Geoarchaeology of the Qtimran Archaeological Site, Israel

Philip Reeder, Harry ]ol, Richard Fretmd, Carl Savage

Photography by the authors

Introduction documents (VanderKam and Flint 2002). gathering together, copying (mostly Schiffman (1995) accepted the conclusion, between 150 B.C.E and 68 C.E.), and G e o a r c li a c o I o g y combines expressed by many biblical scholars, that depositing documents in area caves. After archaeological ri'scjrch vvilh metliods and tlie Si>ct was intrinsically linked to modern discovery, these documents were concepts of thft-Lirlh sciences (But/iT 1482). the scrolls found in the caves. The most called the Scrolls (Schiffman Geography (bolh physical and human), widely adopted view is that the Qumran 1995). geology, gconiorphology and geophysics Sect was a small branch of the larger Essene A large cemetery just east of the ha\e been melded witli .irchaeology to mi>vement (Sukenik 1955; VanderKam and archaeological site and smaller cemeteries develop a multidiscipljnory tippro.ich for Flint 2002). Scholars believe that this to the north and south (Figure 2) are studying the site at Khirbet Qumran sectarian group was responsible for important parts of the complex (hereafter Qumran) in Israel. The full range (VanderKam 1994). The Main Cemetery of earth (geo) sciences can be applied to LEBANON -'-/ begins approximately 50 melcrs from the /•••<., ( archaeological evidence at the Qumran . \ east wall of the ruins at Qumran (de Vaux Archaeological Site allowing past processes 1973; VanderKam and Flint, 2002). The and events to be inferred (Rapp and Hill /Heights': North Cemetery is approximately 50 meters 1998). nortb-northeast from tbe Main Cemetery In the summers of 21)01 and 20(12, the and the South Cemetery is about 230 meters muitidiscipiinary research team consisted to the south-southwest. The South • ( of geographers, a geophysicist, a historian, a \ .' Cemetery is situated on a hill on the other photographer, biblical scholars and i side of Wadi Qumran. Uetween 1953 and archaeologists. Ibis team oi researchers /' ) I95fi, de Vaux excavated 37 of the estimated attempted to expand the existing base of 1,100 tombs in the Main Cemetery, two out Tel Aviv, \ West Bank / knowledge about Qumran. of twehe in the North Cemetery, and four / ( out ot 30 in tbe South Cemetery. De Vaux tart f c 9I TQUMRAN JBI UodJ estimated there were a total of 1,142 graves Gaza ... in the three cemeteries at Qumran. in 1966 Qumran is along the western shore of Strip, _..•> j and 1967, journalist S.H. Steckoil, with the Dead Sea (Figure 1). I'bis site is most permission from the Jordanian Department famous for the caves, kKated in the cliffs -// of Antiquities (Qumran was in Jordan prior west of the site, where the V ISRAEL to the 1967 war), excavated nine graves in \ the Main Cemetery. Overall, a total of 52 were discovered. In 1947, Arab shepherds \ {' stumbled upon a cave and what they found \ f' graves were legally excavated at Qumran. was hailed as the greatest archaeological \ i \ I Nine early reports, dating back as far as discovery of the twentieth century \\ Negev / 1850, described various aspects of the (Vanderkam 1994). Eleven caves at i / Qumran Site, but no one had subjected the Qumran hti\e \ ielded the remains of ruins to a thorough examination until after approximately 800 manuscripts. Data JORDAN tbe discovery of scroll material in Ca\ e One compiled by (1973), based \ in early 1947 (VanderKam and Flint 2002). on detailed excavations from 1953 to 1956, \. i The first scholars did not begin to work at EGYPT make it clear that Qumran was occupied by \ Qumran until February, 1949 because of a group engaged in communal activities political instability and hostilities. The and religious rites for most of its active excavation at Cave One in 1949 was history (Schiffman 1995). In an attempt to \/ ^^ Hi \ ' directed by de Vaux and G. Lankester understand the historical context of the Mall Johnson Harding. During this exc.n.ition, tlu'y also Dead Sea Scrolls, scholars have tried to Figure 1: ioaUioii nj llic Qiiiniivi visited the ruins of Qumran and conducted identify tbe group responsible for these Archih'olo;;;iaU Site. a quick surface examination, They retu rried

