Full-length paper Asian Agri-History Vol. 19, No. 1, 2015 (5–32) 5

Nirgundi ( negundo) – Nature’s Gift to Mankind

SC Ahuja1, Siddharth Ahuja2, and Uma Ahuja3

1. Rice Research Station, Kaul 136 021, Kaithal, Haryana, 2. Department of Pharmacology, Vardhman Mahavir Medical College, Safdarjung, New Delhi, India 3. College of Agriculture, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Kaul 136 021, Haryana, India (email: [email protected])

Abstract (nirgundi, in and ) is a deciduous naturalized in many parts of the world. Some consider it to have originated in India and the . There is no reference to nirgundi in the Vedas, while several references occur in post-Vedic works. In India, the has multifarious uses: basketry, dyeing, fuel, food, stored-grain protectant, fi eld pesticide, growth promoter, manure, as medicine for poultry, livestock, and humans. It is used in all systems of treatment – Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha, Homeopathy, and Allopathy. It is commonly used in folk medicine in India, , , Philippines, , and . True to its meaning in Sanskrit (that which keeps the body free from all diseases), it is used to treat a plethora of ailments, ranging from headache to migraine, from skin affections to wounds, and swelling, asthmatic pains, male and female sexual and reproductive problems. Referred to as sindhuvara in Ayurveda, nirgundi has been used as medicine since ancient times. It is taken in a variety of ways, both internally and externally. The whole plant, leaves, leaf oil, roots, fruits, and seeds are administered in the treatment of specifi c diseases. However, in Ayurveda, the leaves, roots, and bark are the most important parts. The present paper deals with the distribution and history of nirgundi, and its uses in rituals, religious rites, as an insecticide and as medicine. The paper also presents a scientifi c validation of its traditional agricultural uses as storage, fi eld, and household insecticide, as well as pharmacological evidences on its use in folk medicine and Ayurveda.

The word Vitex is derived from the Latin . Later on, Vitex along with ‘vieo’ (meaning to tie or bind) because of several other genera was transferred from the fl exible nature of its stems and twigs. Of Verbenaceae to in the 1990s on the 270 known of the , about the basis of phylogenetic studies of DNA 18 are in cultivation and are referred to as sequences (Chantaranothai, 2011). ‘chaste ’, or simply Vitex. The genus was established by Linnaeus in 1753 with four Chaste tree species are native to the species: Vitex agnus-castus, V. negundo, warm regions of the Old World. Vitex V. pinnata, and V. trifolia in the agnus-castus grows naturally from the 6 Nirgundi (Vitex negundo)

Mediterranean Sea eastward to central . courses in wastelands and mixed open The leaves are composed of fi ve to seven forests. It often grows gregariously and is radiating leafl ets. Vitex negundo, the fi ve- abundant on sandy soils (Chowdhury et leaved chaste tree is more cold hardy than al., 2009). the Agnus species. Vitex occurs in , , , (in Three varieties of V. negundo L. are ), and in , Bangladesh, currently recognized: (1) Vitex negundo L. , , China, India, , var. cannabifolia (Siebold & Zucc.) Hand.- , , , , Mazz. is prevalent in China (including Hong Philippines, Sri Lanka, , Kong), India, Nepal, and Thailand; (2) Vitex and (in Asia) (http://www.ars-grin. negundo L. var. incisa (Lam.) C.B. Clarke gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/.pl?41831). occurs in China, India, Indonesia, and the It is also found in similar habitats along Philippines; and (3) Vitex negundo L. var. the seashore throughout Mauritius, Japan negundo is found in China, Japan, Taiwan and southward through Malaya to tropical and in the Nallamala Hills (India). One may Australia and Polynesia. visit the website for is native to southeastern Asia synonymy. and Melanesia (Meena et al., 2010). Vitex trifolia, the three-leaved chaste tree, also Habitat and cultivation called the Indian privet or Indian wild-pepper has similar properties of V. negundo. Vitex Vitex negundo is a much-branched shrub trifolia occurs in India along the seashore, up to 5 m tall or sometimes a small, known in Hindi as ‘pani-ki-sanbhalu’ and slender tree with thin, gray bark. Leaves ‘sufed-sanbhalu’ and ‘Lagunding-dagat’ in are palmately compound, 3–5 foliate; the Philippines (Kulkarni, 2011). leafl ets are lanceolate; margins are entire or crenate; terminal leafl ets are 5–10 cm Some consider Vitex negundo being native × 1–3 cm; lateral leafl ets are smaller; all to India and the Philippines (Orwa et al., nearly glabrous above, whitish tomentose 2009) and this fact can be corroborated on beneath and aromatic when crushed the basis of availability of a name in almost (Fig. 1). Flowers are bluish-purple, small, in all the local dialects and languages in the peduncled cymes, forming large, terminal, Philippines and India (Table 1). In India, the often compound, pyramidal panicles. In prevailing Vitex species include V. negundo, central India, fl owering occurs between June V. glabrata, V. leucoxylon, V. penduncularis, and December and fruiting from September V. pinnata, and V. trifolia (Kulkarni, 2011). to February. The fruit is a succulent drupe, Wild nirgundi (V. negundo) are black when ripe, 5–6 mm in diameter. Seeds found almost everywhere though mostly on are 5–6 mm in diameter. The mature seeds wastelands from the seashore to an altitude sown in nursery beds normally germinate of about 1,500 m in the outer Himalayas. within 2–3 weeks. Four- to six-month-old It thrives in humid places or along water seedlings are used for transplanting in the Asian Agri-History Vol. 19, No. 1, 2015 7

Table 1. Names of Vitex negundo in/among various languages/tribes. Language/ Language/ region/tribe Name region/tribe Name

English Chinese chaste tree, fi ve-leaved Lakkingida, lakkigida, nakkilu, chaste tree, Indian privet nekki, nekka, nakkigida, lakki, Sanskrit Nirgundi, sindhuvara, indrasursa, karillalaki (Dharwad), bilenekki indranika, sinduka, nisinda, (Mysore), nochi, sinduka, shephali, indrani, nirgundika, sinduvara renuka, sindhuvaram, sinduya, Kumaon Sindwar, kharwar, shiwali, simali; sugandhika, surasa, vrikshaha, fruit = fi lfi l = bari nirgunda, shveta sephalika, Marathi Nirgundi, nisind, nigudi, ligur suvaha, nirgundi, nilika (kali (Konkan), samhalu (Amravati), newri), nilapushpi, nilanirgundi, lingur, nirgunda, nirgur, lingur shvetasurasa, bhootveshi (white- Vellanocchi, vennocchi, indrani, fl owered newri), svetapuspa karinocchi, nocchi, vennochi, Assamese Pasutia, aggla-chita, pochatia, velnochchi aslok Manipuri Urik shibi Bengali Nisinda, samalu, nirgundi, Oriya Beyguna, begundia, nirgundi, sinduari, beguna, nishinda, laguni (Malkangiri), begna, nishinde beguniya Mumbai Katri, lingur, nargunda, nirgundi, Punjabi Banna, marwan, moraun, nirgur, nisinda, shiwari morann, sanoke, swanjan, shawar, Gujarati Nagoda, nagaol, nirgari bankahu, marwa, mawa, maura, Himachal Bana (Parvati valley) mora, biuna, binna, torbanna, Pradesh shwari, maura, torban, wana; root Hindi Bheudi, mewri, nengar, ningori, and leaves = amalu; fruits = fi lfi l nigandi, nirgandi, nirgundi, = bari nirgunda, nisinda, panikisambhalu, Telugu Vaavili, vaavilu, tellavavaati, sambhal, sambhalu, sanbhalu, tellavavilli, vaavilu, chirvaavili, samhalu, sanghalu, saubhalu, mella-vavili, vavalipadu, veyala, sawbhalu, shambalu, shriwari, vavilli, nalla vavili, vavilipadu newri, sanbhalu, shawalu, shiwali, Tamil Vellai-nochi, nirkkundi, shivari, shiwari, sinuar, sinduar, venmochi, notchi, nirnochi, sindhuca, sinduari, siwain, sirunochi, nirrukundi, vennochi, bannah, bana, banna, siwali, villai-noch-chi, nochchi, nir- nochi, nochi wana, banha, banana, veeru dhayad, nirgud, negad, veeru, Sambhalu, tukhm sambhalu kali-nirgundi, tarvan, shimalu, Uttar Somi (Jaunsar Bawar hills), mala shinduca, shiwari, sinduari, khanni Pradesh (Moradabad) (Rajasthan) continued 8 Nirgundi (Vitex negundo)

