintex utility. Staying on track they hold. VDisk, a software package from Format is the manner in which The varying formats used among Compuview Products Inc., Ann data is arranged on a diskette, and different computers are just differ- Arbor, Mich., enables an IBM PC to

it varies with the type of computer ent ways of arranging the book- format, read and write to more than and drive used. Some formatting shelves. The Boston Public Li- 20 disk formats, such as Altos, characteristics, such as track densi- brary’s books on antique cars may Digilog, Eagle II and Osborne. Not ty, sectoring, and whether diskettes be on the third floor, while the only can a blank diskette be are single-sided or double-sided, similar collection in the Kankakee formatted for use on the target depend on the drive. Some drives Public Library may be on the first computer, but with VDisk the PC only read double-sided, soft- floor. can read and write to the disk. sectored disks with a track density A “black box” called the Pirate Format to format of 96 tracks per inch. Others can that supports 38 different CP/M disk There are software packages that only use single-sided, hard-sectored formats and converts a diskette convert data from one diskette diskettes with 48 tracks per inch. from one format to another is format to that of another. Rene Tracks are circular areas on a available from Advanced Consumer Vishney, founder of Award Soft-' diskette. They are divided into Technologies, San Diego, Calif. The ware Inc., Los Calif., sectors, the number of which Gatos, Pirate consists of an 8-inch drive developed one such package — and two 5V4-inch drives. According Crossdata. Vishney cites speed and to Stan Tomlinson, a senior consul- convenience as the chief advantages It’s not possible to tant with Advanced Consumer, of his product. Says Vishney: “The take a disk from a users instruct the drives, with conventional means of exchanging special software, to read and write machine, it data by telecommunications (a) CP/M pop in desired formats. Users can then never works, and when it does, (b) it into an MSDOS switch files from one disk to the takes forever.” other. Furthermore, Tomlinson microcomputer and Crossdata converts msdos files on says, the Pirate makes verbatim one disk into cp/m format on expect it to work. copies of files — there are no another, and vice versa. The disks alterations, and formatting com- can both be read and written to. All mands are tranferred. users have to is do load Crossdata Allenbach Industries, Carlsbad, diskette is into the machine that they want depends on whether the to Calif., also has a system that hard- or soft-sectored. Hard- read the files, put the data disk in transfers files among cp/m formats, fixed along with disk, sectored diskettes have a another and as well as pcdos and msdos. number of sectors, each indexed Crossdata does the conversion. Allenbach does not sell it, however, with minute hole in the diskette’s Essentially, files are rewritten in a but does the conversions for surface. The number of sectors on the desired format. customers. soft-sectored diskettes is deter- Moreover, Crossdata converts “We were formerly just a mined when the diskette is format- data of either operating system into software duplicator,” says ted the system, as is the other’s format, back. by operating and Say a Allenbach president Phil Kessler. the identifying information used to person has a cp/m computer at the mark the beginning and end of each office and an IBM-compatible porta- sector and things like pause and ble at home. He could bring home timing information. work on a cp/m disk, and convert it A California firm will For a diskette to be read by a to msdos so his portable microcom- transfer files from one computer, the diskette first has to puter could read it. The files can be physically compatible with the then be brought back to the office format to another for disk drive. This doesn’t make for the next converted day and back to about $100 a disk. complete compatibility, however. CP/M. IBM PCs and Osborne Is use 40 With Crossdata, Vishney says track, soft-sectored diskettes, yet that programs can be translated at neither machine can read the other’s source code level from one format to “A lot of our cp/m customers wanted diskettes. the other. Crossdata also translates to hit a broader market. They The bottom line, then, is how the formatting commands. A WordStar wanted to put their software on an system formats the disk. Operating file with all its formatting com- Osborne or TeleVideo, for example. systems differ in the way they mands can be converted just as it’s So we undertook to convert and arrange sectors on the disk to hold written. duplicate software for as broad a data, and the coded information Wintex Computer Corp., computer base as possible.”

used to identify data contained in Schaumburg, 111., markets a pack- Allenbach limits software and file each sector. Sectors can be thought age for cp/m to iRMX-86 conver- conversion primarily to customers of as bookshelves in a library. Both sions. Like Crossdata, any files — who want to duplicate their

SEPTEMBER 1983 BUSINESS COMPITER SYVTTMS Page 94 software and large end users such also be sent out to word processing potential customers are reluctant to as banks. Despite a cost of $100 per service bureaus and typesetters for implement a new system because of diskette, Kessler explains that it is conversion. the conversion problems involved, entirely cost effective. “Consider “It’s a matter of survival,” says vendors can offer a ready conver- what you’d pay someone to key in all Dana Pekunece, a salesman for sion service. that data, not to mention the cost of Altertext Inc., a word processing Perhaps the ultimate solution to computer time.” service bureau in Boston, Mass. any translation problem is one Sending software and files out for “Incompatibility among systems is a offered by Shaffstall Systems Co., translation may be the best solution major problem among typesetting Indianapolis, Ind. Shaffstall sells for a large corporation with a lot to firms, because they’re often faced customized hardware-software in- convert. Conversions can be done with the problem of putting a terfaces that allow transmission of quickly and accurately by people Lanier or Wang disk on a Compu- data from a disk in any system to who have the right equipment and graphic typesetting system that any other system over serial know what they’re doing. can’t read them.” communications lines. According to Who does these conversions? “Survival” usually means devel- president Timothy Shaffstall, the There are specialized software oping systems that will convert interfaces accept data, translate conversion houses, like Allenbach word processing and typesetting communications protocols (for ex- Industries. WBG Inc., McLean, system diskettes. Altertext, for ample, IBM’s sna/sdlc to RS232 Va. is another software conversion example, offers its disk reader for handshaking protocols) and convert , company. According to Richard G. lease or sale. The disk reader formatting codes. Users can trans- Harrison, president, WBG would supports 12 different systems. mit converted data directly to take about two weeks to convert the Users can put in an 8-inch Wang another machine or produce a floppy largest data base anyone is likely to floppy disk and have the files disk compatible with the receiving put on a microcomputer for about converted to a Lanier or Compu- machine. $5,000 to $6,000. graphic diskette. Translation problems are not A matter of survival Itek Composition Systems, Nash- totally without solution — there are Dedicated word processors, like ua, N.H., claims that its Converter ways to get information from one Wang office systems or Lanier translates disk formats among computer to another. The solutions, systems, often pose a special about 20 models of word processors however, are often costly and translation problem, because each and microcomputers. It is sold difficult to implement. For now the of to borne system utilizes different formatting primarily to word processing equip- brunt the problem has be by users. commands. Word processor files can ment vendors as a selling tool. If

BUSINESS COMPUTER SYSTEMS/SEPTEMBER 1983 Page 95

Part One

! A PRIMER ON

The following is the first in a series of arti- What benefits do local area networks of- cles excerpted from the book Communica- fer for business applications? tions and Networking for the IBM PC, by First, local area networks allow the shar- Larry Jordan and Bruce Churchill, to be pub- ing of expensive resources—such as letter-

lished this month by the Robert ]. Brady Co. quality printers and high-capacity hard disk drives. Second, local area networks allow the

Local area networking is a term that de- high-speed exchange of essential informa- scribes a form of computer communications tion between key people in an organization

generally used to transfer data internally in If properly done, this sharing promotes an organization. Internally, in this context, greater efficiency and productivity and leads means within the confines of an office, a to more sophisticated computer applica- group of offices, a building, or a closely tions, such as electronic mail Finally, local spaced group of buildings. area networks act as a catalyst to increase the

In its most elementary physical form, a range of potential applications for the per-

local area network (LAN) is two or more sonal computer.

computers connected together by some type Figure 1 illustrates a simple local area of wire or cable; the wire or cable forms a da- network. The printer and hard disk are

ta path between the computers. Once estab- shared resources, since all of the users have lished, a local area network allows the ex- access to them. The hard disk in this exam-

change of program and data files among us- ple is attached to the network as a separate

ers connected to it. Such a network also al- device through an interface box its also

lows users to send files to a printer or a hard possible to attach the hard disk directly to disk attached either to another computer or one of the personal computers, just the way by Bruce Churchill directly to the network. the printer is attached in figure 1

" ot for the IBM Personal Computer July 1983 "v f-Tiner on Netvorkino. Srucc Churchill. talk. ulv / pot* 9/100. 103. Reprinted hy pcrnission Copvripht fri hv sort.rl*

Publishing Inc. ALL RICHIS RtStRWD. Page 96

BASIC LOCAL AREA NETWORK BASIC LOCAL AREA NETWORK

Figures 1 and 2 show two types of logi- second, LANs operate at relatively high cal). Compare this to the maximum data- cal processes that may occur in a local area speeds, compared to the typical modem net- transfer speeds of fifty-six kilobits per sec- network. Figure 1 depicts a user at pc #1 works currently in use. ond (seven thousand characters per second) sending a word processor file to a user at pc LAN data-transfer speeds may be as high for high-grade telephone company digital #3. This file transfer could have been ini- as fifty million bits per second (fifty mega- trunk lines, or the 300/1200 baud (30/120 tiated by either user. The user at pc #3 can bits per second), or slightly more than six characters per second) transmission speed interact with the file as if it had originated at million characters per second (rates of one to typical of most personal computer com- his own pc; he can, for example, write the ten million bits per second are more typi- munication systems. At the higher speeds. file to a local floppy disk or use it as input to a word processor. SHARED RESOURCE ARCHITECTURES Figure 2 shows a user on pc #3 printing a file at the printer attached to pc #1. It also shows a user on pc #2 storing a locally created file on the remotely connected hard disk. An interesting consideration relating to pc #1 in figure 2 is the degree to which network software will allow that computer to support a local user and at the same time control access to its attached printer. We ll return to this subject later. Theme and Variations. There are two ways to look at a local area network: as communications technology and as a multiuser computer installation. Before we go further in our discussion of LAN fundamentals, it terminals Dumb Physical path would be useful to characterize LANs in the Logical path context of other communications systems and other types of multiuser data-processing systems. LOCAL AREA NETWORK Shared Resources Two primary characteristics of LANs > “ distinguish them from modem networks, IBM PC IBM PC IBM PC such as Telenet, Tymnet, Arpanet, and the public telephone system. First, LANs are de- lllllli ii ii ilF^llllli ii I signed to work in a restricted geographic ilP^IIHlli

area, generally limited to thousands of feet Figure 3. or closely spaced building complexes; and

softcilk Page 97

LANs operate at a rate exceeding that at formed by a coaxial cable similar to that which many current microprocessors con- used on a 75-ohm television antenna (one of LOCAL AREA NETWORK duct data transfers to and from random ac- the two common types of antenna cable). HARDWARE (Typical) cess memory. Some systems use a cheaper means of data As multiuser data processing installa- transport— the twisted-pair wire similar to tions, LANs are a logical alternative to the that used in telephone installations. classic' multiuser system. The latter us- The usual method of making connec- ually consists of a central processing unit, tions between each of the pcs and the data several terminals connected to the CPU, and path is by means of standard T-connectors a multiuser operating system, such as on the backs of the adapter cards, as shown MP/M-86, Oasis-16, or Xenix. Terminals in in figure 4. a traditional multiuser system are generally Before we go further, let's stop to assim- not capable of standalone data processing; ilate some vocabulary. The pcs and the hard instead they rely on the central computer to disk interface shown in figure 1 are known assign a portion of its main memory to, and as network devices, or nodes. In general, execute applications for, each terminal's each device or node is connected directly to user. the network cable, or data path. In contrast to the traditional multiuser The terms transmission medium (plural setup, each workstation in an LAN is an in- media) and bus are commonly used syno- refers to configurations of several users dependent, standalone computer, capable of nyms for data path. The word bus appears in sharing a common CPU, central memory, executing its own applications programs. other contexts as well; the IBM pc system and set of I/O devices. The term could, of Both types of systems—LAN and traditional bus, for example, is the data path by which course, also describe a local area network, multiuser— can reduce peripheral costs by al- the 8088 processor communicates with but we'll restrict its meaning here in order to lowing users to share such resources as RAM and with I/O devices attached to the pc. distinguish single-CPU setups from LANs. printers and hard disks. The term server refers to any device that Multitasking is the sharing of a single The physical differences between a sin- interfaces a non- or semi-intelligent periph- CPU by more than one process; the term gle-CPU multiuser system and a local area eral to the network. The most common of concurrent is sometimes used as a synonym network are illustrated in figure 3. Ter- these devices are disk servers (also known as for multitasking. minals on a single-CPU system are physi- file servers), print servers, and modem serv- One more term: direct memory access cally connected to serial input/output ports ers (also known as communications serv- (DMA). This is an important concept, be- on the central computer, and their users are ers). And, as mentioned before, the IBM pcs cause direct memory access is commonly usually assigned specific segments of main included in an LAN are commonly called used in local area networks. Simply stated memory for program execution and data workstations, particularly in an office auto- direct memory access allows input/output storage (because these terminals are not mation context. devices to conduct data transfers directly to standalone computers, they're sometimes The body of rules allowing an orderly, RAM, without CPU intervention. In the called "dumb'' terminals). Users in a single- reliable transfer of data among all the net- context of local area networks, the I/O de-