12 FOCUS on Geographii Volume 48, Number 1 QUMRAN ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE Caves 1,3.3 end 11 are Located Almost DUB Norlh of Ihe Oumran Archaeological Site Dead Sea Region, Israel Cave 2 = 965m Cave 1 = 1075fti Surveyed by the John and Carol Merrill LaUine Survey CawB 11 = 1500m GPR Grids _ Qumran Excavations Project, 2001 & 2002 Cave 3 = 1775m July 17 to July 26, 2001 N July 22 to August 4, 2002 Originally Drafted by Philip Reeder January 2002 50 meters Revised by Philip Reecfer October 2002 'Grave size not to scale

• CaveC "Cave F , Cave B "CaveA

Restored Section of Aqueduct

Tufa Doposils North Finger

See Figure 5 Qumran for Aqueduct flePoraStum p Archaeological •'"' details ', kiddie Finger Forme- '*»-=*' ~^ \ Edgeo' AgueOuU Collapsea P'aiB

Cave 10 Cave4A ^^ East Cave 4B Cave 4A South Qumran Cemetery Cave 9 -Cave 2001 'Cave 7

Personnel Philip Reeder - University of Wisconsin-La Crosse - Director, Qumran Cemetery Mapping Project Qumran Richard Freund - University of Hartford - Qumran Excavations Project Director - California State-Long Beach - Qumran Excavations Project Director Noelle Bautista- California State-Long Beach Highland Cemetery Carl Savage- Drevi/ University Harry Jol- University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire Robert Passow- University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire South Cemetery

Figure 2: The Qiiitmm Avdmcolo^kal Site, cniictcrica, aijuciiuct, aivci^, nnii suspected latrine site.

Summer 2004 FOCUS on Geography 13 in late 1951 and bL'gan to excavate portions of the surface ruins

The John ami Carol Merrill Qumran Excavations Project

A major objective of the 2001 and 2002 Merrill excavations at Qumran was to create detailed maps of the cemeteries and maps depicting the spatial relationships between the cemeteries, ruin site, caves, and Vigure 3: A ^rave in the main section of the Qumran Cemetery. It ifi in excellent coniiition aqueduct system. Based upon information and contains a headstone. collected by de Vaux, our survey designated (1) the Main Cemetery, (2) the fingers of the Main Cemetery, (3) the North Cemetery, and (4) the South Cemetery. Additionally, a new cemeter\' was discovered during the 2002 survey, designated as the Highland Cemetery. Grave location data were collected in these cemeteries, as well as data related to grave orientation, grave condition, and the presence of headstones and footstones. TTie graves in these cemeteries are marked by oval-shaped piles of stones, often with a larger stone at either end to serve as a headstone or footstone (Figure 3). Graves were classified as being in excellent condition (between 90% and 100% intact), good (60% to 9O'!i,), fair (30% to 60%), poor (10% to 30%) and very poor (< 10% intact). A wider view of the Main Cemetery (Figure 4) shows graves exhibiting various conditions of preservation. Jhv Main Cemetery covers a flat plateau east of the Qumran ruins; additional graves are on three flat projections of land (fingers) extending eastward from the Main Cemetery and Figure 4 : The main scr/icu of the Qumran Cemeterxi with ;^rtwes exliibitin>^ various staffes of approximately 5 meters lower in elowition preservation in the foreground and the park visihn's center in tlie background. (Figure 5). These fingers are actively undergoing erosion and are sfparalcd from archaeological evidence collected thus far at using a total station surveying instrument one another by gullies eroded by the Qumran (Schiffman 1995). These detailed and prism. Most graves were located occasional winter precipitation events maps will allow the spatial aspects of the visually, but additional graves, or what we (Figure 6). It is very likely that erosion has dataLiases developed for Qumran to be suspect are graves, were located using destroyed graves located along the margins assessed, compared and contrasted. Past ground penetrating radar (GPR). LcKation of the fingers. mapping efforts b\' de Vaux and others did and elevation data were collected for each Accurate maps of the Qumran not produce a complete, accurate depiction. grave using the total station, then entered cemeteries are pivotal in understanding the project collected field survey data into spread sheets and transferred tn