Table 1. continued Language/ Language/ region/tribe Name region/tribe Name

Uttarakhand Sambhaalu Bangladesh Sarsa, samalu, chasta, nirgundi (Garhwal) China Bugingiab Kuruku Nirgudi Guam Laoundi, lagundi Kol Ehuri, sindwar, hobaro, sinduari Javanese Katumpa empah Lodha Bengunia-bo Malay Lenggundi, legundi, lagundi, Gond Nirgiri lemuning, muning, demundi, Oraon Sinduhi lemuni Santhal Bengunia, luguni, sindwar (Chhota Myanmar Kiyow-bhan-bin, kiyuban-bin Nagpur), sinduari (Bihar) Nepal Gadaki, simali Asurs Bihar Sinduar Pakistan Marvandaey (Buner), nirgud Arabic Aslaq, aslag, fanangasht, (Margallah hills), kalgari (Siran zukhamsatilouraq, zuhamsate- valley) asabea Persian Sisban, panj-angasht, banj- Philippines Lagundi (Ibn., Tag., Bik., P. Bis.), angasht, panjngust (Fazan Khist) dabtan (If.), dangla (Ilk.), kamalan Pusthtu Marwandai, mehrwan, warwande (Tag.), liñgei (Bon.), limo-limo Sri Lanka Nilnikka, nika, sadu-nikka (Ilk.), sagarai (Bag.), turagay Vietnam Ngutrao (Bis.), agno-casto (Span.)

Figure 1. Nirgundi (Vitex negundo): (left) plant in fl owering stage; and (right) infl orescence. Asian Agri-History Vol. 19, No. 1, 2015 9

fi eld. It can be reproduced readily from shoot BCE), Kautilya’s Arthashashtra (321–296 cuttings. Vitex negundo roots are strong and BCE), and Ayurvedic classics such as deep and suckers profusely. It produces Kalpasthana, Susruta Samhita (400 BCE), root suckers which can also be utilized as Astangahridaya (700 CE), Vaidyamanorama planting material. Vishvavallabha (1577 (800–1000 CE), Vrndamadhava (9th century CE) points out that sindhuvara (V. negundo) CE), Bangasena, Chakradatta (1055 can be grown both from seeds and stalks CE), Rasaratnasamuccaya (1300 CE), (Sadhale, 2004). Yogaratnakara (Santarasa, 1400 CE), Bhavaprakasha (1550 CE) (Mehendale, History 2007; Sensarma, 1998). The classical Sanskrit literature such as Kalidasa’s The Sanskrit word for V. negundo – nirgundi Ritu Savambhara (Banerji, 1968), and – literally means ‘that which protects Banbhatta’s Harsacharita and Kadambari the body from diseases’. It is one of the also identify and refer to these two varieties herbs mentioned in all of the Ayurvedic (Sharma, 1979). Probably the earliest Samhitas. People in ancient India identifi ed reference on the blue variety of nirgundi/ka two varieties of nirgundi, one bearing occurs in the Charaka Samhita (c. 700 BCE). white flowers (shwetapushpi), called It is evident that references to sindhuvara sindhuvar, and the other having blue fl owers appear earlier in classical Sanskrit literature (pushpanilika) designated as nirgundi in than references to nirgundi. Sanskrit (Balkishan, 2008). The Amarakosha (500–800 CE) lists various names assigned Sacred status and uses in rituals to newri as sinduk, sindhuvara, indrasursa, nirgundi, indranika, and sinduar. The In India, nirgundi is considered a sacred ancient treatise Varahamihira’s Brhat plant and is thought to have originated from Samhita (c. 500 CE) identifi es two names the abdomen of Ganadhipa (an appellation as sindhuvara (XXIX 9, LIII 103, and of Lord Shiva and also his son, Ganesha) LIII.14) and sindhuka (Sharma, 1979). In and is used in worship (MP) and in religious the Puranas, it is referred to by four names: rites (Sensarma, 1989). Sindhuvaraka is nirgundi [Matsya Purana (MP)], nirgundika, also considered to have originated from sindhuvara (MP), and sindhuvaraka [Agni the temple of Ganesha (Gupta, 1991).The Purana, MP, Brahma Vaivarta Purana, leaves are offered to Lord Shiva and Gouri (BvP)] (Sensarma, 1989). The agricultural on Nitya Somavara Vrata (Bennet et al., treatise Surapala’s Vrikshayurveda referred 1992). to it as nirgundi, sephali (ka), and sinduvara (Sadhale, 1996). Among the Puranas, MP and BvP (1600 CE) refer to nirgundi as a forest tree of There is no reference to sindhuvara (white- medicinal value and mention its use in flowered negundo) in the Vedas. While religious rites, while the Vamana Purana several references occur in post-Vedic considers it to be a holy plant (Sensarma, works such as the epic Mahabharata (3000 1998). Kashyapiyakrishisukti recommends 10 Nirgundi (Vitex negundo) the preservation of seeds of sindhuvara and and is required in various rituals, but its others among . medicinal uses surpass all types of uses.