CPU system are typically assigned their own work devices is known as a protocol. vice is the pc's network adapter card, which private areas of a shared hard disk for mass The terms transparent and virtual are of- contains the logic chips necessary to con- storage. (Each user in an LAN may also be ten used in discussions of local area net- duct DMA data transfers. DMA is a prereq- assigned private mass-storage space on a works. A process is transparent if it exists uisite for the high-speed operations typi- hard disk.) The combination of a dumb ter- but does not appear to; a process is virtual if cal of local area networks. minal, its assigned area of main memory, and it doesn't exist but appears to. For example, a High-Speed Data Movement. One of the its share of the CPU execution time is func- virtual memory process writes text to a flop- major factors characterizing local area net- tionally equivalent to a single workstation py drive when the RAM text buffer over- works, as you already know, is the speed at on a local area network. flows; a word processor operator enjoying which data moves on the network Table 1

The Basic Components. Now for some the use of virtual memory may not know contrasts the speed of a one megabit per sec more details about the LAN setup shown in when internal memory has been used up. ond LAN with speeds of other forms of data figure 1. Bear in mind that this is a very sim- Another use for the term virtual is illus- movement to and from, or within, an IBM pc ple LAN; much more complex ones are pos- trated by the single-CPU multiuser installa- The important thing to notice here is that the

sible, but this one illustrates the fundamen- tion shown in figure 2. That combination of speed of network data movement is on the

tal concepts. terminal, RAM segment, and CPU time slice same order of magnitude as that of data

The hardware components of this net- for a single user forms a virtual work- movement within a computer (that is. when work system are three IBM Personal Com- station. you take into account the fact that parallel puters, a printer attached to pc #1, and a LAN data movement is a good example transfers use eight data lines simultane

hard disk unit. Each pc has an adapter card of transparency: It obviously occurs, but ously).

in one of its peripheral slots; this card goes how it occurs is not apparent to the LAN The fact that internal data transfer* oc- by a number of different names, depending user. cur even a little faster than data transfers on which vendor produced it. Some of the The term throughput refers to a meas- across the network however necessitates more common names for such a card are net- ure that describes the quantity of useful da- the buffering, or temporary storage, of data

work adapter card, bus interface unit, and ta that can be moved by a local area network on its way into the network It is the (ob of communications interface unit. Whatever its in a given time interval. Contrast this with the network adapter card to compensate for name, this card functions in this network in the term data rate, which merely means the data-rate and throughput mismatches

much the same way that an RS-232 card rate of speed at which data moves on a As you'll note in table 1. the Ethernet functions in a modem network. network. protocol allows a considerably faster rate of

The network data path is commonly The term multiuser, in this discussion. data flow than other systems this is a topi.

for the IBM Personal Computer July 1983 Page 98

to which we'll return in a subsequent article. Network Data Movement (Data Struc- Typical ture). Since the network shown in figure 1 Transfer Maximum speed must distribute processing and data-storage Type Operation (megabits/sec) tasks among a number of users who may require near-simultaneous access to the net- Serial Network data flow 1.0/10.0* work, data flow must be structured in a con- Parallel RAM read/write 9.5 trolled manner. Control implies an orderly Parallel DMA transfer 9.5

means of allowing each device access; it also Parallel Processor-initiated I/O 7.6 implies a degree of service that allows data to Parallel Hard disk I/O 6.5 — 8.0 arrive at its destination virtually error-free Parallel Floppy disk I/O 0.25

and in the same sequence it was transmitted. Serial Multiuser terminal (RS-232) 0.0192 A prerequisite to logical network con- Serial Modem at 1200 baud (RS-232) 0.0012

trol is the placement of data streams into for- *Ethernet matted packets, which are then transmitted Table 1. Data transfer rate comparison in accordance with network protocol. The demands on a local area network sys- work while the pc workstation to which area-network configuration. Some of the key tem follow the irregular patterns of individ- these devices are attached is in use by its op- decisions concern the operating system or ual-user processing requirements. The ir- erator. This situation is best handled by in- systems to be used, the design of applica- regularity, or randomness, of data transmis- terfacing the network to multitasking or tions programs to exploit the power of local sion associated with these demands consti- multiuser operating systems on the host pc; networking, the amount of mass storage to tutes a form of data transfer called bursty examples of these operating systems are include, and the need for modems and communications. Network speeds are de- Concurrent CP/M-86, MP/M-86, or the modem network resources. Another— more signed so that system demands, such as re- UCSD p-System. Existing solutions range fundamental— decision must be made by the quests for file access, are fulfilled with no from not allowing local use of a pc when it cost-conscious business user: whether to use apparent delay attributable to the network provides a shared device to not using a pc for an LAN at all or to go with a multiterminal, itself. This type of system design, incorpo- attaching such shared resources. Prospec- multiuser, single-CPU system. rating random bursts of data packets travel- tive users should investigate carefully the The relevant variables to consider in se- ing at high speeds, is in stark contrast to operating systems that a particular network lecting a local area network are summarized what usually happens on modem network will support, as well as any restrictions in in figure 5. communication systems. Communications the use of a network pc as a shared resource. Next month's installment will take up the over a modem network are limited by the Obviously there are a good many con- subjects of capacity, types of physical connec- low-speed capability of that network; thus siderations that go into the choice of a local- tion, and access rules.—Ed. A modem network sessions tend to be continuous in nature and typically last for at least several minutes, tying up a communi- FACTORS IN LOCAL AREA NETWORK SELECTION cation channel for the duration of the connection. Devices LANs and Distributed Processing. Once o o a local area network is physically assembled Printers? O Data path and the communications rules are estab- IBM PC's? Coaxial? O lished, some interesting challenges present Modems? Twisted pair? themselves. These concern the concepts and Hard disks? rules by which the shared resources will Server? Capacity operate. Broadband? One obvious problem concerns access to Physical connection Baseband? the hard disk drive: Which user has priority o ® and how are multiple requests to access data Star?

from the same open file or files arbitrated? Access rules Ring?

The answers lie more in how the accompa- Distributed bus? Token passing? nying software (the operating system or ap- CSMA? plications program) is designed than in the CSMA/CD? Operating systems mechanics of data movement from point to Polling? point on the network. Single user: PC DOS 1. 1/2.0, CP/M-86? One popular way of handling the matter Multi-user: MP/M-86, Xenix, Oasis-16? is to partition the hard disk drive and assign Multi-tasking: Concurrent CP/M-86, UCSD p-System? a segment to each specific user. Each seg- Applications programs Network: CP/NET? ment can contain several files, which will o then be accessed just as a user accesses flop- Database management? o py disk files. We ll refer to such segments as Electronic mail? volumes and consider them logically equiva- Terminal/host communication? lent to floppy disks. Word processing? Another design challenge in local area Software development? networks is the handling of requests for Integrated accounting? Figure 5. floppy disk or printer access from the net-

softcilk for the IBM Personal Computer July 1983 Page 99 Paqe 100

IN FOCUS INFORMATION UTILITIES

ByJohn Markoffand Tom Shea, IW Staff flection of the topsy-turvy growth of both the computer and com- Six months have gone by since you bought your personal communications industries. puter. Sure, it's an electronic spreadsheet and accounting package Personal-computer users can subscribe to information utilities for your business, and you have your word processor and data base, that are run by companies as diverse as publishing houses, newspa- and maybe the kids can play games with it in the evening. Now, what pers, banks, an aerospace contractor, a tax-accounting firm and, else will it do? soon, by TV networks and the phone company. For many, the next step is to turn the personal computer into an The subject matter in the data bases is astonishingly diverse. Sci- information and communications tool. entific data for petroleum engineers, UPI world news, the race rec- Traditionally, utilities have provided necessary services such as ords of 900,000 thoroughbred horses foaled since 1920 and electricity, gas and water to consumers. information of use to sausage makers are all available. By the middle of the last decade, it became apparent that a new The new industry is now also known by a potpourri of different type of utility was on the horizon: the information utility. names: information utility, videotex, teletext and viewdata, for exam- Information utilities perform the service of providing electronic ple. information that can be organized and tailored to users' needs. Not only are the sources of electronic information dissimilar, but In the future, a new generation of information utilities will use so are the means of transmission. Your information utility can re- protocols that are different from or extensions of the standard ASCII ceive bv telephone line, cable-TV network, radio and TV transmis- character set to permit the transmission of graphics. sion and, now, satellite broadcast. These systems may be accessible to personal computers that run Little wonder that this new industry is surrounded by confusionl special software to interpret the new protocols. They will, however, Yet despite the disarray and in the midst of a recession, informa- be targeted principally at users who have a computer hidden in a tel- tion utilities have continued to blossom. ephone or television. The Source, now owned by the Header's Digest corporation, adds Currently, most commercially based information utilities are ac- 2000 new subscribers a month; Dow Jones News and Retrieval Ser- cessible by standard ASCII terminals and microcomputers. vice, long a mainstay of the financial community, is widely adver- The principal difference between electronically delivered infor- tised as being profitable and is considered the financial success story mation and other sources of information is its greater selectability. of the information-utility industry. Instead of having to search through vast libraries, users of an infor- More recently, two traditional suppliers of on-line data bases mation utility can direct a computer to perform the task. to large corporations and institutions, Lockheed Dialog and BHS, This much—selectability—is clear about information utilities, but have decided that there are already enough personal computers perhaps little else is. The information-utility business today is a re-