14 FOCUS on Geography Volume 48, Number 1 QUMRAN ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE Dead Sea Region, Israel Surveyed by the John and Carol Merrill 0 50 Qumran Excavations Project, 2001 & 2002 meters July 17 to July 26, 2001 & July 22 to August 4, 2002 -Grave size not to scale Originally Drafted by Philip Reeder January 2002, Revised January 2003 contour interval = 5 meters

Parking Visitors Lot Center 0 I

"*"--..„_ North Cemetery

I n

II. Qumran •I. Archaeological Site Qumran n Cemetery

-330

}

-335

-340 J ^ )

Personnel Philip Reeder - University of South Flonda I Excavated grave - Director, Qumran Cemetery Mapping Project ^ Survey Benchmark Richard Freund - University of Hartford - Project Director Robert Eisenman - California State-Long Beach - Project Director Q Grave located visually Hanan Eshel - Bar Man University - Project Director • Grave located using ground Magen Broshi - The Israel Museum - Project Director ' penetrating radar Noelle Bautista - California State-Long Beach —- Access Road and Parking Lot- Carl Savage - Drew University "" Visitors Center Boundary Harry Jol - University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire Robert Passow - University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire •n. Scarp/Cliff Phihp Reeder 03 Figure 5: Spatial ami toiio^raphk relationships hetivccii the Quinrau Archaeological Site, the main cenicteiy, flic finders, the North Cemetery, ami the park visitor's center.

Summer 2004 FOCUS on Geography 15 one visual grave not oriented north-south. Excavations by de Vaux revealed that 27 of the 28 graves he excavated in the upper part of the Main Cemeter\' contained male remains. All of these graves were oriented north-south. The head of the skeletal remains he unearthed are oriented toward the south. Excavations of graves on the fingers and in the North and South cemeteries contained the remains of women and children, as well as males. All of these graves, despite their differences, were of the same t\pe, and appeared to be connected with the principal occupation of Qumran (VanderKam and Flint 2002). There is ongoing debate about who occupied Qumran and are buried in its cemeteries, but scholars generally agree that there is a connection with the , one of the three ancient Jewish groups named and described by the historian (VanderKam 1994; VanderKam Figure b: An ucruil I'lcw of Ihc middle finder oflhc ivnivtenf unlit ^ravci^ in pyc>frvittion, (i< well (is clcnrlu cxcfivatcii ^ravci^ in the lower riglit corner of the and Elint 2002; Schiffman 1995; de Vaux 1973), plotting proj;r.ini; the plots were exported footstones (10.4%) and 30 graves have both Two graves located on the Middle into a graphics program for map head and footstones (3%). Finger of the east extension of the Main production. In the upper part of the Main Cemetery Cemetery have taken on a special The 20U1 and 2002 surveys found 1,056 the graves tend to be ordered in consistent significance. In 2002, a skeleton was graves with surt'oce expression in the Main rows and are oriented north-south, while on discovered in a grave [hat has been Cemeterv', the three fingers, and the North the fingers the positioning of the graves is designated Tomb 1000, the same site where Cemetery (978 were located visually). far less regular and orientation is not the remains of two women from the first Seventy-eight of these graves had been constant (de Vaux 1973). This is especially century AD were found during the summer previously excavated. Since de Vaux and true on the South Finger. Of the 978 graves of 21)01. The skeleton discovered in 2002 Steckoil are credited with legally excavating that were itKated visually during our 21K)1 was 1.5 meters below the surface, and a total of 46 graves in these cemeteries, it can survey, 44 were oriented in directions other approximately 1.0 meter below the remains be assumed that theother 32 are the result of than north-south, with the mosl prominent of the two women, in an elaborate burial illegal excavations. If the South and secondary orientation being east-west. chamber situated in a prominent elevated Highland cemeteries are included, four Most of the unusual orientations were position. The position of this burial additional excavated graves (for a total of found on the fingers, with the South Finger chamber may indicate that a person of some 82) and 17 additional visual graves (for a having 35, the Middle Finger six, and the importance was buried at the far eastern total of 995) are added, producing a total of North Finger two. The North Cemetery had edge t)f the main cemetery (Figure 7). 1,077 graves in all of the cemeteries that have some visual expression. A total of 122 GPR anomalies were found as part of the survey of the Main Cemetery, fingers, and North Cemetery. These anomalies are suspected to be graves with no surface expression. Fourteen CPR i anomalies were found in the South and Highland cemeteries. The total number of graves in all the cemeteries at Qumran, including suspected gra\'es found using GPR, is 1,213. Of the 995 graves kvated visually in all the cemeteries (not including excavated graves), 14 (1.4%) were in excellent condition, 164 (16.5%) were in good condition, 424 (42.6"..) were fair, 301 m (30.3%) were poor, and 92 (9.2%) were in ver\' poor condition. Our analysis indicates that a total of 129 graves, if all of the cemeteries are considered, possess Figure 7: Vie-ir lookiii-^ we^i from iomb 1000. with Ihc wc>i wull of the