Vitex negundo gets its common name Young shoots are employed in basketry – chaste tree – from the historical use (Ambasta, 1986), stems as fi rewood, and of the plant in ancient Greece. Ancient the plant ash is used as an alkali in dyeing. Romans, medieval monks and priestesses Its wood is used in building and as fuel and considered the seeds of V. agnus-castus branches for wattle work. The leaf juice is useful for securing chastity. Vitex has used for soaking metallic powders before been used throughout history to reduce converting them into pills (Watt, 1892; Jain sex drive. In addition, Vitex was used as et al., 2000). Herbal shoes prepared from a herbal supplement which had various nirgundi wood are reported to be effective effects upon the reproductive systems of in the treatment of rheumatism, and the both men and women. Athenian women practice is popular in parts of Chhattisgarh would place leaf clippings from the chaste (http://www.ayurvedaconsultants.com/herb_ tree in their beds during the feasts of Ceres consult.aspx?commonName=NIRGUNDI). in order to remain pure and virtuous. The Another interesting fact has been its use whole plant is used during puberty rituals for punishment in China (Da Ming, 2004). (http://thewesternghats.in/biodiv/species/ Tendu (Diospyros melanoxylon) and nirgundi show/32833). are believed to have magical potency and branches of these trees are used by Oroan tribes to avert the evil eye, repel evil spirits Varied uses of Vitex negundo and other evil infl uences from standing crops Vitex negundo is put to numerous and (Gupta, 1991). In ancient times, V. negundo varied types of uses. It is used as a hedge, was used as totem plant during war. Soldiers ornamental plant, growth promoter in about to occupy a fort wore the ulingai agriculture, manure, pesticide, medicine, creeper (Cardiospermum halicacabum) food, food protectant, household pesticide, while the occupied army was required to in reclamation of wasteland and erosion, wear the flowers of nocci (V. negundo) basketry, witchcraft, totems, water (Swamy, 1973). This explains as to why divination, and in the preparation of grain Brahma Vaivarta Purana (BvP) considers storage structures. It is considered sacred sindhuvara as a bad omen for any army camp (Sensarma, 1998). Since ancient times, the presence of Vitex trifolia along with an People in ancient India identifi ed two ant-hill was considered as an indicator of the varieties of nirgundi, one bearing presence of water in the area. The ancient white fl owers (shwetapushpi), called Sanskrit texts Upavana-Vinoda (1300 CE), sindhuvar, and the other having blue Sarangdhara Padhiti (nirgundi, nirgunda), fl owers (pushpanilika) designated as Lokopakara (1025 CE), Vrikshayurveda, and nirgundi in Sanskrit. Vishvavallabha (1577 CE) state the presence of nirgundi (V. trifolia, sindhuvara) with Asian Agri-History Vol. 19, No. 1, 2015 11