to warrant special information-utility It can be as complex as linking a per- dem 1200 version can switch between support unattended file transfer and services. sonal computer to the transceiver of a 300 and 1200 baud under program allow users to define and save sepa- Mike Rawl of The Source, in two-foot earth station, which is de- control rate profiles and log-on strings for dif- McLean, Virginia, notes that people signed to receive streams of digital Telecommunications software ferent remote computers who have purchased a personal com- data from space. ranges from simple terminal emula- Some of the best communications puter traditionally wait nine months For personal-computer users the es- tors to advanced programs that sup- software is free. In the CP/M world, to a year before deciding to subscribe sentials are a 300- or 1200-haud mo- port file transfer, with handshaking there is Ward Christiansen’s X-Modem to an information-utility service. He dem and a telecommunications protocols that check for errors in program, which supports file tranfers says that The Source is now seeing the software program transmission. with error checking. X-Modem is in the fallout from the current personal- Modems range from simple acousti- The trend in communications public domain and in the program li- computer boom. cal couplers to intelligent modems software is toward adding intelligence braries of CP/M user groups. At the same time as large corpora- that couple to personal computers and offering transparency" to users. For the IBM PC, PC World editor tions are beginning to explore and through RS-232 interfaces or couple In fact, soon programs will emerge Andrew Fluegelman has written PC- market electronic-information ser- directly to the computer's bus that can handle all of the complex Talk Inow available in version 3.01 PC- vices, grass-roots systems are also A new generation of modems made communications chores and give talk is part of Fluegelman s freeware springing up. by companies such as Hayes, Nov- users a visual electronic mailbox to scheme, which suggests that you Called BBSs,'' or electronic bulle- ation. Ventel and several others are check. send a payment of $25 to the author if tin boards, these systems are usually "programmable" —you can write your Communications software will sim- you find the program useful It now software programs that run on home own software program to control plify the now arduous task of logging supports Christiansen’s error- computers Other users can connect them. Alternatively, they can be con- on to information utilities and labo- checking file-transfer protocol and has their computers to the bulletin boards trolled by special custom-built com- riously searching through long strings a directory for auto-dialing 60 phone over phone lines and leave messages munications software that allows you of menus for information. numbers. or even upload and download to store access numbers and codes for In the future, log-on protocols and Data bases professional-quality software a variety of remote computers, auto- search strings will be programmed The following is a brief intoduction matically log on to systems at the into communications software. As a Keeping track of all the on-line data to the world of information utilities, press of a single key and, in several result, users will be able to get infor- bases that have proliferated over the ranging from getting started to what cases, allows you to download files of mation at the push of a single button. past decade requires a data base itself electronic information Is available and information automatically and save Already. TVmshare s Scanset, a com- Knowledge Index, the recently an- how much it costs. them to disk. pact. desktop terminal that has a built- nounced subset of Lockheed Dialog, is The Hayes Smartmodem and Smart- in modem, allows host computers to designed for personal-computer Getting started modem 1200, for example, can lie pro- download and store a specific log-on users. It contains data bases that focus Starting out can be as simple as buy- grammed to dial a number, to redial siting that can then be used to access on subjects as diverse as agriculture, ing a used dumb terminal, hooking it the last number, to answer automati- specific information in a data base engineering, corporate news and com- up to an acoustical modem and dial- cally after a set number of rings and to Hayes Microcomputer Products re- puters and electronics. ing up an information utility through a switch between Touch-Tone and cently announced the Smartcom II Typically, on-line data bases allow telecommunications network. Pulse Dialing modes. The Smartmo- communications program, which will users to perform on-line searches and

to retrieve citations of relevant articles unique address To send someone a the final stages of creating a service messaging services. and documents Scientific data-base letter all you do is call the electronic- that will allow CP/M users to access a Most bulletin boards don't charge providers such as Dialog will also mail routine when on line, write the special data base that will give support fees and can be accessed for the cost of make the full texts of cited articles text and then instruct the computer to information on CP/M. a single phone call. Some systems as- available for an extra fee. send the message to the correct ad- sign passwords to users.

In the future, it is likely that full-text, dress. Part of the BBS phenomenon is a on-line retrieval of articles will be more To check to see if there is mail in thriving computer underground Pi- Bulletin Board Systems common Already, data bases such as your mailbox on The Source, you sim- rate BBSs are now spread throughout Meads Nexis provide full-text ply type the command MAILCK" The electronic bulletin board or the country, and users exchange infor- keyword-searching ability for the En- from the command line. bulletin-board system (BBS) phenome- mation about software piracy. cyclopedia Britannica and for a range Advanced electronic-mail systems non has become a true grass-roots ex- One of the first BBS "Dick Tracy " in- of journals and periodicals. allow users to scan messages, save plosion in recent years. Across the cidents happened in Silicon Valley

Mead is currently not available to them on a file, send mail to multiple country, literally thousands of several years ago. Local police, the FBI personal-computer users. It is pro- addresses, deliver mail on a specific personal-computer users have set up and private security agents who had a vided only on dedicated terminals date, password-protect a message, their systems as homespun informa- warrant kicked down a door in an leased by the data-base company. search through mail files by keyword tion utilities. apartment to get a BBS system on Another experimental venture, the or date and request a return receipt. It is not unusual to hear of home which users were discussing phone Adonis Project, sponsored by several systems that have 1200-baud modems "phreaking.” No arrests were ever publishers, involves electronic deliv- and ten megabytes of hard-disk stor- made. On-line Support ery of scientific journals. age to support uploading and Probably the best way to keep track As information utilities mature, downloading of software. ofwhich BBSs are currently active ts to Electronic mail more uses will emerge. One area that Many BBSs focus on a specific topic, subscribe to the On-Line Computer With the proliferation of personal is a natural and that is sure to grow such as one type of personal com- Telephone Directory published by Jim computers, electronic mail Is becom- quickly is on-line support for puter or software. Others now support Cambron. Subscriptions cost $9 95 ing more viable. As does snail mail,' personal-computer users. Currently, feature articles and on-line documen- and can be obtained by writing to PO information utilities offer users a The Source and Digital Research are in tation, as well as public and private Box 10005, Kansas City, MO 64111

InpnWttrld lo/umr.V N umber fj OA Page 102 Videotex As users turn to data bases to meet their information needs, videotex will become a common office tool.

By Bemell Wright

No one correct method for automating an organization exists nor will it probably ever exist. While networking may be the answer for one office, a platoon of personal computers may the answer for another. And as the technology continues to develop, users may find themselves working with videotex to facilitate office automation in certain organizations. Heavily influenced by increasingly sophisticated automation, the U.S. and major parts of Europe are shifting from industrial to information economies. Evidence of this trend has existed in the office environment for some time. Only recently, however, has this shift invaded the executive/professional work place, and as corporate managers ' plan and implement office automation systems in the 80s, the invasion may become a full frontal assault. Knowledge workers will be called upon to interact with data bases and mainframe-stored informatioi . and they may not possess the computer literacy to do so. product and market Software is being developed to mlnal will be replaced by development issues. A broader take into account the user's level n the U.S. particularly, we multifunction terminals that su- definition Is more useful here. Videotex of computer literacy, and methods are In the third stage of office port the merging of Internal and Is: • are it litera- A generic term used through- being found to make easy I automation. Today's external sources of data, voice, and pleasant for users to deal with ture Is awash with product an- out Europe and North America for Image and video routinely via lo- that extol the two-way information retrieval computer-based productivity. nouncements cal-area nets. Data base organiza- Software brings of Integration of discrete functions systems using telecommunica- the promise an tion schemes will serve the user's tions lines, mainframe appropriate interface to facilitate to produce the convergence of needs, and the user-driven as- and com- the voice, video, data capa- puter/terminal configurations. man-machine dialogue — re- image and pects of videotex could emerge as ferred to bilities. • An umbrella term for low- here as ''user-driven” so- This trend should gener- a major contribution to fourth- lution. cost, easy-to-use Interactive Infor- ate optimism among users, but generation office automation. Videotex allow these vendor-driven solutions mation retrieval systems. can the econo- What is videotex? Historically, my, control flexibility have rarely been developed with • A series of attributes with and needed videotex, first known as viewdata, technological alternatives that for successful implementation of the user In mind. has undergone many definitions. white-collar displace current status quo solu- worker automation. In truth, many of these vendor- One of these comes from Europe, However, for videotex Its tions with lower cost or value-add- to exploit driven solutions have been aimed In the form of a standard for vi- ed solutions (productivity service attributes In the business at creating a franchise for that deotex. Set by the Conference of enhancements). arena, new approaches to the sys- vendor’s equipment. This was European PTTs (Cept) this, stan- tem configuration will be needed. clearly the strategy of Xerox Corp. dard incorporates the national ef- The traditional emphasis on mass with Ethernet. Although local- forts of British Tfelecom's Prestel ideotex, then, is really a market or residential users has area networks have been and will and the French authorities' An- concept that includes at- helped to obscure the application- continue to be major contributors tlope. The Cept standard can best V tributes and technology oriented use of videotex as a com- to the advance of OA Implementa- be seen as a political accommoda- directed at placing more of the ponent In OA executive work- tion, they do not fulfill knowledge tion to two competing system burden of man/machlne dialogues station Implementation. workers’ needs for user-friendly technologies from the continent on the machine and less on the Before exploring the role of vi- tools. Videotex can add new ele- as they approach the world man. This Is the real meaning of deotex In QA, however, we should ments of user-friendly systems market. ‘ user-frlendllness” in the com- review briefly the development of design, namely, communicators’ A North American standard puter context. the concept of office automation. control and cost-containment. also exists for videotex. This stan- In this larger sense, videotex QA Is frequently divided Into four This front-end-processor videotex dard, also known as the Canadian should be seen In the same light evolutionary phases: solution supports: CRC Technical Note No. 709E, in- as the new computer terminals • Data processing, starting in • Screen bypasses through corporates the AT&T Presentation symbolized by Xerox's Star and the late 1950s. multiple entry point In logical Level Protocol with Canadian Tfcll- Apple Computer Inc.’s Lisa. While • Word processing, starting In fashion. don technology. The standard pro- the hardware of both Is signifi- the mid-1960s. • Command-level functions vides for encoding text and cant, the real story is In the way • Integration of WP with other that provide an alternative to pre- graphics information for optimal these products approach soft- functions. For example, WP specified screen fields and communications. It Is a display ware. Instead of making the target merges with communications to formats. standard, which, from a systems knowledge worker learn computer produce electronic mall. • Alternative screen formats architecture focus, defines the commands, they allow him to ma- • A period of customization. Of- for knowledge workers at differ- presentation layer within the In- nipulate pictures that let work be fice communications system con- ent levels of computer literacy. ternational Standards Organiza- performed In ways the user finds trol will be customized for When and If these events hap- tion's multilayer Open Systems familiar. Carrying this concept to managers and professionals, pen, videotex technology will ap- Interconnections Reference its natural conclusion, videotex some recognition of the multi- pear transparent to users, a key Model. and personal computers with tem- function workstation will be issue to knowledge workers seek- The issues Involved In setting plate command processing can be achieved and extreme user- ing better solutions to existing the above two standards are very considered as a transitional tech- friendliness will be emphasized. problems or applications. The tra- Important, but they fall to cover ditional stand-alone videotex ter-