16 FOCUS on Geography Volume 48, Number 1 A ceramic dated to the first century C.E. was found alongside the skeleton (Jacobson 2002). The skeleton was found facing cast and the first rays of the rising sun would strike the burial chamber. This burial chamber is one of the most elaborate in a \'cry simple place (Jacobson 2002). The east- west orientation is generally thought to coincide with Muslim burials that have taken place in the cemetery over the last several hundred years, but the presence of the first century pot confuses this issue. Scholars generally agree that the other cast- west burials in the cemeteries are either Christian or Muslim (Bcdouin)dating to the iast few centuries (Zias 2000; Eshel et al. 2002), but the Tomb 1000 burial remains a mystery. Grave 978 contains the remains of a zinc coffin. This grave was likely excavated by looters, and portions of the zinc coffin were damaged or removed. Grave 978 is oriented north-south, which is interpreted Figure 8: The cart inoiiiitcd Noj^^ift •^wuiid pciictraliii;^ nular {LJPK) sy^tcui bcui^ uttttzcd as a burial from the era of the Qumran Sect in the Main Ceinelery to locate graves that had m> r^itrfacc expression. (Schitfman 1995; VanderKam 2002). The zinc coffin may have been used to transport the GPR plots for these locations indicated a required before communal meals, after a hody from another location fur burial at V-shaped pattern indicative of a site that relieving oneself, and after meeting a non- Qumran. had been dug and then refilled with the member or novice (Schiffman 1995). A Noggin GPR system mounted on a same material. Suspected graves, located Among the most striking features at the cart for increased mobility was used to using GPR, were identified in ail of the Qumran ruins are the cisterns and baths at explore the cemeteries at Qumran (Figure cemeteries at Qumran: 84 in the main the site. A growing population made it 8). The system emits energy waves into the cemetery, one in the Middle Finger, six in necessary to provide a plentiful and ground and then collects these waves as the South Finger, 22 in the North Cemetery, constant supply of water for the settlement, they reflect back from the underlying five in the Soutli Cemetery, and 9 in the so an aqueduct was constructed to carry geologic materials. In a known cemetery, Higliland Cemetery, water provided by winter rains (de Vaux GPR can look for locations wliere the 1973), A narrow canyon extends from the materials had been disturbed, indicating a Aqueduct System mountains west of the Qumran Site, grave locahon with no surface expression. connecting with the upper reaches of Wadi GPR surveys in some parts of the cemetery The sectarians that occupied Qumran Qumran, Structures were created in the indicated undisturbed flat-lying layers of spent a large amount of time engaging in lower portions of the canyon to move water geologic materials (Figure 9). Other places activities associated with ritual purity. toward the site, rather then down the wadi had obviously been disturbed (Figure 10); Ablutions (ceremonial washing) were and into the Dead Sea. At some points the

Figure 9: A plot generated by the CPR s\f?tevi shaicing flat lifiiig, Figure 10: A CPR plot siiowing v-shaped di:>tui'bed hiyers of geologic cd layers of geologic imtchal. niiUerlal, possibhi iiidicafing a burial with no :?urface expression.