by the Oraons of Dhabuleshwar (Saxena et Vitex negundo gets its common name al., 1991). Seeds are boiled and eaten in the – chaste tree – from the historical Philippines. Fresh leaves are credited with use of the plant in ancient Greece. the power of destroying the smell of ‘high Ancient Romans, medieval monks meat’ [decomposed meat] or tainted meat or and priestesses considered the fi sh when boiled with it (Watt, 1892). seeds of V. agnus-castus useful for securing chastity. Vitex has been used throughout history to reduce sex drive. Household pesticide Dry V. negundo leaves are traditionally placed with stored woolen garments since an anthill as an indicator of the presence of the leaves repel wool-destroying tasteful water towards the South (Sadhale, and worms. Dry leaves are used for storing 1996; Ayangarya, 2006). Vitex negundo is cotton and warm clothes in Hazaribagh. used as a hedge as no grazes on it. Leaves are burnt in a fi re during the rainy Its roots are strong and deep and suckers season to keep mosquitoes away from profusely. It is used as a contour hedge and human beings; the smoke in sandy arid areas for soil retention and repels mosquitoes and insects (Ghosh, 2000; moisture conservation. The shrub can be used Guleria and Vasisth, 2009). The Lodha tribe for forestation, especially for reclamation of uses dry leaf powder for repelling bedbugs forestlands which are affected by fl oods. It (Pal and Jain, 1998). Dry leaf powder has been found suitable for shelterbelts and alone or mixed with dhoop smoke repels windbreaks. Some forms of V. negundo are mosquitoes (Tarafdar, 1983; http://www. used as ornamental plants. In ancient times its indianetzone.com/48/shivari.htm). infl orescence was used as an ornament. There are references that Parvati, the consort of Agricultural uses Lord Shiva used ornaments made of its white pearl fl owers. The Mahabharata mentions Growth promoter sindhuvara trees full of golden flowers looking like the lance (tomara) of the God of Ancient treatises mention the promotion Love (Karmakar, 1951; Pandey, 1996). of growth of newly planted trees by fumigation and smearing with unmatta Flowers of sindhuvara (sweta nirgundi – (Datura metel), vatarika (Allium sativum), white form) were used as vegetables having mallika (Jasminum sambac), sinduvara, the property of cooling (sita) and the power tila (), masha (black gram), yava of destroying bile (pittanasana) (Sharma, (Hordeum vulgare), clarifi ed butter, and 1979). The Lokopakara points out that the honey mixed in milk (Sadhale, 1996; boiled shoots of nirgundi with turmeric Sadhale, 2004). Nowadays, in Tamil Nadu, a powder, roots of tree cotton and fresh lime mixture of the extract of V. negundo (nochi) make sambar very delicious (Ayangarya, leaves and neem cake is sprayed to control 2006). The fruits of V. leucoxylon are eaten the shedding of fl owers and premature fall 12 Nirgundi (Vitex negundo) of pods in fi eld bean (Sundaramari and karanja (Pongamia pinnata), sarja (Vateria Ranganathan, 2003). indica), sidhharthaka (Brassica alba), and sindhuvara (Vitex) was used for this purpose (Sadhale, 2004). Manure Green leaves of many non-nitrogen-fi xing In Chhattisgarh, in the olden days, it was plants and V. negundo are used for leaf common practice to burn dried leaves of manure (Watt, 1892; Pereira, 1993). Twigs nirgundi in rice fi elds, in order to repel and leaves of nochi along with leaves of harmful insects (http://botanical.com/site/ Calotropis gigantea, Cassia auriculata, column_ poudhia/115_nirgundi.html). The Gliricidia maculata, and Tephrosia purpurea Oraons of Hazaribagh sweep paddy fi elds are used in manuring in some parts of Tamil with brooms made of nirgundi branches Nadu (Ayyavu, 1995). which are presumed to act as an insecticide (Tarafdar and Raichaudhuri, 1991). This practice of sweeping rice plants with Traditional use in plant disease and branches of nirgundi is also prevalent in pest control the Mandi district of Himachal Pradesh Vitex negundo has been used in the (Lal and Verma, 2006). Brandishing Vitex management of plant diseases to control sticks over a paddy plant during the Kangli wind disorders of trees since ancient times. Bihu festival in Assam (associated with the Vishvavallabha (written by Chakrapani autumnal equinox) is not a mere ritual but Mishra who worked under the patronage points towards the importance of Vitex in of Maharana Pratap around 1577 CE) refers pest control (Ahuja et al., 2000). Vitex to fumigation with a mixture of nigundika, is also used as an insect repellent in Fiji guggul (Commiphora wightii), and oil cake (Singh, 1986 quoted in Prakash, 2004). at the root to obtain favorable results in the treatment of wind diseases. Vishvavallabha In addition to direct brandishing with also mentions that a frostbitten tree can fresh twigs, certain preparations are made produce plenty of shoots if treated with cow for control of various pests of paddy. In dung ash, and by sprinkling a decoction of Himachal Pradesh, a mixture of cow urine, nirgundika (Sadhale, 2004). Vitex leaves, and hing or asafetida (Ferula assafoetida) is used to control pests in wheat and paddy fi elds (Lal and Verma, Insect pest control 2006). The tribals of Tamil Nadu spray the The Vishvavallabha refers to fumigation crop with Vitex leaf extract and buttermilk, of trees to draw out insects from within or Adhatoda leaf extract plus cow dung the trees. A mixture of cow’s horn, to control leaf folder (Narayanasamy, bhallataka (Semecarpus anacardium), 2006; Ahuja and Ahuja, 2008). Vitex leaf nimbu, musta (Cyperus rotundus), vacha extract and buttermilk is included in the (Acorus calamus), vidanga (Embelia tribal package for control of rice leaf ribes), ativisha (Aconitum heterophyllum), folder, brinjal leaf beetle, tomato fruit Asian Agri-History Vol. 19, No. 1, 2015 13 borer, groundnut cutworm, and storage pinnata, turmeric, Azadirachta indica, pests such as the rice weevil. The spray , and Cassia auriculata (herbal extract has been reported effective and superior was named as Phytolan) (Lois, 2001). over other treatments against stem borer (Narayanasamy, 2006). Presently, farmers in Grain storage structures Tamil Nadu use green leaf extract with cow urine for pest control. They use leaves of Since generations, the natives of neem, pongam (Pongamia), nochi, erukku, Chhattisgarh are using the nirgundi herb and tulsi which is locally called poochi to prepare earthen pots to store grains for viratti (Karthikeyan et al., 2006). In Tamil long periods (Oudhia, 2010). Similarly, the Nadu, leaf extracts of nochi and other plant Mahadeokolis of Maharashtra use wood products are used to control many types of of nigudi to prepare kothala for the grain insects in tomato and cumin, and rice tungro storage barrel (Kulkarni and Kumbojkar, virus (Sundaramari and Ranganathan, 2003). 2003). Pod borer of pulses in Karnataka is reported to be controlled by a spray of In grain storage indigenously developed pesticide with V. negundo and other plant parts in cattle urine Vitex negundo is traditionally used by (Singh, 1986 quoted in Prakash, 2004). farmers as a storage insecticide and a common insecticide. Nirgundi leaves, Various herbal sprays are reported to be wet or dried, are used in grain storage in effective against eriophyid mites, one of Bengal, Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, and Tamil the most serious pests of coconut: custard Nadu. Farmers and tribals use a handful leaves (Annona squamosa), turmeric (4–10 percent) of V. negundo leaves alone rhizome, Clerodendrum inermi, Aloe vera, and along with leaves of neem, karanj V. negundo, and Azadirachta indica kernel (Pongamia pinnata), or turmeric powder (in equal amounts) (Chellamuthu, 2000), for the storage of rice and black gram or by application of Aloe vera, V. negundo, (Tarafdar, 1983; Ahmed and Koppel, 1986; and neem cake around the trunk of the tree Garorkar, 1996; Naskar, 1998; Pal and Jain, followed by cow dung slurry (Samyappan, 1998; Golob et al., 1999; Sundaramari and 2000), or through herbal extract of Tephrosia Ranganathan, 2003; Ahuja et al., 2007; purpurea, V. negundo, Lantana camara, 2010). Annona squamosa, Vinca rosea, Pongamia Various reports confi rm that Vitex admixed with freshly harvested paddy, maize, or Nowadays, in Tamil Nadu, a mixture of mung bean reduces damage by natural the extract of V. negundo (nochi) leaves infestations of Callosobruchus chinensis, and neem cake is sprayed to control the Sitophilus zeamais, and Rhyzopertha shedding of fl owers and premature fall dominica (Dakshinamurthy, 1988; Morallo- of pods in fi eld bean. Rejesus et al., 1990). The fresh leaves mixed with paddy at 2% w/w in gunny 14 Nirgundi (Vitex negundo) bags with rice and stored in drum bins protect the grains from insect attack In Chhattisgarh, in the olden days, it for nine months (Prakash et al., 1987). was common practice to burn dried The plant products mixed with grains leaves of nirgundi in rice fi elds, in reduced the pest infestation in the following order to repel harmful insects. order: Azadirachta indica > V. negundo > Adhatoda vasica > Clerodendrum infortunatum > Acorus calamus (Abraham Leaf and branch extracts showed repellency et al., 1972). to fi eld insects and pests of paddy (Litsinger et al., 1978) and antifeedant activity to hairy caterpillar fraterna and Scientifi c validation of cotton armyworm Spodoptera litura on traditional uses in agriculture castor leaves (Prakash and Rao, 1996). Its Traditional use of V. negundo leaves by petroleum leaf extract resulted in malformed tribals has been scientifically validated pupae of the rice leaf folder (Cnaphalocrosis and reported as effective. Dry leaf powder, medinalis) under controlled conditions. The aqueous and alcoholic extracts repelled acetone extract of V. negundo possesses such coleopteran pests as Callosobruchus insecticidal, ovicidal, growth inhibition, chinensis, Rhyzopertha dominica, Sitophilus and morphogenetic effects against various life stages of a noxious lepidopteron insect- oryzae, Sitophilus zeamais, and Latheticus pest Spilarctia obliqua (Prajapati et al., oryzae under natural and controlled 2003).Petroleum ether leaf extracts showed conditions. Infestation of Sitotroga larvicidal activity against larval stages of cerealella was also reduced signifi cantly Culex tritaeniorhynchus in the laboratory. with dried leaf powder admixed with stored Vitex showed larvicidal activity against the paddy grains. Leaf essential oil combined species Culex quinquefasciatus with citronella oil showed repellency to and Anopheles stephensi, and acts as a Sitotroga cerealella (Prakash and Rao, deterrent to the mosquito Aedes aegypti 1996). Exposure to a combination of (Meena et al., 2010). The oil obtained citronella and lagundi (nirgundi) oil (1:1) from a stream distillate of leaves exhibited in a fumigation fl ask caused knockdown of mosquito repellent activity. Researchers adult Sitotroga cerealella (Krishnarajah et found that the protection period against al., 1985). mosquito bites ranged between 1 and 3 hours (Hebbalkar et al., 1992).

