THE LAST FRONTIER FORESTS ECOSYSTEMS & ECONOMIES ON THE EDGE DIRK BRYANT, DANIEL NIELSEN & LAURA TANGLEY
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE DATA COLLABORATORS: 13 WORLD CONSERVATION MONITORING CENTRE AND THE WORLD WILDLIFE FUND Major Findings 1 Board of Directors 2 World Resources Institute 3 Acknowledgments 4 Foreword 5 Introduction 6 Why Do Frontier Forests Matter? 7 What Do We Know About the World's Forests? 9 WRI's Frontier Forests Assessment 10 Falling Frontiers 12 Today's Threats 15 Destruction's Roots 17 The Frontier Forest Index 19 Regional Overviews 22 The Closing Frontier: A Call to Action 34 Technical Annex 37 Notes 41
Box 1: Definitions Used in This Study 11 Box 2: Frontier Forest Myths 14 Box 3: Different Ways of Ranking Countries 18 Box 4: Restoring Frontier Forest: the Guanacaste Example 34 Box 5: A New Vision of Frontier Forest Stewardship 35 Box 6: Plan Piloto: Sustainable Forest Development 36 Basemap data from ArcWorld. Assistance in data preparation, mapping, and analysis provided by $& World Wildlife Fund & 1§ World Conservation Monitoring Centre. FRONTIER FORESTS YEARS AGO Data sources i.) Forest cover data provided by World Conservation Monitoring Centre, ii.) Frontier forests data derived through expert assessment and from other sources. 8,000 FRONTIER FORESTS TODAY: [~| CURRENT NON-FRONTIER FORESTS: large, intact natural forest ecosystems that are secondary forest, plantations, degraded forest, relatively undisturbed and large enough to and patches of primary forest not meeting this WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE maintain all of their biodiversity. study's criteria as frontier. THE LAST FRONTIER FORESTS: ECOSYSTEMS & ECONOMIES ON THE EDGE WHAT IS THE STATUS OF THE WORLD'S REMAINING LARGE, NATURAL FOREST ECOSYSTEMS?
DIRK BRYANT, DANIEL NIELSEN & LAURA TANGLEY \1 A Contribution to the Forest Frontiers Initiative
CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS: NIGEL SIZER, MARTA MIRANDA, PAIGE BROWN, NELS JOHNSON, ANDREW MALK AND KENTON MILLER
1997
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE DATA COLLABORATORS: WORLD CONSERVATION MONITORING CENTRE AND THE WORLD WILDLIFE FUND KATHLEEN COURRIER Publications Director
Hyacinth Billings Production Manager
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Each World Resources Institute report represents a timely, scholarly treatment of a subject of public concern. WRI takes responsibility for choosing the study topics and guaranteeing its authors and researchers freedom of inquiry. It also solicits and responds to the guidance of advisory panels and expert reviewers. Unless otherwise stated, however, all the interpretation and findings set forth in WRI publications are those of the authors.
Copyright © 1997 World Resources Institute. All rights reserved. ISBN 1-56973-198-5 Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 97-060277 Printed in the United States of America on Recycled Paper. MAJOR FINDINGS
Almost half of Earth's original forest cover is gone, much of it destroyed within the past three decades.
Today, just one fifth of the world's original forest cover remains in large tracts of relatively undisturbed forest - what WRI calls frontierforest
Three countries - Russia, Canada, and Brazil - house almost 70 percent of the world's remaining frontier forest.
40 percent of forest on Earth today qualifies as frontierforest .
Seventy-six countries assessed in this study have lost all of their frontier forest.
39 percent of Earth's remaining frontier forest is threatened by logging, agricultural clearing, and other human activity.
Only 3 percent of the world's frontier forest falls entirely within the temperate zone (regions characterized by moderate climate, including much of the U.S and Europe). Today, temperate forests are the most endangered frontier forests of all.
Half of today's frontier forest lies in boreal regions within Canada, Russia, and Alaska - inhospitable northern zones between temperate forest and tundra.
Outside of boreal regions, about 75 percent of the world's frontier forest is threatened.
Eleven countries - including Finland, Sweden, Vietnam, Guatemala and Thailand - are on the verge of losing their frontier forest. These countries maintain less than 5 percent of their original forest as frontier, and all of it is threatened.
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 1 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE BOARD OF DIRECTORS
Maurice F. Strong John H. Adams Jane Lubchenco Jonathan Lash Chairman Manuel Arango C. Payne Lucas President John Firor Robert 0. Blake Robert S. McNamara J. AlanBrewster Vice Chairman Derek Bok Scott McVay Senior Vice President BertBolin William F. Martin Walter V. Reid Robert N. Burt Matthew Nimetz Vice President for Program David T.Buzzelli Paulo Nogueira-Neto Donna W Wise Michael R. Deland Ronald L. Olson Vice President for Policy Affairs Sylvia A. Earle Ruth Patrick Robert Repetto Alice F. Emerson Florence T. Robinson Vice President and Senior Economist Shinji Fukukawa Roger WSant Thomas H. Fox William M.Haney, III Stephan Schmidheiny Vice President Cynthia R. Helms Bruce Smart Marjorie Beane Calestousjuma James Gustave Speth Secretary-Treasurer Yolanda Kakabadse Mostafa K. Tolba Jonathan Lash Alvaro Umana Jeffrey T. Leeds Victor L. Urquidi Thomas E. Lovejoy Pieter Winsemius
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE
he World Resources Institute (WRI) is an independent center for policy research and technical assistance on global environmental T and development issues. WRTs mission is to move human society to live in ways that protect Earth's environment and its capacity to provide for the needs and aspirations of current and future generations.
Because people are inspired by ideas, empowered by knowledge, and moved to change by greater understanding, the Institute provides - and helps other institutions provide - objective information and practical proposals for policy and institutional change that will foster environmentally sound, socially equitable development. WRI's particular concerns are with globally significant environmental problems and their interaction with economic development and social equity at all levels.
The Institute's current areas of work include economics, forests, bio- diversity, climate change, energy, sustainable agriculture, resource and environmental information, trade, technology, national strategies for envi- ronmental and resource management, business liaison, and human health.