Summer 2004 FOCUS on Geography 17 aqueduct was cut inlo thf rock, but in other places thf Wtitir flowfd through d series of tunnels excavated through solid rock. Once out of the rocky canyon, the aqueduct was dug into the marl terrace that slants toward the si'ttlement {SchuU>^ 1960), Upon reaching the settlement, the channel was coated with plaster and for some part of its winding course between buildings it was covered with stone slabs (de V.iux 1973). The difficult and elalxirate construction of the aqueduct is a testimonial to the importance of water to the Qumran Sect. Mapping of the aqueduct system was completed in the summer of 2002 using a hand-held optical compass, inclinometer, and sur\'ey tape. A 270 meter section of the aqueduct, extending from the base of the cliffs west of the Qumran Site has been restored by the Israel Antiquities Authority Figure 11: The runted topo^niplii/ in the vuiiitti/ ofQuiuyiiii. with part of the nqtieducf f^ifst (Figure 11). Sections of the aqueduct were destroyed by two slumps, but a 15 meter constructed and a narrow ciiannd was cut Cai'es section between the two slumps remains to direct the runoff from the winter rains An Electrical Resistivity Tomography intact (Figures 12). A well-preserved section into the Qumran aqueduct system. (ERl) survey was completed in and around of the aqueduct extends from the small Two GPR grids were established in the Qumran site by Paul Bauman from slump before the channel diverges. A lower order to survej' an area suspected to be the Komex International, This geophysical section of the aqueduct has collapsed, but latrine for the settlement. The Qumran Sect, technique can detect cavities in the higher up the slope the aqueduct was guided by laws of ritual purity, located the subsurface that have no surface expression. routed through two tunnels. We spi-culate latrines away from the main communal The subsurface region was sampled by that these tunnels were created as a more areas of the site. The CPR survey did show transmitting energy Ix-tvveen two adjacent stable route for the aqueduct after the lower anomalies at these locations, but it is too electrodes, and from the properties of these route was destroyed by collapse. Further up early in the investigation to draw transmissions, a cross-sectional image of the canyon, a small stone dam was conclusions. the region was constructed.

Direction of Flow

Restored Section of Aqueduct

Narrow Channel Stone Dam Ruins pothiole Personnel Philip Reeder - University of Wisconsin-La Crosse Estimated Position of - Director, Qumran Cemetery Mapping Project Aqueduct Before Slump Richard Freund - University of Hartford Former Edge of Preserved Slump - Qumran Excavations Project Director Aqueduct Collapsed Robert Eisenman - California State-Long Beach Route Section Section of Aqueduct - Qumran Excavations Project Director Noelle Bautist3- California State-Long Beach

Figure 12: Qiiiurmi aqueduct system.