Vishvavallabha also mentions that A survey of literature on chemicals extracted a frostbitten tree can produce plenty from leaves show various alkaloids of shoots if treated with cow dung and glycosides. It was observed that ash, and by sprinkling a decoction of p-hydroxybenzoic acid is responsible nirgundika. for germicidal activity (Perry, 1980). Viticosterone-E, iridoides, and ecdysones Asian Agri-History Vol. 19, No. 1, 2015 15 isolated from Vitex sp. are juveno-mimetic and highlighted the following combinations against insects. Z-hepatriacontanone from of guna in plants possessing insecticidal and the leaf extract of the Indian privet inhibits antimicrobial activity: LD, LDP, LDPM, the oviposition of stored-grain boring and LSo (L = light/laghu; D = dry/rooksa; insects such as S. cerealella, R. dominica, P = penetrating/teeksna; M = mobile/sara; and S. oryzae (Prakash et al., 1990; Prakash and So = soothing/snigdha). and Rao, 1996). Vitex is katu and teekta in taste, katu in vipaka (transformed taste), ushna in veerya, Ayurvedic determinants of laghu and rooksha (dry) in guna, thus it a pesticide possesses most of the inherent qualities or Nirgundi is pungent, bitter, and astringent decisive features of an insecticidal plant. On in taste, pungent in the post-digestive basis of these inherent properties [rooksha effect and has hot potency. It alleviates (dry) in guna], Vitex may be considered to vata and kapha doshas, but aggravates possess antimicrobial activity also. A survey the pitta dosha. It possesses light and dry of literature reveals that Vitex possesses attributes. A plant product, to be effective as insecticidal, anti-worm and antimicrobial an insecticide, must possess some specifi c properties as predicted on the basis of Ayurvedic properties. It has been known Ayurvedic properties (Ahuja et al., 2007). that the plants with pungent (katu), bitter (teekta), astringent (kasaya) taste; katu in Veterinary uses vipaka (transformed taste), ushna (hot) in veerya; penetrating (teeksna) quality; hot The Handbook of Agriculture published (ushna) potency are antagonistic to the by the Indian Council of Agricultural kapha dosha and possess insecticidal and Research lists the use of Vitex negundo anti-worm properties (Vijayalakshmi and as one of the plants used in indigenous Sundar, 1994). Later, Ahuja et al. (2007) practices for the treatment of mastitis, and identifi ed that the important requisite for diarrhea diseases of animals (ICAR, 2006). a pesticide would be possessing rooksha Suvaha (nirgundi) is used in the treatment (dryness) and snigdha (soothing) guna of elephants, as referred in Manasollasa (quality), in addition to being katu, kasaya, (Sadhale and Nene, 2004). Nirgundi cures or teeksna in taste (rasa), and hot (veerya) indigestion, brings down temperature, and is particularly recommended in typhoid. The Lokopakara refers to the cure of fever of Vitex negundo is traditionally used by cows with a decoction of nirgundi and neem farmers as a storage insecticide and a leaves. Ground leaves of nirgundi, Leucas common insecticide. Nirgundi leaves, aspera, bottle gourd, madar, mustard, wet or dried, are used in grain storage betel pepper, and lime, made into a gruel in Bengal, Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, and after stirring along with sesame oil and Tamil Nadu. administered orally cures ninety-six types of cattle diseases. In the Medak district 16 Nirgundi (Vitex negundo)

septic wounds of cattle and also given Traditional use of V. negundo leaves internally for digestive purposes. Tribals use by tribals has been scientifi cally a leaf decoction for washing septic wounds validated and reported as effective. Dry of cattle (Pal and Jain, 1998). The Oraon leaf powder, aqueous and alcoholic and Korwa tribes of Raigarh, Madhya extracts repelled such coleopteran Pradesh, use the leaf juice mixed with seeds pests as Callosobruchus chinensis, of Trachyspermum ammi (ajwain) to treat Rhyzopertha dominica, Sitophilus stomach trouble in cattle and conjunctivitis oryzae, S. zeamais, and Latheticus (Maheswari et al., 1991). oryzae under natural and controlled conditions. In poultry birds, lice infestation occurs mainly during the kharif (rainy) season. The irritation caused by the biting of the of Telangana (formerly Andhra Pradesh), lice makes the bird peck itself all over its farmers occasionally feed the animal with body and this causes detachment of the a handful of Vitex negundo leaves, 50 g of feathers. To control lice, leaves of nagod (V. dry ground coconut, three paradisiaca negundo) are heaped in the poultry farm. It (banana) fruits, and one kilogram of is believed that the smell of the nagod leaves Trigonella foenum-graecum (fenugreek) repels lice (Patel, 1994). leaves to check foot and mouth disease (Khan, 2006). In Gujarat, to check diarrhea, Medicinal importance farmers feed the animal with 200–250 g leaves of nagod (nirgundi) with normal In India, nirgundi is used in Ayurveda, folk, feeds for two to three days (Bhimsen, 1995). Siddha, Tibetan, and Unani systems of Vitex negundo leaves, amaranth, rock salt, medicine (Udayan and Indirabalachandran, immature bael (Aegle marmelos) fruit, buds 2009; Vishwanathan and Basavaraju, 2010). of the banyan tree, roots of Datura metel, It is interesting that it is also dispensed Indian lotus rhizomes, and whole plant of in homeopathy and allopathic systems of Indian spinach ground in a stone mortar medicine. Myriad medicinal properties have and applied to the belly of a cow relieves been ascribed to Vitex and the plant has also swelling. been extensively used in the treatment of a plethora of ailments. A paste of Vitex negundo leaves with various other ingredients cures all digestive Use in Ayurveda diseases of horses (Ayangarya, 2006). In the Moradabad district of Uttar Pradesh, In Ayurveda, sindhuvara has been used as nirgundi is used as refrigerant for cattle (Ali, medicine since ancient times. Nirgundi is 1999). In the Siran valley, Pakistan, it is used used in a variety of ways, both internally as medicine for buffaloes in colic (Shah and and externally. The plant fi nds mention in Khan, 2006). In Haryana, villagers use the verses of the Charaka Samhita which leaves for cure of swelling and washing is beyond all doubt the most ancient and Asian Agri-History Vol. 19, No. 1, 2015 17 authoritative textbook of Indian Ayurveda. The whole plant, leaves, root, fruits, and Vitex has been designated as an anthelmintic seeds are used in the cure of specifi c diseases. and is prescribed as a vermifuge. Vitex has However, leaves, roots, and barks are the been used in postnatal care as it brings most important in the fi eld of Ayurvedic the uterus to its original size and reduces medicine. Leaf oil is also used in the treatment swelling. It is also useful in the first of a number of diseases (Chandramu et al., stage of gonorrhea, increases digestion, 2003). The fl owers are somewhat different useful in sciatica, slip disc, and swelling from the rest of the plant and have a cooling of muscles, increases sexual power and energy, used in pitta-specifi c disorders such cures the weakness of penis, reduces as liver complaints, fever, bleeding diarrhea, common weakness, makes one free from and hemorrhage (Warrier et al., 1995). diseases, increases age, reduces cough, The fl owers are useful in treating diarrhea, fever, swelling of lungs and spleen, heals cholera, fever, hemorrhages, hepatopathy, wounds, and is also useful in eye diseases and cardiac disorders. (Balkishan, 2008). The plant is reported to have expectorant, carminative, digestive, Sindhuvara, the white-flowered variety, anodyne, antiseptic, alterant, antipyretic, is used in treating fevers, rat and snake diuretic and emmenagogue, depurative, poisoning, and intrinsic hemorrhage rejuvenating, ophthalmic, vulnerary, and (Sharma, 1996). Nirgundi, the blue-fl owered tonic properties. The Madanapahala variety, has been used to cure cough and Nighantu states specifi cally that nirgundi asthma, guinea worm, gandmala (cervical is a promoter of memory. Patkar (2008) adenitis), sinus, epilepsy, consumption, fetid refers to the formulations described in ear, vatavyadhi, and puerperal disorders. Anubhoga Vaidya Bhaga, a compendium of formulations in cosmetology, in Sindhuvara leaves are used in treating outlining the use of Vitex leaves along headache, brain diseases, mouth sores, sore with those of Azadirachta indica, Eclipta throat, swelling of throat, fever, bloating, alba, Sphaeranthus indicus, and Carum and stomachache. People sleep on pillows copticum (syn. Trachyspermum ammi) in stuffed with sindhuvara leaves to dispel a notable rejuvenation treatment known as catarrh and headache, and smoke the leaves Kayakalpa. for relief. Crushed leaves are applied to cure headaches, neck-gland sores, tubercular neck swellings, and sinusitis. Leaf powder The Handbook of Agriculture is useful for curing the liver and gall bladder published by the Indian Council of after a malarial attack. Leaf paste is applied Agricultural Research lists the use of on the navel, waist, and vagina for easy Vitex negundo as one of the plants delivery (Tirtha, 1998). used in indigenous practices for the treatment of mastitis, and diarrhea Taken internally, the fresh leaf juice diseases of animals. (svarasa) is used in treating a variety of digestive disorders, from dyspepsia to 18 Nirgundi (Vitex negundo) parasites, and helps to resolve kapha and treat skin diseases and leprosy (http://www. vata fevers, catarrh, cough, and bronchitis. indianetzone.com/48/shivari.htm). The leaf juice also is useful in treating skin conditions such as eczema and psoriasis, The roots are considered as tonic, febrifugal, and in infl ammatory joint disorders such expectorant, anodyne and having diuretic as arthritis and gout. Applied externally, properties, and are used to treat dyspepsia, the svarasa is used in the treatment of otitis colic, rheumatism, and boils. Kautilya’s media, joint infl ammation, wounds, snake Arthashastra refers to its use in madanadosha and insect bites, ulcers, bruises, sprains, (sexual aberration or torments of passion) and orchitis, to relieve both pain as well and recommends the patient to drink milk with the astringent substance obtained from as inflammation. The juice is also used the roots of any one of sragalavinna (Uraria in bacterial and parasitic skin conditions. lagopoides), madan (Xeromphis spinosa), The juice of the leaves is said to have the varana (Crateva magna), sindhuvara (Vitex property of removing fetid discharges and negundo), and varanavalli (plantain) as worms from ulcers. The freshly dried leaves inebriation of the person can be removed can be made into a strong infusion and used (Sensarma, 1998). A tincture of the root- in much the same way as the fresh juice, and bark provides relief from irritability of specifi cally, are smoked in the treatment bladder and rheumatism. It is used in of kapha conditions such as headache and dysmenorrhea (Jadhav and Bhutani, 2005). catarrh (Nadkarni, 1994). The powdered root is prescribed as a Nirgundi is used as a mouthwash in the demulcent for dysentery; it is also used to treatment of periodontal disease and to treat piles (Ambasta, 1986). The root-bark is relieve tooth pain. A leaf decoction with mentioned in the treatment of rheumatism, Piper nigrum is used in the treatment of hemorrhoids, and irritable bladder, used in catarrhal fever with heaviness of head and much the same way as the leaf (Nadkarni, dull hearing. Leaf oil is used to treat painful 1994). lips, fetid ear, gandmala (cervical adenitis), fever, venereal diseases and other syphilitic Commercial products skin disorders. The oil prepared with the juice of the The fruit has nervine, cephalic, and leaves is very popular for relieving pains. emmenagogue properties. The fruits are In the Chennai region of Tamil Nadu, prescribed to relieve watery eyes, headache, taludaali ilai (prasaarini) is used for similar and catarrh; when dried they are considered purposes externally and is very effective vermifuge (Ambasta, 1986). in relieving pains of acute rheumatism. The pharmacological potential of Vitex has Vitex seeds are used in regulating the been exploited effectively in formulating menstrual cycle. They are also considered commercial products by traditional and useful in treating eye diseases (anjan). The modern companies dealing in Ayurvedic seeds are considered cooling and are used to medicines. Asian Agri-History Vol. 19, No. 1, 2015 19