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WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 3 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
DATA COLLABORATORS: Oceania Europe and Russia: Reviewers: World Conservation Monitoring (including PNG): Dmitry Aksenov and staff (Biodiversity We would like to thank the following people Centre, and World Wildlife Fund - US Conservation Center); Dr. Isaev Alecsander who, in addition to the individuals named, Conservation Science Program. Bruce Beehler (U.S. State Deptartment); Christopher Bragg (Department of (Yakut Institute of Biology); David Gordon provided valuable review comments and Primary Industries-QFS); Gary Hartshorn (Pacific Environment & Resources Center); other input at various stages of this project: REGIONAL DATA (Organization for Tropical Studies); Don Roger Olsson (Naturinformation Ab); Risto Janis Alcorn, Mark Aldrich, Kim Awbrey, Paivinen and staff (European Forest Victoria Berry, Clare Billington, Susan COORDINATORS: Henry (World Wildlife Fund); John Herbert Braatz, Louis Carbonnier, Domenick Conservation International (Latin (New Zealand Forest Research Institute); Institute); Anatoli Shvidenko Jamie Kirkpatrick (University of (International Institute for Applied Systems Dellasala, Eric Dinerstein, Yves Dube, Nigel America), and the Pacific Environment Dudley, Lorene Flaming, Jerry Franklin, Resources Centre (Russia). Tasmania); Kathy MacKinnon (The World Analysis); lisa Tracy (Pacific Environment Bank); Dennis Neilson; Dr John Nelder & Resources Center); Boris Voronov Mark Graham, David Harcharik, Rudolf (Queensland Herbarium); Stewart Noble (Institute for Water and Ecological Heinrich, Jurgen Hoth, Sue Iremonger, EXPERTS WHO HELPED WRI (Environmental Resources Information Problems). Klaus Janz, Val Kapos, Andrei Laletin, Jean-Paul Lanly, Claude Leger, MAP THE FRONTIER FORESTS: Network); Evan Shield, Tony Whitten (The World Bank); Jann Williams (Centre for North and Central Massimiliano Lorenzi, Richard Luxmoore, Plant Biodiversity Research); John Michael McCloskey, Jeff McNeely, Norman Africa: America: Woinarski (Parks and Wildlife Commission Myers, David Olson, Jean Poitevin, Peter Conrad Aveling (ECOFAC); Joerg Balsiger; Liz Barratt-Brown (Natural Resources of the Northern Territory). Raven, Kent Redford, Heather Rosmarin, Defense Council); Jean- Frangois Bergeron Bryan Corran; Lee Hannah (Conservation Nick Salafsky, Jaime Salazar, Andre (Ministere des Ressources Naturelles, International); John Hart (Wildlife Savoie, Jeff Sayer, Peter Schlesinger, K.D. South America: Gouvernement du Quebec); Dan Bullock Conservation Society); Illonga Itoua (World Singh, Bruce Stein, Tom Stone, Fred Jose Marcio Ay res (IBAMA); Aaron (Manitoba Natural Resources); Chuck Carr Wildlife Fund); Robert Kasisi; Dr. Nadine Swartzendruber, Frances Sullivan, and Cavieres; Thomas Defler (Caparu (Wildlife Conservation Society); James Laporte (University of Maryland); Jean Derek Thompson. Within WRI we would Biological Station); Louise Emmons (The Cayford (The Canadian Institute of Lejolly (Departement de Biologie Vegetale like to express our gratitude to Chip Smithsonian Institution); Philip Fearnside Forestry); Rex Crawford (The Nature Universite Libre de Bruxelles); Michel F. Barber, Alan Brewster, Jake Brunner, (Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Conservancy); Barry Davidson (Wildlife Massart (NASA Landsat Pathfinder Bruce Cabarle, Allen Hammond, Jonathan Amazonia); Gustavo Fonseca Habitat Canada); Bob Demulder (Forest Program/Central Africa); Aissitou Ndinga Lash, Mary Paden, Walter Reid, Leslie (Conservation International); Robin Foster Inventory Development Group); Louise (IUCN); Simon Rietburgen (The World Roberts, Eric Rodenburg, Kirk Talbott, (Field Museum of Natural History); Emmons (The Smithsonian Institution); Bank); Nicodene Tchamou (IITA); David Peter Veit and Deanna Wolfire. Wilkie (Biodiversity Support Program). Rodolfo H. Gajardo Michell (Universidad Robin Foster (Field Museum of Natural de Chile); Gary Hartshorn (Organization History); Tim Grey (Wildlands League); for Tropical Studies); Otto Huber (Instituto Randy Hagenstein (The Nature Researchers: Asia: Botanico); Rod Mast (Conservation Conservancy); Mark Heathcott (Parks Steve Walters and Changhua Wu helped Michael Green (World Conservation International); Russ Mittermeier Canada); Harry Hirvonen (Environment immensely throughout the initial stages of Monitoring Centre); Xiaojun Li (The (Conservation International); Silvio Canada); Vicky Husband (Sierra Club BC); this report. We are indebted to them for Nature Conservancy); Kathy MacKinnon Olivieri (Conservation International); Laura Jackson (Protected Areas their invaluable assistance. (The World Bank); John MacKinnon; Enrique Ortiz (Conservation Association); Deborah Jensen (The Nature Dennis Neilson; Evan Shield; Chris International); Claudio Padua (University Conservancy); Kevin Kavanagh (World Wemmer (Conservation and Research of Brazil); Carlos Peres (Universidade de Wildlife Fund - Canada); Andy MacKinnon Center); Tony Whitten (The World Bank); Sao Paulo); Anthony Rylands (BC Forest Service); Elizabeth May (Sierra Eric Wikramanayake (World Wildlife (Conservation International); Jaime Salzar Club Canada); Reed Noss (Oregon State Fund). (Fundacion Inguede); Stephan University); Chris O'Brien (Ecology North); Schwartzman (Environmental Defense George Powell; Chris Shank (Wildlife Fund); Wouter Veening (Netherlands Management Division, Government of the Committee for IUCN). Northwest Territories); Jorge Soberon Mainero (Comision para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad); Amanda Will (Protected Areas Association); Tim Wilson (Conservation Mapping); Dr. Ken Winterberger (U.S. Forest Service); Terje Void (BC Forest Service); Gaile Whelan Enns (World Wildlife Fund Canada); Steve Zoltai (Canadian Forest Service).
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE FOREWORD
he word "frontier" con- Road building and other Using a geographic infor- We must act quickly. jures up notions of new infrastructure development, often mation system, WRI has developed Transnational logging companies T challenges, of new lands, accompanying logging, mining, a single global database and a are already operating in Siberia or new intellectual endeavors ripe or other large investments, are preliminary series of regional and Canada and rapidly expanding for human exploitation and devel- also proceeding quickly. Once the maps depicting the world's frontier operations into South America, the opment. If a frontier is out there, way is paved, population pressure forests - both first of their kinds. In Caribbean Rim, and Central people will not be far behind. and landlessness in some parts of the coming years, WRI will update Africa. Within the next five years, The frontier vision often saw the world, especially developing and improve these maps and get many pending and proposed trees as a commodity at best or countries, can prompt migration their obvious message to the contracts will be signed, and the simply an obstacle in the way of into frontier regions and rapid world's decision-makers. leverage of governments and non- progress. Over many centuries, deforestation by small land hold- This report is the opening governmental organizations will about half of the world's forests - ers and large land speculators. salvo of WRI's Forest Frontiers be greatly diminished. almost 3 billion hectares - were There are better ways to use, Initiative, a five-year, multi- At the same time, mainstream burned, cleared, or cut down. Just manage and preserve forests. The disciplinary effort to promote industry and investors are increas- one fifth of the world's original reach of human ingenuity extends stewardship in and around the ingly open to change. There is a forest cover remains in large to the stewardship of trees, but at world's last major frontier forests significant opportunity to increase undisturbed tracts today, and the the frontiers the destruction by influencing investment, policy, market demand for "green" timber. cutting has accelerated: about 16 continues. and public opinion. WRI is already a backer of the million hectares are cut or burned This report describes for the For each forest frontier Forest Stewardship Council, the each year. In the course of this first time the location and status of region - in Amazonia, Central first international organization devastation, we are losing species the world's frontier forests - the Africa, Asia, North America, and created to evaluate, accredit, and and a valuable cornucopia of large, ecologically intact, and rel- Russia - WRI is building a monitor organizations that certify- resources, altering the atively undisturbed natural forests network of policy-makers, activists, sustainably produced forest prod- atmosphere's composition and that still remain. Working with investors, and researchers to ucts. Meanwhile, many developing brutally degrading ecosystems. several partners, including the promote alternatives to forest countries are searching for practical World Conservation Monitoring destruction that take advantage of policy alternatives to destructive Centre, the World Wildlife Fund, the full economic potential of timber harvest agreements. and 90 forest experts, WRI devel- forests, not just immediate We are deeply grateful to the oped a first map of frontier forest revenue from logging and forest AVINA Group and the Netherlands areas, assembling in one place clearing. As part of this effort, Ministry of Foreign Affairs for their unprecedented location-specific WRI will help build the capacity of general support for the Forest information on current and future local organizations to carry on Frontiers Initiative and to the threats to forest integrity. this work independently. Wallace Global Fund for supporting The business community is this project. an important partner in this effort. We are working with others to develop case studies with innova- Jonathan Lash tive firms to demonstrate the busi- President ness impacts and opportunities World Resources Institute that sustainability presents.