- Copyright. 1001 t>y CO Connonications/Inc . , Iraninghen, HA 01701 Reprinted Iron Computerworld QA CaiPUriRUORLD OFFICE AUTOMATION or CCHPUTERVORL O EXTRA ". Paqe 103

deotex technology has also under- slon Computers. Inc. In the U.K. gone several changes In topology. have become QA videotex vendors In fact. In the QA context, video- by supplying turnkey systems for tex Is an expansion of network ac- “ Videotex could emerge in the form of end-user implementation. Both cess and data base organization new options on timesharing bureaus, are now In the U.S., as are scores Issues, all culminating In front- of turnkey software systems end-processor technique. An evo- as well as on information retrieval houses. ” lution of videotex network services. Videotex could then emerge as architectures follows: new options on time-sharing bu- • Prestel: Targeted at the resi- reaus, as well as on information dential market: low-cost, slmple- retrieval services. The basic ques- to-use. closed data source. tion is why — given the fact that • Blldschlrmtext: Targeted at graphics are nice, but not essen- the residential market; low-cost, PSTN backbone network for full The videotex protocol itself is one tial to most DP/lnformation re- slmple-to-use, opening of data connectivity or packet-switched of the emerging major standard- trieval applications In use today. source gateway concept, closed network for Interoffice and ln- ized languages for text and graph- One answer is that the knowledge user groups. traoffice communications and ics. As the videotex standard Is worker/end user has no allegiance • French Vldeopad/AT&T pro- transaction processing. resolved in the next two years and to the DP department. He Isn't posed standard: Boolean logic, Videotex in the QA initiative. its ability to serve as a common seeking a formal data base man- closed user group extended, use of Videotex can be a part of the OA reference point for data communi- agement system, but an integrat- a packet-switched network or full evolution because of the concept cations emerges, the ability of ed nonproprietary management connectivity via public switched of front-end processing. The vi- time-sharing and telecommunica- Information system. He isn't look- telephone network (PSTN), to un- deotex front-end processor gives tions entities to use videotex for ing for Increased data flow, but limited data source. vendors and users two major ca- protocol conversion will be greatly rather for Increased decision ca- Prestel began as a closed sys- pabilities: communications con- enhanced for users. pability. Graphics help when they tem that linked Internal data trol and screen management. The second capability — are recast as syntheslzors of de- bases for Information only. Fur- We expect to see front-end flex- screen management — Is derived tail. For example, a pie chart de- ther. because Prestel pages were ibility as a part of user lmplemen- from the issue of protocol conver- picts all distribution outlets for a preconstructed prior to transmis- tal solutions. This means users sion. Screen management is the product, a time series depicts sion, no concept of merging Inputs will have an ln-house base of In- capability to merge data Interacti- years of sales performance. was possible. Blldschlrmtext, telligent workstations. Intelligent vely from an external or an inter- Another answer Is that videotex with Its gateways or windows to terminals can perform videotex nal source with user-friendly technology Is volume-dependent external or third-party data bases, processing of information off-line, videotex format. The videotex — knowledge workers will open opens up the network and sup- which will allow users to control page serves as a mask for the non- up a new class of low-cost termi- ports X.25 access. Business users the actual telecommunications videotex-format information nals and terminal enhancements without networks can become session and Its cost. The ability to source. In this light, videotex truly that will make computer power closed user groups and treat the provide cost-containment and In- becomes a communications vehi- from ln-house or remote Installa- Blldschlrmtext backbone as a ser- formation management through cle, rather than a new stand-alone tions more available. vice bureau of value-added net- gateway and screen management rigid information format. The One more subtle answer — works. Analysts will see the capabilities of videotex are key in- front-end processor’s screen borne out by the apparent success nology. The ultimate In user- puts to QA users. management capability supplies of Rediffusion's Viewdata Plus frlendllness for knowledge Communications control Is be- the necessary flexibility to allow program — Is that videotex serves workers Is achieved through voice coming Increasingly Important In videotex systems to be employed as a nonproprietary approach to recognition/synthesis technology. an environment where multiple in a cost-effective fashion In of- data management. Videotex Is a An example of this Is digital delivery schemes — voice, video, fice information environments. generic data management system speech Interpolation (DS1) which Image and data — are becoming In this context, videotex is no readily understood by users who promises unlimited personalized available. Cost-justification for longer videotex perceived as a dis- may not know the Ins and outs of Information processing and trans- various communications media is tinct and somewhat limited Infor- a proprietary data base manage- port at home, office and in be- now a central task in evaluating mation format. With the screen ment software offering. With the tween. Implementation. With the in- management capability. It be- quickly developing offerings by However, no products have yet creasing flexibility of communica- comes a common friendly context IBM Information Network and reached this level, and the tech- tions comes an increased need for for all information needs. The re- ABI's Net 1000 In addition to oth- nology Is still some years off. protocol conversion. As more de- sult Is a complete management in- er time-sharing computer pro- How is videotex deployed? VI- vices are Interconnected, a com- formation system for knowledge cessing services, videotex may be slmllarltles to the new IBM Infor- mon protocol Is needed; since workers. This Is, of course, the a sales strategy component. Vi- mation Network and American there Is no common protocol, pro- goal of many QA and Information deotex front-end solutions are Bell's Advanced Information Ser- tocol conversion becomes vendors. likely to leverage some vendor of- vices Net 1000 offerings. Important. When examining the move- ferings because the videotex capa- The now-developing French VI- Not surprisingly, protocol con- ments In videotex toward a cost- bilities will appeal to the decision- deopad program and AT&T pre- version Is one of the value-added effective solution for commu- making team that Includes sententation level protocol services that AT&T’s new ABI nications and screen manage- high-level end users as well as tra- 1 activity brings traditional busl- subsidiary will supply. It Is also ment. we can see videotex Joining ditional MIS planners. QA ness user search technique — one of the value-added functions office automation by becoming a specifically, boolean search or log- that a videotex front-end proces- solution that can be Implemented Wright Is manager of the vi- ical connectors using “and,” "or" sor can supply, where the primary by the end user. Vendors In Eu- deotex programs at Link, a re represented by a comma and conversion Is from Ascii or IBM rope were early In sensing this. search company based In New "not." In addition, they bring a protocols Into videotex protocols. Aregon Group Ltd. and Redlffu- York.

Computerworld QA Page 104 .

Page 105

INFORMATION RESOURCE CENTERS - ORGANIZING TO SERVE END USERS

Thomas N. Pyke, Jr.

National Bureau of Standards Washington, D. C. 20234

Abstract this may become a primary objective in the establishment and operation of an information This paper summarizes the motivation for resource center. In addition, organizations and issues associated with organizing to support have begun to realize the need to establish end user direct access to computing resources. organizational constraints on end users, such as A combination of information center functions to to assure integrity of data, auditability of the provide access to large mainframes and support results of computing, and data and program to end users in their access to microcomputers security. is included. Various issues are identified and discussed that will help organizations develop Driving Forces supporting organizational structures for end user computing. The environment in which these objectives have been identified and in which end users are Introduction coming on their own is one in which managers' demands for data and data analysis are growing. Direct access by end users to computing This is happening concurrently with a general resources is becoming commonplace. Organiza- growing public awareness of the availability of tions are developing a variety of ways to assist computers, especially microcomputers. Schools these end users. Some organizations have estab- and homes are fast becoming hotbeds of hands-on lished information centers to hold the hands of activity involving microcomputers. Newspapers, end users of mainframe computers. Another form magazines, business periodicals, and many other of support is the microcomputer center, to help publications have feature articles on the use of end users in selecting and using their desktop computers. Advertisements for personal computing computers. There are advantages to integrating appear frequently in all forms of the mass media organizational support for all forms of end user as well as in business and trade publications. computing, both to assure that individual users and their applications are matched with the most Traditional data processing support staff effective computing resources, and to assure that are spread thin, especially with the continuing overall organizational objectives and constraints burden of maintaining existing software coupled are met. with efforts to meet new demands. Substantial application backlogs exist. 1 These include docu- In describing this integrated approach, this mented applications waiting for attention from paper uses the term "information resource center." data processing support staff as well as an An information resource center provides informa- "invisible" backlog of applications which have not tion, consultation, technical assistance, and yet come to the attention of data processing training to end users. An "end user" is anyone support staff because end users believe such an at any level in an organization who has a require- effort would be futile given these applications' ment for computer-based support, who is not a priority and the data processing staff avail- professional programmer, and who does not expect ability. End user concern about not being able to become one. to rely on the data processing staff is apparently especially strong for the creation of small Motivation for End User Computing programs and making quick changes to existing programs Objectives A substantial amount of attention has been An information resource center can provide given over the last few years to "user friendly" better delivery of all forms of support to end or "user oriented" application packages, for both users of computer-based systems. This can result mainframes and microcomputers. Packages such as in better and more timely decisions being made at all levels within an organization. In many cases, it can decrease computing costs. Some organizations may see a significant benefit in encouraging user-driven computing in itself, and

U.S. Government work. Not protected by U.S. copyright. Page 106

VisiCalc* have been heralded as major breakthroughs Microcomputer Support Centers in providing computing support directly to end users. In addition, very high-level languages, A number of organizations have reported including those related to database management success in helping end users through the estab- systems, can frequently be used by end users with lishment of microcomputer support centers. For only minimal assistance. example, the American Can Company operates a major microcomputer center that provides hot lines Finally, computer hardware technology, includ- for end users, opportunities for sharing exper- ing logic, main memory, and peripherals, has iences in the use of specific programs, general evolved rapidly over the last several years, to knowledge about micros, and "tips" on micro bring substantial computing capability at accept- use. Training is provided to end users, and able cost to the individual for business and home. assistance ip custom programming is provided when appropriate. 5 In the next two parts of this paper, the two currently predominant forms of end user computing Travelers Insurance Company has established a support that respond to these driving forces, the Personal Computing Center, which is operated as an IBM information center concept and microcomputer internal store similar to commercial computer 6 support centers, are discussed. This is followed stores. It is reported to be operating as a part by a presentation and discussion of the issues of an information center within Travelers to involved in providing integrated support for end provide centralized coordination and support to user computing. end users.

IBM Information Center Concept A number of Federal agencies have established microcomputer support centers along with initial The concept of the "information center" was operating policies for the acquisition and use of developed by IBM Canada in the mid-1970's, and has microcomputers. One example of such an activity been accepted and implemented in several different is the Department of Agriculture's Information forms. It is reported that over 40% of medium Technology Center, which provides demonstrations and large scale IBM computer installations already of microcomputer equipment and assistance in have an information center supporting end users in acquiring and setting up new systems. operation. IBM-style information centers assist end users in directly accessing a set of software Integrated Support packages that operate on inhouse mainframe for End User Computing computers. The software packages are carefully selected so as to be of major benefit to end users End user access to mainframes and use of in setting up new applications with minimal support microcomputers are part of a larger picture of from information center professional staff and supporting end users in an integrated manner. An without the use of professional programmers. information resource center can provide effective Information centers are usually "captive" of an integrated support to end users. organization's inhouse data processing operation, and serve to promote centralized, mainframe- Deciding Among Alternative Forms oriented support, typically under the control of of End User Computing mid-level data processing managers. An objective, unbiased source of assistance Organizations have reported end user satis- to end users can help them to consider using faction with the establishment and operation of desktop computers, accessing inhouse mainframes, information centers. At the same time, the crea- or using remote computer services outside the tion of information centers has resulted in a need organization. Each application or class of for additional mainframe computer capacity. Many applications can receive special attention, with organizations supporting information centers have all relevant information made available to the had to upgrade their CPU and other computing end user to decide which alternative form of resources. In some cases, entire new mainframes computing is best. The end user can be helped to have been installed to satisfy direct end user determine required functionality and the level of demand stimulated by having an information center. performance necessary to satisfy known require- The long term effect on end users of the avail- ments and to evaluate alternatives against these ability of information centers is open to specu- requirements. lation. It has been suggested that information centers may only whet the appetites of end users End users can be provided general information for more computing capacity and related services. and evaluations of specific hardware and software products, as new alternatives continually become available. Emphasis can be given to planning for Registered trademark. The naming of products and a transition to newer technological solutions organizations in this paper is solely for the as they become viable, while supporting existing purpose of identification in order to make certain and current applications effectively with points in the paper, and no endorsement by NBS or currently available technological solutions. any other meaning is intended. . . . Page 107