Ayurvedic preparations containing Vitex Bihar. It is used as folk medicine in negundo are: diseases such as asthma, jaundice, urticaria, abscesses, carbuncles, eczema, and liver Vatagajankusa Rasa, Mahavata Vidhvansana disorders in Assam; wounds and body Rasa, Ykrtptihara, Lauha, Dasamula Taila, ache in Himachal Pradesh; toothache, Trivikrama Rasa, Nirgundi Taila, Visa, febrile catarrh, rheumatic afflictions, Tinduka Taila Nirgundi Kalka, Nirgundi and migraine in Karnataka; rheumatism, Ghrita, Nirgundi Kvatha, Ngagrodhadi encephalitis, joint pain and as expectorant Churana,Varnyasodhna Taila, Visagarbha in Maharashtra; jaundice in Odisha; as an Taila and Rasnadi Kavath, etc. (Anonymous, antidote to snakebite, respiratory disorders, 2001). fever, sinus problem, and headache in Tamil Nadu; and in eye pain and 48 other Branded Indian products include Liv. 52, ailments in Uttar Pradesh (Vishwanathan Pilex, V-Gel, Himcolin Gel, Rumalaya and Basavaraju, 2010). In the Dharward Gel, Acne-n-Pimple Cream, and Muscle & district of Karnataka, leaves are used in the Joint Rub. treatment of impotency, crack foot, bone fracture, and paralysis (Hegde and Hebbar, Unani medicine 2009). Vitex, commonly known as nisinda in Unani The leaf juice is used to clean infected medicine, fi nds use in many applications ulcers. The leaves are also used as a (Khare, 2004). The seeds are administered mosquito repellent. Its leaves are also tied internally with sugarcane vinegar for around (tying is called ‘dava’) the area removal of swellings. Powdered seeds of the body having internal injury. The are used in spermatorrhea and serve as an ointment made from leaf juice is applied as aphrodisiac when dispensed along with dry a hair tonic. Mixed with residual coconut oil ginger (Zingiber offi cinale) and milk. after frying fi sh it is applied to the head to treat baldness and dandruff. Patients cured As folk medicine in India of typhoid fever are made to take a bath in water boiled with leaves on the fi rst and The Vitex plant is used as a folk medicine second days, for the purpose of antiseptic in Bangladesh, India, China, Indo-China, treatment and to bring body heat down. Indonesia, Nepal, Pakistan, the Philippines, About 100–150 ml juice is given orally on and Sri Lanka (Perry, 1980; Vishwanathan an empty stomach for 15 days as a remedy and Basavaraju, 2010). Various tribes for pile diseases (Tarafdar, 1986, 1987). in India use the leaves, juice of leaves, In Andhra Pradesh, water boiled with fi ve boiled leaf water, dry leaf powder, leaf leaves is used for bathing during the post- extract, oil, fl owers, stem, roots, and fruits maternity period and to cure rheumatism of V. negundo to treat various affl ictions and arthritis (Raju, 1985). The preparation (Table 2). Tarafdar (1983) has listed 33 uses of fresh leaves of nirgundi, along with of V. negundo by tribals of Hazaribagh, jatiphal (Myristica fragrans), lajwanti 20 Nirgundi (Vitex negundo)

Table 2. Folk medicinal uses of Vitex negundo among various tribes of India. Plant part used Usage Tribe/Area Leaves Swelling Nagas, Santhals, Kols of Uttar Pradesh, Eastern Rajasthan Rheumatism Asuras of Bihar, Eastern Rajasthan, Santhals, Kols of Uttar Pradesh, Eastern Rajasthan, Chhattisgarh Sterilizer Khasis and Garo of Meghalaya Headache Purulia, Kondhs of Orissa, Dhanau Forest of Maharashtra, Garhwal, Delhi, Totos of Bengal Dropsy Asuras of Bihar, Santhals Paralysis Nayadis of Kerala Eye infl ammation, dropsy and Santhals anasarca, madness, hemiplegia, epilepsy, postnatal complaints, scabies, sores, syphilis, rinderpest Fever Chota Nagpur, Dhanau Forest of Maharashtra, Totos of Bengal Blisters, boils, piles, wounds Bhoxas of Uttar Pradesh Itches Garhwal Diarrhea Chanderpur (Maharashtra) Cold Kols of Uttar Pradesh Cold and cough Tribes of Purulia Fresh leaf Carbuncle Chhattisgarh juice Aqueous Boils Chhattisgarh paste Postnatal care Chhattisgarh Good growth of baby hairs Santhals Relieves bodyache Tribes of Bihar and northeastern Madhya Pradesh, Parvati valley, Himachal Pradesh, Garhwal Leaf oil Rheumatism, gout, sciatica Tribes of Chhattisgarh Bodyache from heavy work, Oudhia of Orissa migraine, toothache, earache, skin troubles continued Asian Agri-History Vol. 19, No. 1, 2015 21