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE INTRODUCTION
y now, most people who We believe it is time to read a newspaper or replace this outdated thinking Bwatch television know with a concept of frontier that is that deforestation is a serious based on stewardship - taking problem, particularly in the responsibility for the forest and tropics. This World Resources Hidden behind familiar statistics is an equally sober- ensuring that its riches will be Institute (WRI) analysis shows ing reality. Of the forests that do remain available for future generations. that we have lost almost half— standing, the vast majority are no more than small Good stewardship may mean almost 3 billion hectares - of the complete protection of some forests that once blanketed the or highly disturbed pieces of the fully functioning frontier forests combined with earth. Every year at least 16 mil- ecosystems they once were. careful management of portions lion additional hectares fall to the of others for both timber and ax, torch, bulldozer, or chain saw.u non-timber products. Hidden behind such familiar forgotten, of course. They are the generate and maintain the The change must happen statistics, however, is another, last refuge for some of the world's biodiversity upon which we all soon: over the coming years, equally sobering reality. Of the most endangered species and they rely. Frontier forests also contribute citizens, policy-makers, industry forests that do remain standing, provide important economic a large portion of the ecological leaders, and others have a chance the vast majority are no more products and environmental services - such as watershed to decide the fate of the world's than small or highly disturbed services. Yet, they may have lost protection and climate last frontier forests. The key pieces of the My functioning their ability to sustain themselves stabilization - that make the decisions before us are windows ecosystems they once were. These in the long term. To support their planet habitable. And they are of opportunity that may never modified forests should not be full complement of plant and home to many of the world's open again. animal inhabitants, fragmented remaining indigenous peoples. forests will probably need regular Keeping Earth's last frontier interventions by resource forests will require a fundamental managers. shift in how we view them. From In contrast, frontier forests - the American Wild West of the large, ecologically intact, and rela- 1800s to Russia's Far East and the tively undisturbed natural forests - South American Amazon today, are likely to survive indefinitely frontiers have been seen as without human assistance. (See limitless providers of land, timber, Box 1 and the Technical gold, wildlife, and other sources Annex.) Within these forests, of wealth. Careless and wasteful, natural ecological and evolutionary a typical frontier economy mines processes will continue to the forest for a quick profit and moves on.
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE WHY DO FRONTIER FORESTS MATTER?
s large, intact ecosys- Fragmented forests, on the Secure habitats for indige- More than safe houses for tems, frontier forests dif- other hand, are probably too nous species, frontier forests are genes and species under siege, A fer fundamentally from small to support their full com- invaluable refuges for global biodi- frontier forests maintain complex the fragmented or otherwise plement of species in the coming versity. Between 50 and 90 percent and inimitable ecological com- modified forests that dominate the centuries.6 Smaller tracts are of all terrestrial species inhabit the munities and processes. Vast and landscape today. For one thing, also vulnerable to processes world's forests,9 and many of undisturbed, they give free play to frontier forests are large enough beyond their borders. In the them are threatened by extinc- nature and to such natural events to provide a safe haven for all of United States, for example, the tion, primarily because of habitat as wildfires and seed dispersal by their indigenous species. To nests of songbirds in small forest loss. (See Figure 1) By main- large herbivores, both of which ensure long-term survival, far- patches are under heavy attack by taining these last strongholds we determine the composition and ranging animals such as grizzly cowbirds, bluejays, raccoons, and protect the biodiversity within distribution of species. Such nat- bears, harpy eagles, and wolves other animals that thrive along them and provide a source for ural processes create unique habi- need blocks of natural habitat forest edges.7 Many non-frontier recolonizing non-frontier and tats, including ancient stands of thousands, if not tens of forests also lack the natural fea- restored forests with native "old-growth" forest. thousands, of square kilometers in tures that native species rely on: species. Beyond its obvious intrin- size. 3A5 In the U.S. Pacific Northwest, the sic value, biodiversity supplies spotted owl and marbled murrelet humans with food, medicines, - birds that depend on large, and many other staples needed to standing dead trees typically survive and make a living. found in old-growth forests - are threatened by logging of these ecosystems.8
Percent of the world's endangered animal species threatened by the loss of forest and other natural habitat
I
Source: IUCN Species Survival Commission, 1996 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals (IUCN, 1996, Gland), p. 36.
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 7 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE All forests help maintain the More recently, erosion since environmental conditions that 1950 due to deforestation is respon- make life possible, from regional sible for the loss of 580 million hydrologic cycles to global cli- hectares of fertile land worldwide, // is time to replace out- mate. But huge frontiers are par- an area bigger than all of Western Frontier forests are ticularly important. Frontier forest Europe.12 Loss of large forested dated thinking with a ecosystems store tremendous watersheds is blamed for heavier invaluable refuges for concept of frontier that amounts of carbon, for example - flooding in India's Ganges Valley, global biodiversity. is based on approximately 433 billion tonnes, and government losses of $1 bil- or more than all carbon that will lion a year in property damage.13 stewardship. be released from fossil fuel burn- By carefully managing what's left A legacy inherited from our ing and cement manufacture over of the world's frontier forests, we ancestors, Earth's last frontier the next 69 years, at current glob- can dramatically reduce such forests may indeed be the most As large, intact ecosystems al emission rates.10 Without these environmental side effects and valuable gift we can leave for our governed by nature, frontier forests forests, this carbon would go costs. children. Guardians of biodiversity, indigenous cultures, and ecological provide baseline information on straight into the atmosphere as Dwindling frontier forests processes, frontiers also provide how such systems should work. carbon dioxide, a powerful green- are also home to many of the recreational and ecotourism Just as doctors use standard body house gas. world's last indigenous cultures. opportunities. Because so many temperature and blood pressure to Protecting and responsibly About 50 million indigenous peo- 14 irreplaceable forests have already determine health, ecologists study managing our last frontiers today ple live in tropical forests alone. disappeared, the worth to future natural forests to evaluate the will help countries avoid paying Amazonian forests house at least generations of those that remain is impact of different human inter- the high costs associated with 400 indigenous groups -1 million 15 greater than ever. ventions - asking, for instance, massive forest loss and degrada- people in all. Wiping out how forest clearing might affect tion. History abounds with exam- indigenous cultures by transform- Above and beyond practical local rainfall patterns. The results ples of civilizations that foundered ing forests is a moral crime. And considerations is the very real help land managers find ways to after deforestation led to soil ero- when these cultures vanish, so aesthetic and spiritual need just to lighten the human footprint in sion, river siltation, wood short- does a gold mine of useful infor- know that remote and wild places heavily used landscapes. ages, and other banes of mation about the natural world. remain on our crowded planet. agricultural and industrial produc- One concrete reflection of this tivity. These doomed civilizations need is the considerable sum of include ancient societies in money many people pay to visit Mesopotamia, the Mediterranean, such places. But even to many and Central America." people who will never see them, wild plants and animals, along with the forests that house them, have an inalienable right to exist. Certainly, as Earth's most power- ful species, we have a responsibil- ity to ensure their survival.