Assistance in Selecting Software

The information resource center can maintain for any particular form of end user computing. a catalog of information about available applica- It also means that the center should be separate tions software for alternative system configura- from any inhouse, operational data processing tions. Because of the impossibility of a installation so as not to be captive of the relatively small staff having detailed information orientation of the management of such an installa- about many applications packages, the information tion. It is important, however, that an informa- resource center can provide a "window" to sources tion resource center operate under the auspices of of first hand information about each package. End the organization's senior official responsible for users can be helped to select and use application information resources management. This individual and program generators as appropriate, in addition should encourage an open-minded attitude in to very high-level languages. It has been supporting the appropriate use of the alternative reported that over 30% of the information centers forms of end user computing. This contrasts with in operation support the use of FOCUS, over 15% the viewpoint of the manager of an ADP installa- support RAMIS, and over 60% support SAS. tion or the manager of a microcomputer support center, which itself may be an advocacy group for The staff of the information resource center microcomputers can provide minimal application analysis. Train- ing can be provided or arrangements can be made Although the information resource center may for training of end users. When necessary, end be thought of as a "logical" entity which may be users can be referred to inhouse or other avail- distributed organizationally, a central group in able data processing staff for extensive program- each organization can avoid redundancy in provid- ming or more detailed application analysis. ing all forms of end user support. It can also provide a comnon focus for the interconnection of Common Focus for Data Administration desktop computers, the direct use of inhouse mainframes, and access to remote computing and Although centralized data administration data services. support is already provided within some organizations, an information resource center represents "Helping" Vs. "Controlling" an opportunity to address some of the data-related problems created through end user computing. End End users will have a perception of an users can be informed of what data exists and how information resource center in terms of whether they can access it. They may be assured of the it is "supportive", as a source of information and availability of data where and when needed through assistance, or "controlling", in the sense of the use of the alternative forms of end user being an obstacle or hindrance rather than a help. computing. This perception is likely drawn as much from the methods used to exert whatever controls are Appropriate organizational controls can be applied as to the existence of the controls them- established to assure data integrity and accuracy. selves. For example, the use of incentive-based This support can assure that decisions made techniques that encourage end users to select throughout an organization are based on consistent microcomputer hardware and software that has been and rel iable data determined to be desirable from an overall organizational viewpoint can provide both assistance to Satisfying Organizational Constraints end users and control at the same time. Assist- ance in accessing data, such as in downloading it Implied in the data administration function readily into microcomputers from the mainframe, is an organizational need to control data. This can be both a service to end users as well as a includes assuring the confidentiality of data means for controlling data consistency within the within the organization and controlling the organization. extent that it may be externally accessible. , Auditing the use of data and programs may also be Concluding Observations required. All of the forms of end user computing The input and use of data by end users employ- identified in this paper are proliferating ing microcomputers may lead to the use of rapidly. The International Data Corporation practices that are generally unacceptable in more projects that in 1986 U.S. desktop computer ship- traditional data processing operations. Logic ments totaling $14.2 billion will exceed U.S. and range boundary checking of data as it is mainframe shipments of $13.7 billion. This r entered beyond the context of the immediate data astonishing projection exemplifies both the v - entry may be desirable and may require continuing and rapidity of change in both public and private access to a larger data base as data is entered. organizations

Organizational Placement End users are coming more into their own, with senior program managers, who are or The use of the terms "objective" and represent senior end users, gaining more pow< r' "unbiased" above implies that the information within organizations relative to information resource center not be an advocacy organization systems managers. One interesting question is whether the eventual domination of computing decisions by end users is a fait accompli or whether this trend is being accelerated by the establishment of information centers, microcomputer support centers, and other forms of commercial and inhouse support of various forms of end user computing. Although one may specu- late as to the "chicken and egg" nature of end user demands versus support for end user demands, there is now no doubt that end user computing is a powerful force. It must be dealt with effectively and quickly by all levels of management within each organization. The ideas and issues discussed in this paper directed toward considering end user computing in an integrated fashion are proposed as a contribution toward a better managerial and technical basis for handling the inevitable demands of, and support required by, end users.

References

1 1. "DPers No. 1 Headache? Applications Backlog," Computerworld, April 11, 1983.

2. L.W. Hammond, "Management Considerations for an Information Center," IBM Systems Journal,

Vol . 21 , Number 2, 1982.

3. James Martin, Application Development Without

Programmers , Chapter 19, "Information Center Management," Prentice-Hall, 1982.

4. Richard G. Canning, EDP Analyzer, Vol. 20, Number 6, June 1982.

5. J. Fioravante, "American Can Company's Micro Center Turns into Smash Hit," MIS Week, February 17, 1982, page 27.

6. "Travelers Insurance Company Makes it a Policy: Personal Computers for Everybody," Computerworld, July 19, 1982.

7. Dennis Gilbert, E. Parker, and L. Rosenthal, "Microcomputers, a Review of Federal Agency Experiences," National Bureau of Standards, Special Publication Number 500-102, June 1983.

8. W. R. Synnott, "Microcomputers Threaten Central Data Control," Information Systems News, November 29, 1982, page 15. Page 109 FOCUS

Computer Based Training By Kate Barnes

ffice automation and end-user computing are O often characterized as being easy, quick and efficient. All those things are true — once you get the hang of them. However, achieving that first fa- miliarization can be a threatening experience for many users. In addition, when a user does become familiar with one machine or software package, switching to a different machine or package can present a new threat. Most users of automated tools have one thing in common. They want to reap the benefits of automation without wading through pages of accompanying documentation. The president of a major software company recently acknowledged that the majority of users want simply to insert a disk in their machines

and get started — but to- scale basis. Training summed up by one user's • Customization: No two produces a higher rate of day's software Just Isn't guides, whether produced response to a hands-on students have the same retention than other pre- friendly enough for that by the vendor or a third demonstration at a recent needs. With computer- sentation formats. approach. party, can still lose the us- trade show. After working based training, no two stu- er's Interest and/or under- half-way through a train- dents will have exactly the standing. An alternative ing program on Wordstar, same learning experience. resently, comput- method Is the use of com- she turned to her compan- The computer Is able to re- er-based training s learning tools, puter-based training. In ion and said, "Exactly spond with helps, branch- P la Just gaining a vendor manuals computer-based training, what I want!” ing and reviews as re- foothold In the business A and documenta- a specially designed pro- Computer-based train- quired. arena According to com- tion can be difficult to gram teaches the student ing offers many advan- • Speed: The most-used pany representatives. If master, and technology Is how to use a given piece of tages over classroom or characteristics of the soft- you purchase an office still too complex to plug In automated technology. manual-directed alterna- ware can be taught In a system from Wang Lab- and use. The user Is prompted and tives: matter of minutes or oratories. Inc. or a Die- With users In a hurry to guided by the computer In • Environment: The hours. playwrlter from IBM. your learn and technology hard learning about the tech- user can get right to work • Convenience: Train- training alternatives will to understand, a gap ex- nology. on the machine he will be ing can conform to the stu- be limited to classroom ists. In an attempt to keep Most users seem to ap- using. dent's time schedule. training or self-lnatruc- this gap from widening, preciate learning via the • Simulation: Comput- • Cost: Computer-based tlonal manuals IBM does some vendors have re- computer, and some out- er-based training pro- training is easy on the have computer-based sponded with classroom right enjoy It. Fbr example. grams typically simulate budget. training available for some Instruction and self-paced Individual Software, Inc.'s the characteristics of the • Success: There Is less of Its other office products learning manuals. A brisk "The Instructor" has suc- machine or the software chance the student will be Both companies use the business has also emerged cessfully taught several of package being taught. Us- seriously frustrated be- computer to assist In Inter- In third-party publishing my neighbors how to use ers are able to learn while cause computer-based nal staff training of training guides. the IBM Personal Comput- doing. This all occurs In a training controls the OA alternatives Involv- However, problems still er keyboard. Perhaps user controlled setting that pre- learning experience Many ing personal computers of- exist. Classroom training reactions to computer- vents the student from get- educators also believe fer more training cholres Is expensive on a wide- based training are best ting lost In the system. computer-based training Several companies are dr-

veloplng and marketing comput- • Is it engaging? Will it hold the is. determine whether an author- be trained to use the system each er-based training for popular of- learner's attention by means of ing system is available. Using an month. That can add up to a lot of fice packages such as Visicorp's graphics, varied activities and authoring system means you de- time in training or a lot of system Visicalc. Micropro's Wordstar, student involvement? Stay away sign the training and input the misuse. If an IBM mainframe Xyquest. Inc.'s Easywriter II. Mul- from passive training that re- data. The system then generates computer is part of the system, tiplan, Ashton Tate’s Dbase II and quires the user only to press the much of the computer code. Au- IBM's QS authoring system might others. RETURN key. Questions, simula- thoring systems can be costly. In be an alternative. If you are using tion and effective humor all keep addition, some authoring systems a configuration of Apple Comput- involvement high. are prohibitive because the author er. Inc. computers, Apple Pilot hese training packages • Does it use effective teaching essentially has to learn a compli- may be useful. Or, If you have a typically are offered for a methods? True/false and multi- cated system language. Of course, variety of personal computers, an T purchase price in the ple-choice questions are good test- CBT programs can be coded line authoring system like Coursemas- neighborhood of S50 to $100 per ing devices, but may not be the by line, but I don't recommend ter (Digital Research. Inc.'s CP/M- course. Considering that most best ways to teach students how based) may meet your needs. personal computers in the busi- to use a software package. Simu- After Identifying the means of ness environment represent a lation controlled by the computer creating the CBT, you should then payout of $4,000 to $10,000, in- can often give the student a more move on to costing out the project, "If your need is cluding software, a quick, sure practical experience. Including the labor and time In- way of learning to use the person- • Does it offer complete cover- large in scope, you volved, the hardware and soft- al computer is certainly worth the age? Don't be fooled into believing may want to Investi- ware needed for course develop- Investment. that spending less time ment and the cost of duplicating in training gate the 'make CBT’ One of the first questions users means learning the subject the CBT training to make It avail- ask about software is whether to thoroughly. option. Before you able for many users. make or buy it. If the training you • What is the reputation of the dive in, take a close The Importance of technology seek is available in CBT form, I’d company among its customers? ” to organizations Is growing; the look at the cost. emphatically recommend buying • Does the vendor provide tele- popularity of computer-based it; in terms of both hard dollars phone and on-site support training seems likely to grow and labor, it will be less expen- services? along with It. OK sive. Before buying, you should What do you do if computer- ask yourself the following based training is not available for questions: your particular need? If that need this approach unless the time, • Is the it easy to use? You don't is large in scope, you may want to money and programming talent Barnes. West Coast manager, want to have to be trained to use investigate the “make CBT" op- are readily available. telecommutes from Tucson, the training. tion. Before you dive in, take a Suppose your organization has Arlz., to Deltak Microsystems, • Does it teach what it says it close look at the cost in terms of a fairly complex customized corre- Inc. In Naperville, III. Deltak Mi- will teach? time and money. spondence/data base office sys- crosystems offers computer- • Is it compatible with your First, decide if your problem is tem. Because of turnover and based training on a variety of QA hardware? suited to this kind of training. If it staff expansion, 20 people must and computer-related topics.

Computerworld QA Page 111

For the uninitiated to succeed in computing, they need training, the right equipment— and good coaching.