Table 2. continued Plant part used Usage Tribe/Area Root Decoction in treating joint pains, Rajgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Oraon, Korwa spermatorrhea Paralysis, rheumatism Asuras of Bihar Tonic, expectorant Sagar (Madhya Pradesh) Root-bark Catarrh fever with heaviness and Santhals decoction dullness of hearing Roots with Diuretic Garhwal fruits Stem Bone fracture Asuras of Bihar Abortifacient Khed (Maharashtra), Lodhas Flowers Pneumonia Folks of Rajouri Dysentery, skin diseases, eczema, Tribes of Garhwal leprosy, syphilis Seeds Gout Tribes of Eastern Rajasthan

(Mimosa pudica), satawari (Asparagus asthma. Leaf paste along with a paste of gonocladus), seeds of magji (Cucumis pepper is used to treat orchitis, and the melo), fruits of silajit (Styrax offi cinalis), leaf decoction for washing pox wounds to evaporated to dryness with cow milk, mixed avoid scars (Tarafdar, 1983; Pal and Jain, with sugar (twice the weight) and 1 kg of 1998;). Among tribal women in the Udaipur ghee taken orally is a strong sterilizer (Lal district, Rajasthan, the powdered young and Lata, 1980). roots are taken with milk to restore fertility. The juice obtained from the stem is taken The dried leaves are considered a tonic orally with honey to relieve indigestion by the Lodhas; the leaves are sometimes among the tribal inhabitants of northern smoked for relief from headache and Odisha. A leaf decoction of Vitex negundo with Andrographis paniculata and/or Hyoscyamus niger is used to cure cough, The oil prepared with the juice of the gout, and cold; the leaves are also used for leaves is very popular for relieving fumigating houses to get rid of mosquitoes pains. In the Chennai region of Tamil in Arunachal Pradesh (Srivastava and Nadu, taludaali ilai (prasaarini) is Choudhary, 2008). used for similar purposes externally and is very effective in relieving pains The Lodhas wear a 4-cm long piece of stem of acute rheumatism. on a white thread as a cure for one-sided headache. Tribal women wear a piece of 22 Nirgundi (Vitex negundo) stem of Loranthus spp. (about 3 cm long) Filipino traditional healers as an antiseptic. parasitizing on this plant as a magical agent Oil prepared with the juice of plant parts for contraceptive purposes (Pal and Jain, can be rubbed onto the sinuses and to 1998). In the Surguja district, Chhattisgarh, scrofulous sores of the neck. It cures of a decoction of the stem-bark is reportedly sloughing wounds and ulcers. According used to treat paralysis and tuberculosis. to some authors, febrile, catarrhal, and The decoction with pepper or swarasam rheumatic affections can be treated using is used by some as a specifi c in treating different preparations of plant plants. A malaria. It is also used in the treatment of tincture of the root-bark is recommended in colic, dyspepsia, rheumatism, and worms. cases of rheumatism. The powdered root is The crushed mass is tied to the head to prescribed for hemorrhoids as a demulcent, treat heaviness of the head and fevers of and also for dysentery. It is also used in the complicated or nervous type (http:// cancer in the Philippines. In Indo-China, www.indianetzone.com/48/shivari.htm). a decoction of the root is prescribed for The Bengali community in Chhattisgarh intermittent fevers. believes that the presence of this shrub saves their home from ghosts. In acute and chronic Pharmacological evidences rheumatism, they use nishindi in many The antioxidant power of the plant extracts ways. The most attractive and common use basically depends on the composition of is wooden shoes. The use of bark powder of the extracts, hydrophobic or hydrophilic nishindi for the treatment of sciatica is also nature of the antioxidants, type of solvent popular in this region (Oudhia, 2010). used for the extraction process, method of extraction, temperature and conditions Folk medicine in Asian countries of the test. Fifteen species of Vitex have The Chinese Pharmacopoeia prescribes the been explored in various studies for their fruit in the treatment of reddened, painful, and phytochemical and medicinal values and it was reported that different species differ puffy eyes, and of headache and arthritic joints in their chemical composition resulting in (Liu et al., 2005). It is also used in common different medicinal properties. Different cold, fl u, and cough (Au et al., 2008). plant parts differ in chemical compositions. In Nepal, simali is used in treating sinusitis Methanol, ethanol, hexane, and petroleum and whooping cough. In Pakistan, people ether extract yield different components. use it as an anti-allergenic agent, and to Phytochemical studies on Vitex negundo treat gum and skin diseases. In Sri Lanka, identified several types of compounds, it is used to treat eye diseases, toothache, such as volatile oils, lignans, polyphenolic rheumatism and also as a tonic, carminative, compounds, glycosidic irridoids, fl avonoids, and vermifuge. terpenes (triterpenes, diterpenes, and sesquiterpenes), alkaloids, and steroids. The In the Philippines, the leaves, bark, roots, phytochemical analysis, medicinal uses, and and seeds are used for medicinal purposes by pharmacological studies on Vitex negundo Asian Agri-History Vol. 19, No. 1, 2015 23 have been reviewed and well documented activity (Villasenor and Lamadrid, 2006), (Tandon, 2005; Padmalatha et al., 2009; analgesic (Gupta et al., 1999; Telang et Meena et al., 2010; Vishwanathan and al., 1999), and hepatoprotective activity Basavaraju, 2010; Singh et al., 2011). (Mahalakshmi et al., 2010). Leaf and root extracts have also shown activity Ethanol and methanol extracts of the against rheumatism, poliomyelitis, and leaves are found to be active inhibiting have diuretic, antifilarial, antimalarial, agents against both gram-positive and and antiandrogenic/antifertility properties gram-negative bacteria. On the other hand, (Tandon, 2005). petroleum ether and chloroform extracts had better antibacterial activity against all The anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and gram-positive bacteria (Panda et al., 2009). antihistamine properties of Vitex negundo Methanol extract (28.2%) was found to be claimed in Ayurvedic medicine have been more effective than hexane extract (16.7%) reported by orally treating rats with leaf as measured by DPPH radical scavenging extracts. The antihistamine activity could assay (Zargar et al., 2011). The EtOH produce the anti-itching effect claimed in the extract of the powdered dry aerial parts of Ayurveda system (Dharmasiri et al., 2003). V. negundo var. cannabifolia was reported The analgesic effect is due to prostaglandin to yield four phenolics – salviaplebeiaside, inhibition and reduction of oxidative γ-tocopherol, chrysosplenol-D, isovitexin – stress and is not mediated through opoid along with a-tocoquinone and ß-sitosterol, receptors (Tandon and Gupta, 2004). Anti- which had inhibition activities on four infl ammatory and pain suppressing activities spoilage microorganisms Escherichia of fresh leaves are attributed to prostaglandin coli, Bacillus subtilis, Micrococcus synthesis inhibition (Telang et al., 1999), tetragenus, and Pseudomonas fl uorescens antihistamine, and membrane stabilizing (Ling et al., 2010). Most of the bacterial and antioxidant activities (Dharmasiri et al., pathogens such as Salmonella paratyphi, 2003). Prostaglandin synthesis inhibition Klebsiella pneumoniae, Vibrio