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE WHAT DO WE KNOW ABOUT THE WORLD'S FORESTS?
urprisingly, we know cover map is far from complete. very little about the status Many areas depicted as forested S of the world's forests as a can hardly be considered forest. whole. Most monitoring Some are heavily degraded by efforts are confined to individual logging and other activities, while countries, and the results often do People need to know that remote and wild places others are single-species not compute across borders. remain on our crowded planet, plantations. A rough picture of Sponsored by the United where forests are is invaluable, Nations (U.N.), the most compre- but until WRI's assessment virtually nothing was known about their hensive study of the world's To help fill the gap, WRI asked The WRI map also shows condition on a global scale. forests to date estimates recent the World Conservation Monitoring current forest cover, drawing deforestation, but gives no Centre (WCMC) to develop a map from an earlier WCMC map that information on the overall of Earth's forest cover as it appeared provides the most comprehensive 16 condition of remaining forest. 8,000 years ago. The result repre- image of total forest cover today. This U.N. study cost $4 million - sents the first detailed attempt to Though based on the best available less than one eighth the amount show what the world's original data, the WCMC current forest U.S. citizens spend each day on forest cover looked like before 17 18 newspapers. ' humans began transforming it.
Total Area in Original, Current and Frontier Forest
TOTAL REMAINING FRONTIER FRONTIER FOREST TOTAL FOREST FOREST (FRONTIER AND REMAINING TOTAL AS A % AS A % ORIGINAL NON-FRONTIER AS A % OF FRONTIER OF TOTAL OF TOTAL FOREST FOREST) ORIGINAL FOREST ORIGINAL REMAINING REGION (OOO KM2) (OOO KM2) FOREST (000 KM2) FOREST FOREST
Africa 6,799 2,302 34% 527 8% 23% Asia 15,132 4,275 28% 844 6% 20% North & Central America 12,656 9,453 75% 3,909 31% 41% Central America 1,779 970 55% 172 10% 18% North America 10,877 8,483 78% 3,737 34% 44% South America 9,736 6,800 70% 4,439 46% 65% Russia & Europe 16,449 9,604 58% 3,463 21% 36% Europe 4,690 1,521 32% 14 0.3% 1% Russia 11,759 8,083 69% 3,448 29% 43% Oceania (i) 1,431 929 65% 319 22% 34%
World 62,203 33,363 13,501 22%
Notes: (0 Oceania consists of Papua New Guinea, Australia and New Zealand
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE WRI's FRONTIER FORESTS ASSESSMENT
ost of the tremendous Experts also supplied infor- amount of informa- mation on the status of frontiers M tion on individual they identified - if and how these forests that exists is scattered far forests are endangered by devel- and wide and buried within the opment. They also answered our WRFs maps provide Most information on walls of isolated institutions. queries about future threats, spec- forests is scattered far Much of it lives only in the minds ifying whether frontiers were in the first realistic and wide and buried of biologists and foresters who are timber concessions or housed picture of the location experts on a single forest region. such high-value resources as and status of the within the walls of Working with several timber, oil, or gold. isolated institutions. partners - including WCMC and Using a geographic informa- world's frontier forests. 20 Much lives only in the the World Wildlife Fund -WRI tion system, WRI combined all wove together some of this of these site-specific data into a minds of biologists diverse data, knowledge, and single global database and a series and foresters who are expertise. First we developed a of regional maps. (See Maps 2-7.) preliminary map of "candidate Far from perfect, these maps experts on a single frontier forests" - large forested nonetheless provide the first real- forest region. areas with few roads or modern istic picture of the location and settlements - and sent it to 90 status of the world's frontier forest experts around the world. forests. In the coming months and Using criteria WRI developed, ten years, WRI will work with partners to fifteen experts for each region around the globe to update and commented on proposed frontier improve the maps as more infor- areas - confirming sites as fron- mation becomes available and to tier forests, rejecting sites, or get them to decision-makers in redrawing their shape and whose hands the fate of frontier boundaries. (See Box 1) 19 forests rests.
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 10 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE •" DEFINITIONS US ED IN THIS STUDY FRONTIER FORESTS are the 4. Its structure and composition LOW-THREAT POTENTIALLY ORIGINAL FOREST is that world's remaining large intact are determined mainly by natural VULNERABLE FRONTIER estimated to have covered the natural forest ecosystems. These events, though limited human FORESTS are those not now planet about 8,000 years ago, forests are - on the whole - disturbance by traditional considered under enough before large-scale disturbance relatively undisturbed and big activities of the sort that have pressure to degrade ecosystems. by modern society began. enough to maintain all of their shaped forests for thousands of But because they are unprotected biodiversity, including viable years - such as low-density and contain valuable natural A note about the data: populations of the wide-ranging shifting cultivation - is accept- resources, or because human This study's results species associated with each forest able. As such, it remains rela- encroachment is likely, most of represent estimates of the type. As defined in this assess- tively unmanaged by humans, these forests are vulnerable to extent and location of ment, a frontier forest must and natural disturbances (such future degradation and frontier forests as well as meet seven criteria: as fire) are permitted to shape destruction. threats to their survival much of the forest. Incomplete information 1. It is primarily forested. 5. In forests where patches of NON-FRONTIER FORESTS from some parts of the 2. It is big enough to support trees of different ages would are dominated by secondary world and difficulties viable populations of all naturally occur, the landscape forests, plantations, degraded estimating the magnitude indigenous species associated exhibits this type of forest, and patches of primary of threats make the data with that forest type - measured heterogeneity. forest that do not meet this suitable only for regional by the forest's ability to support 6. It is dominated by indigenous study's frontier criteria (even comparisons and for wide-ranging animal species tree species. though some might be restored distinguishing major (such as elephants, harpy 7. It is home to most, if not all, as frontier forest). This category differences among eagles, or brown bears). of the other plant and animal includes some of the world's countries forests. This 3. It is large enough to keep species that typically live in this most unique, valuable, and study did not assess these species' populations viable type of forest. endangered forest types, includ- woodland areas of the even in the face of the natural ing the biologically rich, highly world, or forests within disasters - such as hurricanes, THREATENED FRONTIER fragmented forests of Madagascar many island countries. fires, and pest or disease out- FORESTS are forests where and Central Europe's last stands (See Technical Annex) breaks - that might occur there ongoing or planned human of old-growth forest. Such in a century. activities (such as logging, forests are high priorities for agricultural clearing, and conservation. Non-frontier mining) will eventually degrade forests are also important the ecosystem (through, for because they provide us with a example, declines in or local wide range of economic goods extinctions of plants and animals and services. or large-scale changes in the forest's age and structure).