END-USER GAME PLAN by Hugh Ryan and their sequence, and includes an overview of each course’s content. The curriculum Systems departments can’t keep up with user must begin with such basics as turning the demands for their services. Recently, end- terminal on, signing on, and interpreting sys- usercomputing environments have been tout- tems messages. Courses should build on each ed as the way to cut through the dp services other, until topics like software products and backlog. And, because of the microcom- system development are covered.

puter’s rapidly increasing popularity, more It is essential to realize that for end

and more end users find themselves in a com- users, the computer is a tool, not a career.

puting environment. Many people are won- Interest in the machine lasts only as long as it

dering if they should be moving in this direc- assists them in their work. Therefore, users

tion; what will it mean for them in one year, should never leave a course without learning or in five years? Of greater concern, these some things that help them in their daily people need to know what factors will make work. their end-user computing environment pro- In addition, because users have a lim- ductive and successful. ited amount of time for training, the curricu- After working in numerous client or- lum should be organized into short modules

ganizations, 1 have observed that the follow- of one half to two days per course unit. ing factors are necessary to create such an Software vendors often provide mate-

environment: rial that can be used to train end users, but

• relevant user training, some customization is usually required Ex- • coaches, amples related to the user’s specific enter- • evolutionary development of systems, prise are helpful. Promotional and technical • appropriate data delivery systems, and data from the vendor will need to be deleted • effective use of fourth generation software or moved to a later curriculum sequence tools. As users advance through product- Each of these factors should be part of short- oriented courses, they’ll also need to know and long-term end-user computing strategies. about systems development. Therefore, a Walk into any end-user computing methodology for systems development and environment and you will probably find that training should be established. Methodolo- the users come from a variety of back- gies are now being defined for the end-user grounds, ranging from shop floor machinists computing environment which should facili- to MBAs. They are likely to have equally var- tate teaching users how to develop a system ied levels of knowledge about computers and systems development. Training is needed to COACHES Even when the training build a common foundation of knowledge CAN SOLVE anc* me,hodoiogy are ***• among these users. They must be trained not unanticipated problems only in the tools of the end-user environment PROBLEMS wi „ For exam-

but also in computer fundamentals and the pie, I know of a user who was unable to sign rudiments of systems development. on by himself, because in class the terminals Training must begin at the most basic had already been on. In another case, a top level. For example, inexperienced users will management person was delayed over a most likely encounter difficulty translating weekend in his task because of confusion their computing demands into suitable ma- about how indexes worked To prevent these chine form, organizing the logic so the ma- problems from happening, people variously chine can follow the intention of the design- called coaches, consultants, or advisors are er, and determining the time requirements of needed. By any name, they are key to the the job. success of end-user environments Training, like systems, must be de- One cannot simply designate any in-

signed and developed. The first step is estab- dividual as a coach and expect success Good lishing a curriculum that defines the courses coaches must have several innate qualities

End users become nonusers when they perceive that their coaches know little more than they do.

The characteristic I have observed most fre- valued advisors, serving almost as a machine using a fourth generation language. The sys- quently in successful coaches is a “can do’’ interface to get management the information tem uses an end-user data store usually devel- attitude. 1 know of a coach who, upon learn- it needs. oped for the specifics of the end-user system; ing that a user needed some data that required End-user systems tend to evolve that is, one end-user data store serves only numerous approvals prior to release to end through many versions. Such development is one or a few end-user systems. users, slipped into a tape room, removed the difficult for most data processors to accept, The end-user data store is maintained tape under a coat, copied it, and then returned because it means users won’t know their re- by a data delivery system (DDS). The DDS it. While 1 cannot recommend such an action, quirements until they see the system. This component takes data external to the data it is indicative of the coach’s “can do” atti- seems contradictory but can, in fact, be re- store and puts it in a suitable format. Depend- tude. In this case, the user drew some signifi- solved through iterative development of dif- ing upon the tool, there may be a vendor- cant and timely conclusions with the contra- ferent system versions. The emphasis supplied product that loads the data into the band data. changes from “What do you want to do with data store. Most systems have more than one

The successful coach likes to work on the data?” to "What data do you want?” It is DDS. The data source is external— it may be a many different, short-term projects, and can reasonable to expect an answer for the first transaction system database or data supplied estimate the effort required for proposed pro- question, but management cannot answer the by a vendor. Given the wide range of possible jects. Data processors who derive great satis- second question without seeing the data. sources, a dds will probably be designed and faction from long-term projects that require Another feature of evolutionary de- implemented for each data source. continued analysis of the same area will not velopment is the speed of delivery in any The dds is one of the most complex be happy as end-user coaches. Good coaches iteration of the system. The system user must components of an end-user environment. can also make quick decisions on whether a see a cycle completed quickly enough to be ddss must handle all the typical problems of a project is suitable for the end-user environ- assured the system is moving forward. While transaction system—such as data validation, ment or the systems department. there are many definitions for “quick reformatting, and extraction—in a typically

The coach should be knowledgeable enough,” a common guideline suggests no high-volume situation. In addition, it should about one or two of the tools employed by more than 100 person-days per iteration. This address the question of synchronizing the end users. End users quickly become non- is an upper limit. Many iterations require end-user data store and the data source. This users when they perceive that their coaches only a few hours. alone can be very difficult when adjustments know little more than they do. This is particu- are made to the data source. A well-designed larly important when introducing the user to COMMITTED A third feature of evolu- DDS is important to a reliable end-user data an information center; she must believe the USER tionary development is store and, in the long term, to the viability of coach possesses a craftsman's knowledge of a committed, involved the end-user environment. REQUIRED all the necessary details. user—meaning the user The dds is one of the most underesti- While coaches need an in-depth must often write logic for execution. Users mated parts of an end-user environment. In knowledge of one or two tools, they must will certainly be involved in the heavy initial the initial enthusiasm about the new environ- also understand the capabilities and limits of use of the system and will direct each iter- ment, selection of suitable hardware and sup- fourth generation software tools. Indeed, ation of the evolving design. This commit- port receives great emphasis; the dds compo- fourth generation tools in the wrong environment is particularly key to evolutionary de- nents may be no more than an extract and ment can be counterproductive. The inexpe- velopment since early versions of the system load to the end-user data store. To get things rienced user needs a coach to judge which may be rather rough and may suffer from going, this quick and dirty effort is reason- tool is right. such problems as program aborts, data excep- able and often advisable. The problems arise Coaches must get along with end us- tions, and logic flows. In this phase, users when this initial version becomes the model ers. A coach should be assigned to an end must see progress toward a desirable system for subsequent dds efforts. In two to three user based on at least a superficial review of or their efforts will cease. years, the lack of validation and controls will the personal characteristics of the two. More- 1 know of a system that was devel- result in an unreliable end-user data store, over, the assignment should be an ongoing oped on an evolutionary basis with extensive and everyone will wonder how it happened. arrangement rather than one based on whoev- user involvement in design coding and test- The dds is a crucial, but often unac- er is available when the user calls. An end ing. The user went through all the problems knowledged, portion of the typical end-user user will feel the arrangement is unproductive of the early states—incomplete screens, lost environment. It should be used not only to if she must continually explain the problem to data, and execution time problems. At a later extract and load data but also to validate, new faces. phase, several extensive inquiries were added cross-check, and apply controls in a high-

The coach must also learn the end us- to the system. After additional criteria were volume environment. In addition, it must be er’s business. The systems that end users added to one inquiry, run-time increased coordinated and changed as the external data write are closely related to their businesses. from one to two minutes to four to six min- source changes. They are written in terminology the user utes. Yet the user took great pride in the run- requirements imply knows and are performed as the user would time increase because it reflected the addi- ACHILLES’ These expect. The coach and end user must commu- tional problems his staff had experienced Qp that a viable data delivery clas- nicate in the end user’s language. I know of when doing the inquiries manually. The user system is similar to a SYSTEM one coach who became so involved that he was truly committed to the system. s j ca ) transaction process- was eventually absorbed into his end user’s In a successful multi-end-user system ing system and should be developed using the department, where one of his ongoing tasks is environment, expect a proliferation of end- techniques and tools of that environment. further system development. user data stores, along with the problems of This in turn implies that when an end user As the coach works with higher-level synchronization and coordination with the contemplates a new system, which requires a management, the ability to understand and original data source. A typical architecture new data store, then a DDS’s component will solve business problems is crucial. In the top defined for an end-user environment consists be developed by dp, using third generation levels of management, coaches can become of iteratively developed software, normally tools. Developed at third generation speeds.

DATAMATION —

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The DDS is a crucial but often unacknowledged portion of the typical end-user environment.

this component is often the Achilles' heel of tional? If conversational, will it protect rec- question is what data are needed. This ques- the end-user environment because of the long ords across exchanges? If batch, can it be tion is not the typical functional requirements lead time for delivery and the embedding of invoked by the user program? The user and/ view. Second, in data-structurc methodolo- ongoing third generation components with or coach must be aware of the assumptions. gy, the database design is driven by how the their inherent inflexibility. Conversely, when Yet the need for awareness seems to user will use the system. In end-user environ- done incorrectly, this can lead to serious data contradict the concept of fourth generation ments, these functional requirements arc not integrity problems because of bad or obsolete software. Why is it necessary to be aware of available before the system is designed, but data. assumptions when the software is supposed instead evolve with the system. As a result, The presence of fourth generation to free users from computer concerns? In the we could not do data design as typically de- software tools such as Focus or VisiCalc does beginning, one can stay within the assump- fined in a data-structured methodology. Fi- not always indicate end-user computing. tions because of the simplicity of initial ef- nally, technical architecture and system de- Many sites have fourth generation tools spin- forts. But with experience, the end user be- sign are driven from the data design, which, ning on disks where they arc rarely, if ever, comes confident and desires to do more. of course, is not available. accessed. Eventually, unless the assumptions of the Fourth generation languages impose a End-user computing, however, can tool are understood, they will be violated, data design on the user as well as a technical be greatly facilitated by fourth generation making the tool counterproductive. When architecture. These two observations proved software tools if they are understood and this occurs, one must wait for the mythical key in defining a development methodology properly used. Such tools are fundamentally “next release” of the tool, or stop doing for end users. The first point means that rath- different from previous software tools, with whatever created the problem. er than do a data design, one should under- new and varied capabilities. Three distinctive stand the language's underlying data design features of the fourth generation software FOURTH Fourth generation tools are assumptions and fit requirements into this tools arc: GEN TOOLS prevalent in end-user envi- data design. And, rather than design a techni- • a facility to describe data outside the pro- ronments. They provide cal architecture for a fourth generation lan- USEFUL cesses that use the data; large productivity gains guage, the objective should be to fit the de- • an assumption on the underlying data de- when requirements conform to the design assign to the technical architecture provided by sign permitting the generation of procedural sumptions of the product. They also provide the language. logic based on nonprocedural descriptions; productivity disasters when the data and ar- • an assumption on the underlying technical chitecture assumptions are ignored or misun- ACCESS TO The successful user of a architecture providing a place to “put" gen- derstood by end users and their coaches. fourth generation language EXPERT IN erated logic. Does the basic nature of systems de- should have access to an LANGUAGE The need for description of data is not velopment change in an end-user computing expert in the language obvious to the end user. For instance, users environment? Practitioners in the field con- ideally the coach mentioned earlier. The don't see why it is important to the computer sistently say yes. Over the last year, 1 worked coach's knowledge and experience arc cen- that a field, such as order number, is 10 char- on a project that evaluated the suitability of tral to the effort’s success. acters long, or why it is equally significant classic methodologies for an end-user envi- A methodology for end-user comput- that order amount is found in a record prior to ronment. The model we used identifies six ing was established in the project; it is itera- order cost. For these reasons, most fourth major phases in an end-user environment sys- tive in nature with great emphasis on user generation tools provide some means to de- tems development: involvement in fitting requirements to the scribe data externally. The facility can be • define functional requirements—estab- fourth generation tools' assumptions used by a dp person to define initial detail lishes what the system is expected to do; We have had enough dp experience to descriptions of data that the user can then • define data design—develops a data design know there are no general solutions to all the access in a variety of ways. to support the system, based on functional problems. End-user computing is one more A more subtle point of an assumed requirements; way to get information to the people who underlying data design is that fourth genera- • design technical architecture—describes need it. As such, it offers an exciting oppor- tion software is built upon the principle that the system's major processes and how they tunity, but we must be aware of the problems data structure implies program structure. As a interrelate; Certainly, end-user computing provides real result, one can find report writers that extract • system design—delineates the system benefits. If it is to succeed, a few key moves from flat files, hierarchical files, or network based on data design and technical architec- must be made initially, which will lead to structures, but it’s rare to find efficient hier- ture; long-term success in this new and fascinating archical report writers that can cope with net- • implementation—transforms the system de- field. • work data structures and flat file report writ- sign into a machine-executable format; ers that can deal with hierarchical files. Simi- • testing—ensures the system performs the Hugh Ryan is a partner with Arthur larly. many on-line generators can cope with expected functions. Andersen & Co He joined the firm n a single record per screen but have problems In our model, data design precedes and large- 1971 with a master s in mechanica with multiple records. Or. numerous spread- ly dictates system design. Such a methodolo- engineering Over the last six years he sheet handlers assume that the application re- gy is referred to as a data-structurcd develop- has concentrated on structured mein quirements can be mapped into a matrix data ment methodology. ods for software engineering structure. The point is that program gener- We found that the evolutionary devel- REPRINTS AVAILABLE ators arc built explicitly or implicitly around opment approach and fourth generation tools Reprints of all Datamation articles an assumed data structure, and it is essential used by most end users implied some funda- are available m quantities of 100 to understand these structures. mental changes to the development process or more Details may be obtained The software also makes a set of as- as described in the data-stmetured method- by telephoning Mary Ann Hariton sumptions about technical architecture. Is it ology. First, functional requirements arc not (212) 605-9729 batch or on-line? If on-line, is it conversa- defined in end-user computing; rather, the