IS FOCUS on Geography Volume 48, Number 1 The previously discovered caves that not been previously mentioned in the Robert Eisenman, Ron Dubay and Noelle contained scroll nititerial are in areas of Qumran literature. Bautista from the California State rugged, exposed limestone cliffs, with Another new discovery was made at University-Long Beach; Bob Passow from many of the caves adjacent fo the Qumran the site in December 2002. Based on the the University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire; Silc (Caves 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 [see Figure results of a GPR survey. Dr. Yitzhak Magen Paul Bauman from Komex International 21) and others {Caves 1, 2, 3, and 11) up to from the Israel Antiquities Authority (Calgary, Canada); Dr. Hanan Eshel from 1,775 meters away. This limestone conducted an excavation in the area outside Bar-Ilan University (Israel); and Magen topography is very common in and around the east wall of the Qumran settlement. He Broshi, Curator Emeritus of the Shrine of Qumran, so we assumed thai there might be discovered a series of buried jars, but it will the Book at the Israel Museum. This collapsed caves containing artifacts. The take years to fully understand tbe intricacies research would not have been possible ERT survey was completed to pinpoint of this discovery. This new information will without the participation of these possible locations for excavation. Several eventually help us piece together another individuals. We also thank the Israeli such locations were established and these part of the Qumran story and may provide Antiquities Authority for granting us a areas were probed with an auger (a portable more insight into the use of cemeteries permit to complete this research. hand-held drilling device), but no cavities (Freund 2002). were found. We plan to continue research The 2001 and 2002 John and Carol References on a future expedition fo Qumi-an. Merrill Qumran Excavations Projects have increased our knowledge about the Butzer, K.W. 1982. A}xhaeology as Human Stnnman/ and Conclusions Qumran Archaeological Site. Complete and Ecology. Cambridge: Cambridge accurate maps of the cemeteries now exist. University Press, The spatial distribution of the site A detailed map of the aqueduct system has de Vaux, R. 1973. Archaeology and the Dead components indicates a pattern of usage been completed, along with a detailed map Sea Scrolls. London: Oxford University consistent with interpretations made by showing the spatial relationships between Press. Schiff'man (1995), Sukenik (1955), and the components of Qumran's cultural Eshel, H., M. Broshi, R. Freund, and B. VanderKani and Flint (2002) that the landscape. Ground penetrating radar Schultz. 2002. New Data on the Qumran Sect were intrinsically linked to the technology indicated the possible locations Cemetery East of Khirbet Qumran. scrolls found in the caves. The Qumran Sect of burials that have no surface expression, Dead Sea Discoveries 9:135-165. also was linked to the cemeteries adjacent to and pinpointed a location where eight Freund, R. 2002. New Insights on the Cetneter}/ the site. Tomb 1000 is where they buried a buried jars were discovered. GPR also iH Qumrnn. Unpublished Manuscript, person of local and perhaps even regional indicated an area of disturbance that may be University of Hartford. importance. Despite differences in the the location of the latrines for the city. Jacobson, C. 2002. Resurrected: John the pattern and orientation of some of the Electrical resistivity tomography Baptist, www.theage.com/articles/ graves in the Main and North cemeteries, discovered new cavities beneath the 2002/08/02/1028157836462.html the graves appear to be connected with the Qumran site and provided important Rapp, H. Jr. and Hill, C. 1998. principal occupation of Qumran information about the nature of the Geoarchaeology: The Earth-Science {VanderKam and Flint 2002). The location of subsurface geologic materials in the area. Approach to Archaeological the Highland and South cemeteries on the Working within the multidisciplinary Interpretation. New Haven: Yale south side of Wadi Qumran, physically framework of geoarchaeology, we were University Press. separated from the site, may indicate that able to apply various aspects of the Scbiffman, L. 1995. Reclaiming the Dead Sea these burials are not directly associated geosciences to interpret past processes and Schrolls. New York: Doubleday. with the Qumran Sect. Only one of twelve events at Qumran, providing new insights Schultz, S. 1960. Zeitschrift des Detits^chen non-excavated graves with visual into Qumran's physical and cultural Palastina-Vereins. LXXVl: 53-58. expression in the South Cemetery is landscapes. Sukenick, E.L. 1955. Tlie Dead Sea Scrolls of oriented north-south, with the others the Hebrew University. Jerusalem: oriented east-west (seven) or northeast- Acknozvledgments Hebrew University. southwest (four). In the Highland VanderKam, J. 1994. The Dead Sea Scrolls Cemetery, all four graves with visual We wish to thank the John and Carol Today. Grand Rapids, Michigan: expression are oriented northeast- Merrill Foundation for supporting this William B. Eerdmans Publishing southwest. The graves in the South and research, as well as the Maurice Creenberg Company. Highland cemeteries have been interpreted Center for Judaic Studies at the University VanderKam, "j. and Flint, P. 2002. The as Bedouin (Zias 2000; Eshel et al. 2002), of Hartford, the University of Nebraska at Meaning of the Dead Sea Scrolls. San because of the topographic separation from Omaha, the University of Wisconsin-Eau Francisco: HarperCollins Publishers. the main cemeteries and the lack of north- Claire, and Drew University. We also wish Zias, J.A. 2000. Tine Cemeteries of Qumran south graves. The graves in the Highland to acknowledge some of the other and Celibacy: Confusion Laid to Rest. Cemeterv were a new discovery and had participants in the project, including: Dr. Dead Sea Discoivries 7:220-253.

Summer 2004 FOCUS on Geogmphy 19