\\
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 11 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE FALLING FRONTIERS
early half - 46 percent Temperate forests, on the Thanks to their favorable -of the world's forest other hand, are the most heavily climate and fertile soils, temperate N has been converted to fragmented and disturbed of all forests were the first to be cleared farms, pastures, and other uses forest types. This study concludes wholesale by humans. By 1000 over the past 80 centuries. While that just 3 percent of today's fron- B.C., most of eastern China's According to this just over half remains, most of it tier forests are temperate stands forests had been converted to 21 assessment just has been heavily altered by people (another 5 percent contains both farmland. More than 2,000 and bears little resemblance to temperate and either boreal or years ago, the Greeks and 22 percent of Earth's pristine forest. According to this tropical frontier forest). Thriving Romans destroyed much of the original forest assessment just 22 percent of in a moderate climate, pristine forest that rimmed the 22 23 remains in large, Earth's original forest remains in temperate forests once extended Mediterranean. ' Today, the large, relatively natural ecosystems. throughout most of Europe, much frontier forests of the Middle East relatively natural (See Figure 2.) of China and the continental and Mediterranean Basin are ecosystems. Of the remaining frontier United States, as well as parts of completely gone. Western forest that is left, nearly half is Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Europe's frontier forests were boreal forest. (See Figure 3J A Chile, and Argentina. leveled during the Middle Ages as broad belt of primarily coniferous new cities and towns spread trees, boreal forests lie between throughout the region.24 arctic tundra to the north and warmer, temperate forests to the south. They blanket much of Alaska, Canada, Russia, and Scandinavia. For two reasons, boreal forests have been less disturbed than have other forest types. First, What Happened to the Forests That Once Covered the Earth? long winters, poor soils, and other factors make farming difficult, so little forest has been converted to agriculture. Second, boreal trees, particularly in northern areas, tend to be slow-growing, scrawny, and widely dispersed. So until modern technology, increasing wood demand and other factors changed the picture, commercial loggers traditionally had little incentive to exploit boreal forests.
RUSSIA & ASIA NORTH & SOUTH AFRICA OCEANIA EUROPE CENTRAL AMERICA AMERICA
FRONTIER FOREST NON-FRONTIER FOREST CLEARED
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 12 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE Temperate forests of the Worldwide, most frontier Americas, Australia, and New forests are now restricted to scat- Zealand were opened relatively tered, widely dispersed pockets, recently - over the past few cen- many located in inaccessible turies - by European explorers The lion's share of today's frontier forests - more than mountains or swamps. Europe - and settlers. Although indigenous which has already lost two thirds peoples had long lived in and 75 percent-is located in just three large tracts of its historical forest cover - shaped these forests, newcomers covering parts of seven countries. maintains only a few small patches wrought far more dramatic of frontier forest totalling less than changes. (See Box 2.) Even so, 1 percent of the original, all in almost all of the world's remain- Until this century, tropical Millions more hectares have Sweden and Finland. ing temperate frontier forests are forests - located in warm regions been degraded by logging, The lion's share of today's in these three regions. within 30 degrees of the equator - agricultural clearing, and the frontier forest - more than 75 per- remained largely intact. In the removal of vegetation for cent - is located in just three large past few decades, however, they fuelwood, building materials, and tracts covering parts of seven have fallen with alarming speed. livestock feed. In Asia and Africa, countries: two blocks of boreal Between i960 and 1990, some 450 for example, this study found that forest - one stretching across million hectares were cleared - a though roughly a third of the much of Canada and Alaska and fifth of the world's entire tropical original forest cover remains, less the other in Russia - and one forest cover. (See Figure 4.) than 10 percent of this original large relatively undisturbed chunk cover still qualifies as frontier of tropical forest spanning the forest. (See Table 1) Northwestern Amazon Basin and Guyana Shield.
Temperate Frontier Forests Are the Most Endangered..
PERCENT OF THE WORLD'S FRONTIER FORESTS
48%- 4 Boreal
Tropical
4% Both boreal & temperate
3% Temperate
1% Both temperate & tropical
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 13 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE Percentage of the World's Tropical Forest Cleared Between i960 and 1990 50
a UJ 45 ee 40 ULEA I
35 RES T o _i 30 o a. o ee 25
20 ; s 10^
5
:liililigilliliiiilliittjii 0 - Source: Singh and Marzoli, 1995
D FRONTIER FOREST MYTHS As places that conjure up MYTH: Frontiers are comprised MYTH: Forest peoples live in MYTH: Frontiers consist of fertile images of vast, empty spaces, of empty wilderness. Utopian harmony with nature. land, ripe for development. frontiers are associated with many popular myths that contribute to REALITY: People have lived in REALITY: Long before European REALITY: In many places, frontier their destruction. In each case, the many forests for hundreds of colonization, forest peoples managed forests remain undeveloped because reality is far more complex. Three generations, mostly in small their natural resources according to their soils are poor and they don't of the more common myths about groups. Forests today house several customary practices. Evidence have much commercially valuable frontier forests are: hundred million people in Asia suggests that some human cultures timber per hectare. In many tropical alone,25 while at least 20 million destroyed their own forest ecosystems forests, for instance, intensive agri- people live in the Amazon Basin.26 through abuse, and others in tribal cultural activity can rapidly deplete Low-level human activity over warfare.27'28 Today, rising soils that need natural debris from thousands of years within these populations, land shortages, and the tree canopy. Then too, forests areas has helped shape the forest access to sophisticated technologies are finite, and some are inaccessible. structure and species mix in frontier pose further management Forests in Amazonia and in Central ecosystems. challenges for forest peoples. Africa, for example, are rich in biodiversity but they often lack high densities of valuable timber species or good soils.29
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 14 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE TODAY'S THREATS
any of the frontier forests that have Example of Pressures on Forests: People are Using More Paper Products M survived into this century may not make it into the 200 next. Results from this study suggest that 39 percent of the world's remaining frontiers are threatened - that is, under Q_ moderate or high threat - by O 150 logging, agricultural clearing, and other activities, often along the forest edges. Many frontier forests not yet threatened - particularly those in the tropics - are still vulnerable because they contain valuable timber, oil, or minerals. Most of the safest frontier forests are in the far north, where 50 resource-extraction costs are high. Taking these forests out of the global calculus changes it sig- nificantly: outside Russia and Canada, three quarters of the 0 1961 1964 1967 1970 1973 1976 1979 1982 1985 1988 1991 1994 world's frontier forests - includ- Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 1996. Food For All. ing virtually all temperate forest Address on World Wide Web:
• LOGGING: This study logging offsets the cost of road- • ENERGY DEVELOPMENT, forest and disrupts freshwater suggests that commercial logging building to extract the timber, MINING, AND NEW ecosystems. These operations also poses by far the greatest danger to which in turn opens forests to INFRASTRUCTURE: Large-scale take up forest land and spew frontier forests. In all six regions hunting, fuelwood gathering, and mining and exploration for petro- pollution into the environment. assessed, WRI's advisors cited clearing for agriculture. Widely leum and natural gas also bring Energy development, mining, logging as the predominate threat considered the primary cause of new roads and settlements that and the roads, pipelines, and to forests - affecting more than 70 tropical deforestation (when fron- open once-inaccessible forests to settlements that come with it percent of the world's threatened tier and non-frontier forest are other human activities. Damming represent the second biggest frontiers. (See Table 2.) Logging taken together), agricultural rivers for hydroelectric power threat to frontier forests globally, can significantly "rewrite" the clearing, in particular, is hastened floods millions of hectares of affecting close to 40 percent of all structure and composition of once loggers open forests up.30'31 frontiers classified as under forests. Yet, some of its most moderate or high threat. negative effects are indirect:
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 15 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE • LAND CLEARING FOR AGRICULTURE: One fifth of the Wood Consumption Projected to Increase by 56% by 2010 world's threatened frontiers are directly endangered by farmers 2,500 who clear forest for cropland and pasture. Land clearing is particu- larly rapacious in Asia, Africa, 2,000 and Latin America. This threat can only grow as population increases. For the record, results from WRI's study suggest that 5 1,500 non-frontier forests - often criss- crossed by roads and easily acces- 1993 sible - are under much greater pressure from farmers than are frontier forests.