DATAMATION Page 114

^ervlce by John Butler Hard Facts on Hardware Service

In that old bluegrass song, “The Arkansas Traveler," the old man fiddled in the sun all

day, said he didn’t need to fix his roof until a rainy day. Try that piece of homespun

wisdom with the new computer system you just bought, or are about to buy, and you are

liable to take a very costly bath indeed. John Butler offers some very practical advice about

options available for the care and repair of computer hardware guaranteed to benefit end users, big and small.

n deciding to purchase a desktop com- Also, if you put off the matter of service the system because they are all connected Iputer, many people often overlook one until after your system breaks down, your to the central processor and are interac- very important consideration—hardware system is likely to stay down for a consid- tive. In certain cases, an attached unit can maintenance. The reason for this over- erable period of time. even damage another unit. sight stems usually from one of two There are four main types of service While the problems I have pointed out sources: the purchaser is a first-time com- available to the end user: (1) carry-in ser- may not be very common ones, they do puter user who fails to realize how much vice, (2) mail-in service, (3) self-service, (4) occur, and you should be aware of them. s/he will come to rely on the system; the on-site service. Mail-in service person believes the particular system is Which of the four is best for you de- such a world-beater that s/he cannot con- pends on a number of factors. Can you af- This service is even less expensive than ceive that it could ever possibly break ford to be without your computer for any carry-in service. You must determine down. While desktop computers are length of time (up to four weeks on some which unit is defective, usually to the much more reliable than their predeces- mail-in service)? Can you afford to pay for point of the defective circuit board or ma- sors, they do sometimes fail. And when on-site service? Can you transport your jor mechanical assembly, and then ship it they do, service becomes an important system to the nearest repair facility? Are directly to a depot or to the manufacturer. consideration. you qualified, and do you have the time, This service can be charged at a yearly Unfortunately, not everyone realizes to repair the system yourself? There are rate for a contract or at a flat rate for the the importance of considering service un- other factors to consider but these should particular unit returned. This flat rate re- til the computer fails—and then it is often set you thinking along the right lines. mains the same, even if you end up send- too late. Therefore, we must consider the ing a good unit to the manufacturer, be- Carry-in service question of when should you think about cause they will still have to charge you to service. Typically, carry-in depot contracts are test the item sent. If you are paying for an 35 to 50 percent less expensive than an annual contract, the only additional Planning ahead on-site contract. You can also pay for charge will be the cost of shipping it to the

The best time to consider service is be- carry-in service on a per-incident basis, depot. The repair depot will normally in- fore you buy a computer. First of all, after which may be less expensive in the begin- clude return shipping in the price of the a tentative selection of a particular system ning but become more expensive in the contract, unless you request special freight has been made, you would want to find a long run. The majority of carry-in service or air service. service organization that will handle all of can be completed, while you wait, in two If you do not have an annual contract the products you have chosen. Say, for hours or less, although some problems for mail-in service, the depot will require example, if you find that there is no ser- may require leaving the equipment that you call them to get a shipping au- vice available for the particular printer overnight. thorization number prior to sending any- that you had in mind, you may want to The major drawback to carry-in service thing to them. Without this authorization go with an alternative for which there is (as with mail-in service) is that you must they may refuse to accept the package. service available. Another point to con- determine which unit (central processor, The depot will normally tell you what the sider is that you will find it easier to deal disk drive, printer, video display unit, charge will be for their service in advance with one service organization. So, if possi- tape drive, and so on) is failing. This is so that payment can be enclosed with the ble, select all of the components with an usually easy to determine, but in some defective part, unless billing has been ar- eye toward total service through one cases it can be very confusing. For exam- ranged in advance. vendor. ple, if when you try to load the operating With mail-in service the most impor-

If you have already purchased your com- system (boot the system) nothing appears tant factor to consider is time. If you figure puter, the best time to think about service on the screen, is the failing unit (1) the sys- on three days to ship the unit each way is now. If you wait until your system fails, tem disk? (2) the disk drive? (3) the central and add the time to process your part and you may wind up taking a form of service processor? (4) the video display? or (5) a make the repair (this can take from one that is unsuitable to your needs and very cable? day to four weeks), it is easy to see the costly in the long run. The time to locate a Occasionally, a video display, or print- drawback to this type of service. The bot- fire extinguisher is before the fire. er, or disk drive can affect another unit in tom line, however, is that you can save

Dttktop Computing March 1983 “Hard Facts on Hardware Service. “John Butler, Desktop Conputirtg. Bareft 198J. pages 60-62. Reprinted by permission. Copyright (c) by Uayne Green Inc., J98J. DLL RIGHTS RESERVED. .

Page 115

Service money—provided you can do without the an hour. If not, he must order the re- The benefits are immediate and obvious. system for some length of time. quired part and make a second trip to When you have a problem, you do not

You can also save time and money by complete most repairs. This is the differ- have to determine which component in shopping around for the mail-in depot ence between getting the computer up in the system is at fault. If the printer prints that is closest to you. This saves you hours rather than days. incorrectly, it is probably the printer that shipping time and costs. With the devel- If you need a part that the field engineer is at fault, but in some instances the cen- opment of third-party repair depots na- does not carry with him, how fast can he tral processor or even the disk drive could tionwide, this becomes an even more de- get it? This is a measure of the depth of the be the cause of your problem. If initially sirable option because they are all com- parts support that you will get. Some you call the printer people for a problem peting for your business, which brings companies will normally be able to get an caused by your central processor, you the level of service up while driving the emergency part delivered to the field engi- eventually will have to call the central cost down. neer overnight. processor people. The printer service company will then have the option of Self-service 2. Response time. This is measured in charging you for a service call not con- two ways. First, when you place a service If you, or someone you know, can ser- nected with a problem in your printer. call, will have to wait for vice the system safely (remember you are how long you field call back? 8. Preventive dealing with potentially hazardous volt- your engineer to you Many maintenance (PM). You need problems can be resolved with a phone not wait for your system to break before ages of up to 12,000 volts once you remove the covers), then you can save mon- call. If you get a phone response from calling for service. Often a problem can be your field engineer within an hour, you prevented from ey by making your own repairs. With self- surfacing through the may be back up and running in another proper preventive service your cost is limited to replacement maintenance program. parts plus your time, but you must consid- hour. A good example of the value of preven- Second, after you call for service, how tive maintenance involves a small er if you can afford to leave your normal manu- duties while you repair a computer, and long will you have to wait before the field facturing firm in New Hampshire, which who might repair the computer when you engineer arrives at your location ready to had purchased a desktop computer with begin the repair? This could vary from as are out of town or out sick. Another an 18-megabyte hard disk drive. After 18 little as a few hours to the next day or months of trouble-free point to consider is the availability of operation, disk spare parts. even longer. problems developed, and a field engineer called in. Self-service is normally best suited to was Results: the disk drive was 3. Technical support. Even the best field the home hobbyist who enjoys working replaced at a cost of $1,700 plus labor at service personnel are stumped by a prob- on his system and whose business is not $72 per hour. The cause of this financial lem from time to time. In such an in- tied to the computer. disaster: a two-inch by two-inch filter that stance, is there a technical support group had become clogged with dust and caused to back up the engineer? On-site service the disk drive to overheat. This is one

This is the most costly of the four cate- 4. Education. How does the service com- problem that could have been avoided gories (typically one percent of the list pany train its field engineers and update completely by the proper preventive price of the equipment per month). A such training as new products and devel- maintenance program. common desktop computer that sells for opments in computer technology come on 9. Size of the service force. How many $3,600 costs $36 per month for an on-site the market? Obviously, you want a quali- field engineers does the company have in service contract. For this price you are en- fied field engineer to respond to your your area who are trained to work on titled to have a field engineer come to problem, and nothing shatters your confi- your system? While it is comfortable to your location and make all needed re- dence more than the field engineer who deal with the same field engineer, it is ap- pairs. All parts, labor and travel (if you walks in and announces, ‘Tve never seen parent that no one is at work every day of are within the service area) are included. one of these things before, but I’ll do the year. Vacations, sicknesses, accidents, On-site service is usually best suited to my best.” and so forth all take field personnel out of businesses that rely heavily on their com- 5. Tools. Does the field engineer carry the field at one time or another. Also, puters. Such users need their systems up an oscilloscope with him? Some problems when your regular field engineer is work- and running because they will simply be can be fixed by a simple adjustment (disk ing on someone else’s emergency when losing too much money when systems are drive head alignment for one), but to do you need him, is there adequate back-up down. The cost may appear high, but this an oscilloscope is required. Can he or will you simply have to wait ? when you consider that you receive tech- get an alignment disk or other special The depth of the service organization nical and parts support as well as the fast- equipment if needed? with which you are dealing is a direct indi- est repair possible, the price is quite cation of how reliable their serv ice will he reasonable. 6. Diagnostics. Can the field engineer When evaluating on-site service op- run diagnostics to identify failing com- 10. Mileage charge. Will the service com tions, there are several factors to keep in ponents and solve intermittent problems? pany charge you extra because you are be mind. The price for on-site service is high- yond its service area? Remember, not .ill 7. Full service. Does the service comer than for other types, so you should be service companies have the same area of pany service the entire system? Some sure you are receiving good value for your service coverage. money. companies will service the central pro-

cessor, but if you have a printer or a video 1 1 . Inspection fee. Some service com-

1 Parts support. Does the field engineer/ display that is made by someone else, they panies charge you to inspect a system to technician carry a supply of common-us- often cannot service them. In practice, it determine if it is eligible for a maintcnam c age parts with him? If so, he can usually is much easier for you, the user, to deal contract, while others make no charge for fix your computer rapidly, often in under with one and only one service vendor. such inspections.

March 1963 Desktop C«mp«tln| .