cholera, may be expected to cause gastric damage Streptococcus mutans, and E. coli were but no histomorphological changes were found to be susceptible in ethanol leaf seen even in toxic doses in stomach while extracts of Vitex negundo (Merlin dose-dependent changes were observed in and Cathrine, 2011). Methanolic leaf the heart, liver, and lung tissues (Tandon extract contains negundoside, agnuside, and Gupta, 2004). The chloroform extracts and vitegnoside which show antibacterial of leaves were toxic to a human cancer activity (Samy et al., 1998), antioxidant cell line panel (Diaz et al., 2003) whereas activity (Munasinghe et al., 2001), anti- non-cytotoxic was observed on mammary fungal activity (Sathiamoorthy et al., 2007), and genito-urinary cells of mice (Yunos et cardioprotectant (Ono et al., 2004), cleaning al., 2005). heavy metals Fe, Al, Zn, Pb, Ni, Cr, and As (Liu et al., 2005), anticonvulsant (Tandon Methanolic extract potentiated analgesia and Gupta, 2005), anti-hyperglycemic induced by morphine and pethidine, 24 Nirgundi (Vitex negundo) and demonstrated significant protection however be noted that these fi ndings are in against strychnine and leptazole-induced sharp contrast with the traditional use as convulsions (Gupta et al., 1999). Studies aphrodisiac. Khare (2004) determined that conducted in India have confirmed the ethanolic extracts showed estrogen-like potentiating effect of anti-inflammatory activity and propounded its use in hormone activities of drugs phenylbutazone and replacement therapy. The methanolic root ibuprofen by Vitex, indicating its usefulness extract possessed potent snake venom- as an adjuvant therapy along with standard neutralizing (Viper russellii and Naja anti-infl ammatory drugs (Tandon and Gupta, kaouthia) capacity (Alam and Gomes, 2006). It also potentiated the anticonvulsant 2003). action of diphenylhydantoin and valporic acid, thus it may be useful as an adjuvant Contraindications therapy along with standard anticonvulsants and can possibly be used to lower the Vitex negundo is quite similar botanically requirement of diphenylhydantoin and to the better studied V. agnus-castus, valporic acid. Leaf extracts possess hepato- and thus may have a similar range of protective activity against liver damage contraindications, including the concurrent induced by D-galactosamine, commonly use of progesterogenic drugs and hormone- used tubercular drugs carbon tetrachloride replacement therapies. Vitex promotes and ibuprofen (Maurya et al., 2004). In production of progesterone in the second half addition, laxative activity of the leaf extracts of the cycle. Also known as a contraceptive, was exhibited in rats (Adnaik et al., 2008). it should not be taken before ovulation, as it may delay or prevent ovulation. The juice of The leaf extract showed anti-cancerous and the leaves is dangerous to young people as it antibacterial activity. It is taken as a remedy brings down sexual emotions. Experimental for bulging of the abdomen due to fat. data on animals and human studies have The essential oil from leaves of Vitex reported that phytocomponents of Vitex negundo when tested against pathogenic exhibit hormonal activities and may affect microorganisms Staphylococus aureus, E. the pharmacological effects of hormonal coli, K. pneumoniae, B. subtilis, Micrococcus medications. Reports indicate that Vitex luteus, and Candida albicans exhibited good affects endocrinal activity and may alter antimicrobial activity against all the clinical effects of medications and possibly doses isolates when compared with standard drugs needed for treatment (www.ovarian-cysts- ciprofl oxacin and chloramphenicol (Singh pcos.com/vitex.html). Vitex may decrease the et al., 2011). effect/effectiveness of oral contraceptives or female hormone replacement therapy. The flavonoid-rich fraction of seeds People with hormone dependent conditions caused disruption of the latter stages of as endometriosis, fi broids or cancers of spermatogenesis in dogs (Bhargava, 1989) the breast, uterus, and prostrate should not and interfered with the male reproductive take it and it is not recommended during function in rats (Das et al., 2004). It must pregnancy. Small doses may increase milk Asian Agri-History Vol. 19, No. 1, 2015 25 production in females and high doses may important role in both male and female decrease it. Dopaminergic effects of Vitex sexual systems. may be partly responsible for its prolactin- inhibiting actions and variable degree of All parts of the plant, from root to fruit, binding occurs between crude extracts and possess a multitude of phytochemical diterpene fractions of Vitex. People with secondary metabolites that impart an schizophrenia or where dopamine levels are unprecedented variety of medicinal uses affected should use Vitex under supervision to the plant. It is interesting to note that a of health professionals (Padmalatha et al., single plant species fi nds use for treatment 2009). of a wide spectrum of health disorders in traditional and folk medicine, some of which have been experimentally validated. Discussion Thus, the Vitex plant holds great promise The very name of the Vitex plant in Sanskrit as a commonly available medicinal plant, describes its medicinal importance. and it is indeed no surprise that the plant is “Nirgudati shareeram rakshati roghhyah referred to in the Indian traditional circles tasmad nirgudi”: that which protects the as ‘sarvaroganivarini’ – the remedy for all body from diseases is known as nirgudi. diseases. Uniyal et al. (2006) reiterates a popular local quote of the Bhangalis in the Western Lagundi (nirgundi) is one of a few herbs Himalayan region of India which translates recently registered with the Bureau as – “A man cannot die of disease in an area of Foods and Drugs (BFAD) of the where Vitex negundo, Adhatoda vasica, and Philippines as medicine, as it has been Acorus calamus are found [provided that he proven to be an effective analgesic and knows how to use them].” antitrussive (prepared as a pleasant- tasting cough syrup). It has therefore Most of the species of Vitex have been revered been considered as a replacement for for their effectiveness in treating many dextromethorphan in the public health ailments, especially female reproductive system for cough and asthma (http://www. imbalance, colic, fl atulence, and digestive philhealth.gov.ph/partners/providers/pdf/ problems. Important uses of Vitex as PNDFvolled7_2008.pdf; http://justmejojo. insecticide and medicinal purposes elevated wordpress.com/2011/03/02/10-herbal_ it as a sacred plant and found it a place in medicines-approved-by-doh/). rituals, worships, etc. The ritualistic use of a plant in any ritual concerned with a life Although many Ayurvedic medicines stage may be considered as an indication of using Vitex negundo are available in India its possible use in the life process. Maybe, and a considerable amount of literature our ancestors wanted to indicate or highlight is available on various aspects of the the relation of the plant and its importance plant – traditional to biochemical and in cures. Vitex is used in puberty rituals ethnobotanical to pharmacological – yet and our folklore knowledge indicates its allopathic formulations using Vitex like 26 Nirgundi (Vitex negundo) the one available in the Philippines is References awaited in India. 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