• EXCESSIVE VEGETATION 500 REMOVAL: Apart from logging and outright clearing, humans are removing millions of tons of vegetation from frontier forests, pulling at the fabric of these Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 1996. Food For All. Address on World Wide Web:
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 16 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE DESTRUCTION'S ROOTS
ike symptoms of disease, • GROWING ECONOMIES • POPULATION GROWTH visible threats to forests are AND CONSUMPTION: Even in AND DEMAND FOR NEW L often best treated by parts of the world where popula- LAND: Just since 1950, the addressing their underlying causes. tion is not growing significantly, world's population has more than Frequently Behind the obvious activities demand for certain forest doubled.33 As a result, in many governments and endangering the world's frontier resources - for both local and regions, forests have been cleared forests are a nest of interrelated industry reap the profits export markets - is intensifying to grow food and to make way for root causes: as economies expand. Between new settlements. Population while frontier peoples 1961 and 1994, per capita growth also drives up demand for receive only a sliver of consumption of paper increased timber, paper, fuelwood, and the benefits but bear by 86 percent globally and by 350 other products from an ever- percent in developing countries. shrinking forest base. the environmental (See Figure 5.) Industrialized brunt of forest countries still use more than 10 mismanagement times as much paper per person than people in developing regions do. Global consumption of indus- trial wood products is expected to jump by more than 50 percent by . (See Figure 6.)
Threats to Frontier Forests
PERCENT OF THREATENED FOREST FRONTIERS AT RISK FROM:
PERCENT OF MINING, FRONTIER FOREST ROADS EXCESSIVE UNDER MODERATE AND OTHER AGRICULTURAL VEGETATION REGION OR HIGH THREAT (i) LOGGING INFRASTRUCTURE CLEARING REMOVAL OTHER (ii)
Africa 77 79 12 17 8 41 Asia 60 50 10 20 9 24 North & Central America 29 83 27 3 1 14 Central America 87 54 17 23 29 13 North America 26 84 27 2 0 14 South America 54 69 53 32 14 5 Russia & Europe 19 86 51 4 29 18 Europe 100 80 0 0 20 0 Russia 19 86 51 4 29 18 Oceania (iii) 76 42 25 15 38 27
World 39 72 38 20 14 13
Notes: (i) Frontier forests considered under immediate threat, as a percent of all frontier forest assessed for threat. Threatened frontier forests are places where ongoing or planned human activities are likely, if con- tinued over coming decades, to result in the significant loss of natural qualities associated with all or part of these areas (for example, causing declines in, or local extinctions of, wildlife and plant populations, or large- scale changes in the age and structure of these forests).
(ii) "Other" includes such activities as overhunting, introduction of harmful exotic species, isolation of smaller frontier forest 'islands' through development of surrounding lands, changes in fire regimes and plantation establishment.
(iii) Oceania consists of Papua New Guinea, Australia and New Zealand.
See Technical Annex.
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 17 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE • BAD ECONOMIC POLICIES: El DIFFER EIMT WAYS • POVERTY AND In weighing land-management LANDLESSNESS In Brazil, options, economists and policy- OF RANKIIMG COUNTRIES Guatemala, and elsewhere, the makers often overlook the costs of WRI's Forest Frontiers Index exceptional biodiversity value poor flock to frontier forests in losing frontier forest. Such costs speaks volumes about the coun- (based on the large numbers of search of agricultural land and may come in the form of soil tries' opportunities to protect fron- plant species estimated to be other economic opportunities. erosion, the loss of water for tier forests and about the immedi- found within them). Rather than grapple with such agriculture, and release of carbon acy of threats to these frontiers. One important story - into the atmosphere. Lost oppor- politically thorny issues as land Alternative methods for ranking beyond the scope of this assess- tunities should count too, redistribution and tenure, countries tell different stories. ment - would be to rank countries including foregone income from governments often encourage the Table 4, for example, identifies according to the amount of ecotourism, "bio-prospecting", clearing of forest lands poorly the 12 countries with the largest threatened forest lying outside and other lucrative uses of whole suited to agriculture. In Brazil, for area of frontier forest. All told, frontiers. Such an index would be and healthy forests. Even logging, these countries account for 90 useful for identifying countries example, migrants have had to mining and other exploitative percent of what remains on where unique forest ecosystems clear forest to establish land uses often don't bring in the Earth. Table 5 lists countries with are on the verge of extinction. ownership, a "don't think twice" revenues they could: trying to frontier forest likely to be of policy that spawned more defor- attract foreign investors, many estation and discouraged settlers national governments all but give from managing frontiers for their away valuable rights to exploit forest products.39 their forests. Such economic • SHORT-SIGHTED • CORRUPTION AND decisions are common because POLITICAL DECISIONS: In much ILLEGAL TRADE: Corruption the costs of destruction are not felt of the world, frontier forests are among officials in government, or paid by those doing the dam- sacrificed for short-term political industry, and other organizations age. Frequently, governments and gain - to appease interest groups often hastens frontier forest loss. industry reap the profits while or to line the pockets of politicians In Cambodia, for example, the frontier peoples receive only a and their allies. In endangered military takes part in a thriving sliver of the benefits but bear the U.S. and Canadian old-growth illegal timber trade with neigh- environmental brunt of forest forests, for example, governments boring Thailand.34 In Burma, the mismanagement. allow logging to provide question- government and rebel groups able job security for a very small have both financed a decades- number of people who may soon long civil war with illegal logging be sidelined by technological and proceeds.35 In Alaska, Malaysia, market changes within the indus- Suriname, and elsewhere, timber try anyway. In tropical countries companies have been accused of such as Brazil, Indonesia, and engaging in timber smuggling, Malaysia, decision-makers attack trying to bribe government poverty by moving millions of officials to procure lucrative people to the forest frontier, even concessions, and other illegal though this approach is only a practices.36'37 Even demand for temporary fix for the poor and illegal drugs fuels forest destruc- can permanently destroy the tion: in Colombia, for example, forests. clearings are carved out of remote frontier forests to grow coca, marijuana, and opium poppies.38
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 18 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE THE FRONTIER FOREST INDEX
RI's Frontier Forest Another 11 countries - Only seven countries - Even in these eight places, Index shows that including Nigeria, Thailand, Brazil, Suriname, Guyana, some frontiers are under siege. In W most of the world's Sweden, Finland and Guatemala - Canada, Colombia, Venezuela, and Canada, two thirds of British nations have already lost, or are classified as on the edge. They Russia - and one Overseas Columbia's temperate coastal might soon lose, their last frontier have at most 5 percent of their Department of France (French rainforest - one of Earth's biologi- forests. (See Table 3.) The index original frontier left, and it is Guiana), still have a large cally richest temperate ecosystems ranks countries according to the threatened. While core areas of proportion of their original forest - has been degraded by logging percentage of frontier forest lost these isolated frontiers may be cover remaining in an unthreat- or other development, and much and to the proportion of remain- protected in parks or reserves, ened state. These nations have of what remains intact outside ing frontier that is moderately or logging and other activities out- great opportunities to sustain protected areas is slated for highly threatened - in other side (and sometimes inside) large areas of frontier forest if logging in coming years. ** words, high-scoring countries protected areas threaten the they begin to follow stewardship International timber companies have lost much of their frontier, ecosystems as a whole. Unless principles now. (See Box 5J have been trying to negotiate and most of what remains is these countries act immediately, contracts to log much of the threatened. they are likely to lose most of the remaining Amazon and Guyana Seventy-six countries have little frontier they have left. Shield frontier - including one 41 lost it all. These include almost all In 28 countries, there is not third of Suriname's forests. of the countries of Europe and much time to protect remaining Decisions made within the next Eastern Africa and all of North frontier forests. Most of these few years will decide the fate of Africa and the Middle East. For nations have lost most of their frontier forests within these these countries, forest restoration original frontier, and much of the countries. should be a priority. (See Box 4.) remainder is threatened. These countries include the United States (which, if not for Alaska's vast boreal forest, would rank among countries "on the edge"), Papua New Guinea, Malaysia, Panama, Mexico, Argentina, India, and Australia.