Page 116

Service

Service contracts tract. As such, they will price the con- on-site with a contract, or if you agree to

As indicated earlier, you usually have a tracts versus per-incident charges so that purchase a contract after the first per-in- choice of paying a fee (monthly or annual- you will be induced to take out a contract, cident call. ly) for a service contract, or paying a per- allowing them to operate on a more sta- Two final matters to consider with ser- incident charge each time you need ser- ble—and hence profitable—basis. vice contracts concern adequate novice. The plan you choose, of course, de- If you only use the system on a very lim- tice—ort the company’s part or on your pends on your situation, but it is clear ited basis, say, as a hobbyist, then it may own—of cancellation of the contract and that you will, in the long ran, pay more be best for you to go with a per-incident of planned rate increases. In both cases, for per-incident service than you will pay plan. If you plan to use depot service the common practice in the data process- for an annual contract. (either mail-in or carry-in), you should ing industry is 90 days. Your service Operating on a per-incident basis, ser- realize that, in most cases, you will have to company should match this practice and vice companies cannot plan ahead ade- come up with a large, one-time fee in ad- state it in the contract. quately, and thus they will have to keep vance in order to use the per-incident on hand more parts and more personnel plan of payment. than necessary, or they will have to make If you wish to use on-site service and customers wait for service. Therefore, the pay on a per-incident basis, be aware The author is a field engineer with MAl/Sorbus, an independent service organization. Address any corre- service company has a very clear, vested that not all service companies allow this. spondence to him c/o Desktop Computing. interest in your choosing a service con- Some will only service your computer

Desktop Computing March 1983 ,

Page 117

INSECURITY IN NUMBERS

By Fred W. Weingarten

overnment executives have now have amazed users merely by belong been warned that their ing available for small systems. The lat- I Now just as they 've G agencies' computerized data , est fad is to integrate these various systems need to be protected. Federal heeded the call to secure packages to provide elaborate work sta- computer center directors have fought tions used for performing quantitative a continuing battle to focus high-level their data operations analyses, searching data bases and pre- attention on threats against agency in- Federal agencies are paring reports. formation resources and to obtain funds Perhaps most importantly, communi-

for security. by completely is rapidly, i computer Besides having to confronted cations technology moving cope with a skeptical bureaucracy, they new data controlproblems motivated by both deregulation and have had to adapt to constantly chang- innovation At the office level, computing technology. Vet despite the relative- posed by distributed er vendors are developing local area ly slow pace of much Federal EDP pro- networks (LANs), through which desk- curement, new applications are con- office automation. top computers can communicate with stantly being installed, and each change one another, with the office word proc- i brings the potential for new threats, essors and with an agency's main com- vulnerabilities and losses. rnent and operational controls for puter system. Now, just as Federal agencies seem automated data processing that is phys- And new regional, national and inter- to be heeding the call to secure their ically distributed over an entire agency. national data communications services data operations, another technological It cannot be too soon to think about are being developed that can link desk-

revolution is taking place: automated these problems; later on, when comput- top computers with information sys- office systems. First as word processing, ers become common office tools, and tems anywhere in the world now as desk-top computers, informa- when applications, bureaucratic proce- Sixteen-bit desk-top computers now

tion technology is moving out of the dures and habits are set, establishing on the market will be challenged by traditional domain of the operations controls will be much harder to impose 32-bit models in just a few years And

! center. Whether via smart terminals and enforce. there is reason to expect that by the turn connected to a central mainframe, ter- Along with the rapidly increasing of the century, an inexpensive desk-top minals linked to a shared minicomput- number of small office machines, capa- computer will have the power of the er, or ubiquitous desk-top computers, bilities are also expanding. Sixteen-bit largest computers of today Data com-

data processing power is moving into machines, such as the IBM PC, which, munication paths capable of carrying the hands of office users. offer substantially more computing several hundred thousand baud will be This trend poses completely new se- power, are beginning to replace the commonplace, as will on-line data stor curity and data control problems to "first generation" eight-bit models such age systems (optional disk or bubble

| agencies. And there is a new need to de- as the Apple II and III. Inexpensive hard memory) that contain billions of bytes velop hardware and software products disk storage systems are also now be- of data to protect the new system architec- coming available for small systems. For tures. An even more challenging prob- a few thousand dollars, a user can add ACED WITH these trends and as- lem is developing appropriate manage- tens of millions of bytes of on-line disk suming the Federal Government storage to a desk-top computer follows private sector fashion and ! F

i Fred W. Weingarten is program mana- The software marketplace for small becomes a maior user of small systems

ger, communications and information business machines is also growing. Pub- the security problems confronting Fed I technologies at the Office of Tech- lishers are creating increasingly elabo- eral ADP executives wiM be enormous

nology Assessment, which is the analyti- rate spread sheet, word processor, and Problems will be both technological as cal arm of the Congress. data-base systems — programs that until computers and communications svs

'Insecurity in Numbers, ” t Fred V. Ueingorten, Government nuts Systems. July/August government data Sys ems

, Page 118

terns change) and administrative (as tra- er center. Distributed office automa- computers could substantially help ditional lines of authority and control tion systems now offer the chance for them (but that administrative controls are altered). users to capture some of that power. stand in the way of those benefits) have • As costs for hardware and software Despite the bureaucratic merits of the option of using a computer at home. drop and users become more centralized data control, there is no sophisticated, the number of question that the central computer cen- EXHORTATION 1: Account for office applications will increase ter can still be the focus for establishing automation and desk-top computing dramatically. and enforcing a strong security policy. in the security analysis. Greater use means that security anal- But data controls that are practical for This task only sounds simple. The ysis will have to account not only for an a centralized system may be inappropri- computer operations staff may be the increase in sheer volume of information ate in a distributed environment. Rules last to know about or have any responsi- to be protected, but for new types of infor the handling of disk files or physi- bility for office automation or desk-top formation that will be collected to sup- cal access restrictions do not belong in procurements. Computers are sneaking port new applications. New applica- the average office environment. in the back door as increasingly intelli- tions will come about because the de- Many users will resist rigid controls gent typewriters and calculators — decreasing cost of computing will make that inhibit how they use their systems vices for which computer operations them cost-effective; more users will or what they use them for. Given cur- have never had previous responsibility. think up new uses; and the trend toward rent unprecedented technological op- Even if the computer center security office automation will reinforce pres- portunities, many users will want to as- group has access and authority to exam- sures for increasing productivity. sert their own tastes in word processing ine office automation applications, a software or data base management sys- new world of vulnerabilities and poten- • Office automation will bring new tems. Those decisions used to be made tial losses confront them. legal requirements for protecting by the computer operations staff; now Regardless of administrative and electronic documents and data. they will be in the hands of the comput- technical difficulties, it remains impor- Security experts are used to perform- tant for an agency's data security as- ing risk analysis on automated systems sessment to include the desk-top com- that handle financial or personal data. puter, and designate someone to start Few users desk -top But desk-top systems add a new ele- of worrying about it. ment to their calculations. The pro- computing realize the fessed ultimate goal of office automa- EXHORTATION 2: Stress organization tion enthusiasts is the "paperless risks they and their aspects of controls. office," in which all or most documents Technological controls on small agencies face as a result are electronically kept on floppy disks, computers and office automation are hard disks or other electronic media. ofhow they use not likely to be immediately useful for Our experience is limited with threats to providing security. Data processing se- and vulnerabilities of this type of data. their new systems. curity analysts are likely to find that Clearly, compromise of electronic of- their biggest problem in any risk assess- fice information would be painful to an ment is dealing with bureaucratic resis- agency, to its employees and to its cli- er users. Wrestling back control may be tance. Controls should be carefully de- ents. Law and regulation require that a difficult task once users have tasted signed to accommodate office clerical agency correspondence and adminis- freedom and administrative staff. trative documents be kept and pro- In some cases, it may not be in an Employee training is an essential part tected for specific lengths of time. If a agency's best interest to give in to the of any security program. Rather than controversy arises, an agency may be natural desire to reassert central au- deal with the relatively few program- required to establish the authenticity of thority. The conflict is between the ben- mers in a central facility, a security pro- a record. But the courts are still strug- efits of flexibility, convenience and di- gram that covers desk-top systems must gling with the status of electronic rec- rect user access that characterize small educate thousands of users, each run- ords as evidence. computers and the need to continue ning their own machine. Few of those For years, the media have reported central control over use of technology. people have any idea of the risks they that stolen memos, letters, draft reports Insisting on controls may counteract and their agencies face as a result of and the like have been and can be used the benefits of the new systems. how they use their new systems. to attack an agency's actions and deci- Perhaps most importantly, it may be sions. Are electronic files more or less technically and administratively impos- EXHORTATION 3: Start now, while the subject to such leaks? sible to enforce controls on distributed problem is tractible.

There will also be new situations desk-top systems. Power is in the hands Not all Federal offices are auto- when internal access to documents of the users; computers are in offices mated. And many of those using desk- must be carefully controlled, so and on desks. Unless users perceive self- tops and word processors'have not yet employees cannot see, copy, or alter interest, they may disregard rules that adopted sophisticated technology such files created by other employees. proscribe certain types of use, standard- as shared systems. Local area networks ize systems, define the types of data are just starting to appear. Security • Administrative and procedural that may be stored, and establish con- analysts have the opportunity to put ad- controls will be made more difficult trol procedures over system use. ministrative controls in place now be- by decentralized use. Short of bursting into an office unan- fore bad habits become embedded, be- Many central computer centers have nounced with a surprise audit or shuf- fore office products in the same agency lived in a state of uneasy truce with fling through desk drawers in an em- diverge, and before new applications their users. Control of information, con- ployee's absence, enforcement may be (not in an agency's long-term best inter- sidered a source of bureaucratic power, impossible. ests) can be installed and incorporated has traditionally resided in the comput- Ultimately, workers who feel that in office operations. Q

JULY/AUGUST 1983 Page A-l

APPENDIX

This selected readings was compiled from the following magazines and journals from December 1982 through January

1 984.

8usi.ng.ss Comp uter Systems Cahners Publishing Company, 221 Columbus Avenue, Boston MA 02116

BIIE 70 Main Street, Peterborough, NH 03458

Comgutgcwotild CW Communications/Inc., Box 880, 375 Cochituate Road, Framingham, MA 011701

Cng-i-tLY-e Computing. PO Box 789-M, Morristown, NJ 07960

Ds.tama.tiPQ. 875 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10022

He.§ktgg Computing. Ceased publication, December 1983

GgY_epnmen.t Data Systems 475 Park Avenue South, New York, NY 10016

Hardcopy 187 W. Orangethorpe Avenue, Suite 1A, Placentia, CA 92670 inf.pW.pc.id 530 Lytton, Palo Alto, CA 94301

LIS.X Redgate Publishing Company, 3407 Ocean Drive, Vero Beach, FL 32960

Mini-M.i£.Lg Systems 221 Columbus Avenue, Boston MA 02116

PC Wopld 555 De Haro Street, San Francisco, CA 94107 Pepsonat Computing 50 Essex Street, Rochelle Park, NJ 07662

E.gpuiap Computing 70 Main Street, Peterborough, NH 03458 Sgttalk 11160 McCormick Street, North Hollywood, 91601

Sy.sfc.em.§. 50 Essex Street, Rochelle Park, NJ 07662

8.0. Hi.Q.c.0. 80 Pine Street, Peterborough, NH 03458 NBS-114A (rev. 2 »eo) U.S. DEPT. OF COMM. 1. PUBLICATION OR 2. Performing Organ. Report No. 3. Publication Date REPORT NO. BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA NBSIR 84-2878 May 1984 SHEET (See instructions) ^ )

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE Selected Articles on Microcomputers

5. AUTHOR(S)

Lynne S. Rosenthal

6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION (If joint or other than NBS, see instructions) 7. Contract/Grant No.

national bureau of standards DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 8. Type of Report & Period Covered WASHINGTON, D.C. 20234

9. SPONSORING ORGANIZATION NAME AND COMPLETE ADDRESS (Street, City. State. ZIP)

SAME AS ABOVE

10. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

Document describes a computer program; SF-185, FIPS Software Summary, is attached. | |

11. ABSTRACT (A 200-word or less factual summary of most significant information. If document includes a significant bibliography or literature survey, mention it here) An abundant amount of information is being written about microcomputers and its related products. The reader is often overwhelmed at where to begin. This document provides the reader with basic microcomputer information and provides a starting point for further examination of the subjects. The readings cover a broad range of topics including management and technical aspects of hardware, software, communications, and support.

12. KEY WORDS (Six to twelve entries; alphabetical order; capitalize only proper names; and separate key words by semicolons/

Communication; Management; Microcomputer; Micro-Mainframe Connection; Personal Computers; Selection-; Software

13. AVAILABILITY 14. NO. OF PRINTED PAGES Unlimited 1 |

|2§ For Official Distribution. Do Not Release to NTIS "H Order From Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. 15. Price

Order From National Technical Information Service (NTIS), Springfield, VA. 22161 | |

UlCOWM*OC 4043-PlC