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 19 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE Frontier Forest Index
PERCENT OF PERCENT OF FRONTIER FOREST ORIGINAL FRONTIER CURRENT FRONTIER INDEX COUNTRY FOREST LOST FOREST THREATENED (99= WORST POSSIBLE SCORE)
LOST IT ALL (These countries have lost all oftheirfrontier forest. Restoration should be a priority.) Afghanistan, Albania, Algeria, Angola, Armenia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belgium, Benin, Botswana, Bulgaria, Burundi, Byelarus, Czech Republic, Denmark, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Estonia, Ethiopia, France, The Gambia, Georgia, Germany, Ghana, Greece, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Hungary, Iran, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Kenya, Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Republic of Korea, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lebanon, Liberia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Madagascar, Moldova, Morocco, Mozambique, Namibia, Nepal, Netherlands, Pakistan, Paraguay, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Rwanda, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Slovakia, South Africa, Spain, Switzerland, Tajikistan, Tanzania, Togo, Tunisia, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Uganda, Ukraine, United Kingdom, Uzbekistan, Yugoslavia (former), Zambia, Zimbabwe.
ON THE EDGE (Unless they act immediately, these countries risk losing much of their remaining frontier forest) Nigeria 100 99 Finland 99 100 Vietnam 100 Laos 100 Guatemala 100 Cote d'lvoire 100 Taiwan 100 Sweden 9 100 9 Bangladesh 9l6 100 9l6 Central African Republic 96 100 96 Thailand 95 100 95
NOT MUCH Time (Frontierforest in these countries will continue to fall without further action.) Argentina 94 100 94 New Zealand 91 100 91 China 91 Costa Rica 93 90 Cambodia 90 100 90 Cameroon 92 100 90 Brunei 97 Honduras 100 United States 94 100 79 Nicaragua 78 85 78 Bhutan 76 100 76 Mexico 92 100 71 Gabon 77 68 Sri Lanka 100 67 Panama 65 76 65 Ecuador 63 100 63 Zaire 84 99 59 India 99 70 56 Bolivia 56 57 55 Burma 94 97 52 Australia 82 56 52 Papua New Guinea 60 63 50 Congo 71 46 Belize 65 84 43 Malaysia 85 65 41 Peru 43 66 41 Indonesia 72 48 39 45 95 35 Chile 54 76 GREAT OPPORTUNITY (Given careful stewardship, these countries have a real chance to keep most of their original frontier forest.) Brazil 58 28 Venezuela 41 37 15 Russia 71 19 13 Colombia 64 19 12 Canada 42 21 8 Guyana 18 41 7 Suriname 22 2 French Guiana 0 0
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 20 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE 1 TABLE 4 Countries With Most of the World's Remaining Frontier Forest
TOTAL PERCENT OF THE FRONTIER FOREST WORLD'S TOTAL GLOBAL RANK COUNTRY (000 KM2) FRONTIER FOREST
1 Russia 3,448 26 2 Canada 3,429 25 3 Brazil 2,284 17 4 Peru 540 4 5 Indonesia 530 4 6 Venezuela 391 3 7 Colombia 348 3 8 United States 307 2 9 Zaire 292 2 10 Bolivia 255 2 11 Papua New Guinea 172 1 12 Chile 162 1
Total frontierfores t area of the top 12 countries as a % of the global total: 90
Ten Countries with the Highest Plant Biodiversity in Their Frontier Forest
ESTIMATED NUMBER OF PERCENT OF THE PLANT SPECIES WITHIN COUNTRY'S PLANT FRONTIER FOREST FRONTIER FORESTS SPECIES FOUND WITHIN GLOBAL RANK COUNTRY (000 KM2) (THOUSANDS) FRONTIER FORESTS
1 Brazil 2,284 36 ~65 2 Colombia 348 34 ~70 3 Indonesia 530 18 ~65 4 Venezuela 391 15 ~75 5 Peru 540 13 ~75 6 Ecuador 80 12 ~65 7 Bolivia 255 10 ~60 8 Mexico 87 9 ~35 9 Malaysia 47 8 ~50 10 Papua New Guinea 172 7 ~70
Note: Forest frontier plant species richness was estimated by multiplying the country's higher plant species totals per unit area (standard- ized for size, using a species-area curve) by the country's total frontier forest area.
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 21 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE REGIONAL OVERVIEWS
NORTH AND CENTRAL THREATENED FRONTIERS INCLUDE: AMERICA After Russia's, the world's Frontier: largest expanse of frontier forest is 1. TONGAS NATIONAL FOREST an unbroken 6,500-kilometer arc North American forest ecosystems store a Forest type: Temperate of boreal forest stretching from Geographic location: Alaska, Newfoundland to Alaska. These significant proportion ofthe global total of biotic United States North American forest ecosystems carbon and supply much ofthe world's growing Threat: Logging - still vast and relatively undis- demand for forest products. At risk: One of the world's largest turbed in northernmost Canada tracts of temperate old-growth and interior Alaska - store a sig- forest, as well as a unique ecosys- nificant proportion ofthe global What remains lies primarily with- Central America's frontier tem type: coastal temperate rain- total of biotic carbon and supply in three assemblages of national forests are under many kinds of forest. much of the world's growing parks and wilderness areas in the assault. In the Darien region, the demand for forest products. They northern Rockies and one block in major threat is completion ofthe Frontier: also provide livelihoods for thou- the North Cascades of Washington Pan American highway. (See 2 FORESTS OF THE DARIEN GAP sands of indigenous people and a state. While each forest block is below.) In other areas, Forest type: Tropical refuge for woodland caribou, largely protected, they are classi- agricultural expansion, logging, Geographic location: Panama grizzly bear, grey wolf, and other fied as threatened because they and infrastructure development and Colombia large mammals that once ranged Threat: Logging, other wood 42 are becoming too isolated to sup- are the dangers. Guatemala's for- widely across the continent. As port populations of some of their est frontier, for example, shrank removal, proposed highway con- a group, these frontiers rank large mammal species over time. ^ dramatically in the past decade as struction, and coca cultivation among the least threatened in the In Mexico, one relatively logging roads opened the area to At risk: A proposed highway world (approximately a quarter of large frontier remains in the landless peasants and to wealthy across the Darien Gap would the area is threatened). Even so, Sierra Madre Occidental, a biolog- agricultural business interests. provide a route for non-indigenous they are being pushed steadily ically diverse temperate conifer On the whole, North species - such as organisms that northward by mineral extraction, forest severely threatened by America still has a good number cause hoof-and-mouth disease - hydroelectric development, and rapidly expanding logging and of frontier forests in its northern- with potentially disastrous long- skyrocketing demand for wood road construction. Mexico's other most regions that remain rela- term biological and economic fiber, especially paper products. 44/45 frontier forests are in Oaxaca, tively safe. Yet from its southern consequences to both regions. To the south, North Chiapas, and the Maya forest band of boreal forests all the way Road construction, logging, and America's temperate frontier region (which extends into Belize to Panama's Darien Gap, other activities threaten forests that forests have retreated to a few and Guatemala). These tropical virtually all the rest ofthe conti- are home to three indigenous remote mountainous pockets in forests - along with a chain of nent's frontiers stand to lose their cultures and rich native the western United States and others stretching south through frontier status within the next biodiversity. Canada. Within the lower 48 U.S. the Miskito coast of Honduras and decade or two. states, frontiers account for about Nicaragua, the La Amistad region 1 percent of original forest cover. on the Costa Rican-Panamanian border, and the Darien forests on Panama's border with Colombia - are almost all highly threatened.
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 22 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE THREATENED FRONTIER FORESTS OF NORTH AMERICA
FRONTIER FORESTS UNDER FRONTIER FORESTS UNDER NON-FRONTIER FORESTS: FRONTIER FORESTS • LOW OR NO THREAT: • MEDIUM OR HIGH THREAT: • UNASSESSED FOR THREAT: large, intact natural forest ecosystems ongoing or planned human activities secondary forest, plantations, degraded insufficient information prevented that are relatively undisturbed and (e.g. logging, agricultural clearing, forest, and patches of primary forest evaluating the threat level of these large enough to maintain all of their mining) will, if continued, significant- not meeting this study's criteria as frontiers. biodiversity. ly degrade these frontiers. frontier.
Map Projection: Lambert-Azimuthal. Basemap data from ArcWorld. Assistance in data preparation, mapping, and analysis provided by (££ World Wildlife Fund & SH World Conservation Monitoring Centre. Data sources (i) Forest cover data provided by World Conservation Monitoring Centre, (ii.) Frontier forest data derived through expert assessment and from other sources.
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE THREATENED FRONTIER FORESTS OF SOUTH AMERICA
FRONTIER FORESTS UNDER FRONTIER FORESTS UNDER NON-FRONTIER FORESTS: FRONTIER FORESTS • LOW OR NO THREAT: • MEDIUM OR HIGH THREAT: • UNASSESSED FOR THREAT: large, intact natural forest ecosystems ongoing or planned human activities secondary forest, plantations, degraded insufficient information prevented that are relatively undisturbed and (e.g. logging, agricultural clearing, forest, and patches of primary forest evaluating the threat level of these large enough to maintain all of their mining) will, if continued, significant- not meeting this study's criteria as frontiers. biodiversity. ly degrade these frontiers. frontier.
Basemap data from ArcWorld. Assistance in data preparation, mapping and analysis provided by & World Wildlife Fund & Wk World Conservation Monitoring Centre. Data sources (i.) Forest cover data provided by World Conservation Monitoring Centre, (ii.) Forestfrontiers data derived through expert assessment and from other sources.
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE In recent decades, national THREATENED FRONTIERS INCLUDE: Frontier: development policies have fueled 3. BOLIVAR STATE much of the region's deforestation. Frontier: Forest type: Tropical During the 1960s and 1970s, the 1. THE ATLANTIC RAINFOREST Geographic location: Logging is the Brazilian government's "modern- Forest type: Tropical Southeastern Venezuela main threat ization" policy prompted major Geographic location: Coastal Threats: Logging, mining forest clearing in the Amazon. Brazil (gold and diamonds), and oil to South America's The government had hoped to Threats: Logging, agricultural exploration. frontier forests. solve land-tenure problems in clearing, excessive vegetation At Risk: Venezuela's Bolivar State other regions by establishing removal, pollution is a part of the Guyana Shield- colonies of small-holder farmers At Risk: Only 5 percent of the Amazon Basin complex, the SOUTH AMERICA in the forests, to integrate the original Atlantic Rainforest is left, largest tropical frontier forest. Throughout South America, region into the rest of the country and just a fraction of this vestige Rich in species, the area is home large-scale resettlement and with a massive road network, can be considered frontier. The to the Pemon and several other agricultural and resource develop- earn revenues by developing nat- Atlantic Rainforest is particularly indigenous groups. ment projects claimed much of ural resources and strengthen rich in biodiversity: 70 percent of the 645,000 square kilometers of Brazil's borders by populating its its plants and most of its 20 pri- forest lost in this region between frontier. Government policies trig- mate species are found nowhere 1980 and 1990-the greatest gered both planned and sponta- else in the world, and the wild amount of forest loss in the world neous immigration of landless relatives of many important food during these years. Brazil alone peasants from throughout the crops (including pineapple, lost close to 370,000 square kilo- country, and resulted in large-scale cassava, sweet potato, and meters - more than a fifth of all clearing of the forest by land papaya) are found there. tropical forest lost worldwide dur- speculators hoping to profit from ing that time. * subsidies provided to cattle Frontier: 49/5 Still, South America main- ranchers. ° 2. COASTAL CHILEAN FORESTS tains vast areas of intact tropical In Bolivia, Guyana, and Forest type: Temperate and temperate forest. The Suriname, a drive to exploit Geographic location: Southern Northern Amazon Basin and the natural resources over the past Chile Guyana Shield house the largest decade - partly to respond to Threats: Clearing for plantations, 47 tropical frontierforest s anywhere economic crises - has accelerated logging for the wood-chip industry, On the rim of the Amazon the loss of frontier forests. Only fuelwood production Basin, forests of the Northern Venezuela and Colombia have At Risk: One third of the world's Andes (Peru, Ecuador, and strongly restricted logging, mining, largest tract of relatively undis- Only Brazil Colombia) rank among Earth's and other extractive activities, and turbed temperate forest. Chile's biologically richest.48 Chile and Venezuela may soon buckle under temperate forests contain at least Suriname, Guyana, Argentina share the largest single severe economic pressure to 50 species of timber trees (95 per- Canada, Colombia, block of remaining temperate exploit its rich natural resources. cent of them endemic) and more Venezuela, Russia, frontier forest in the world. Chile's temperate frontier than 700 vascular plant species Logging is the main threat to forests are increasingly threatened, (half of them endemic).53 The and French Guiana South America's frontier forests, primarily by logging to provide alerce cedar, the Southern still have a large endangering about 70 percent of wood chips (for export mainly to Hemisphere's largest conifer and a proportion of their all frontiers classified under Japan) and fuelwood. While tree that can live over 3,000 years, medium or high threat. Energy Eucalyptus and pine plantations is found here.54 More than 35,000 original forest cover exploration, mining, and new provide much of the timber needed families in this region face severe remaining in an roads are encroaching on about poverty and expulsion as large for export and industry, precious unthreatened state. half the region's threatened native forests are cleared to make timber companies buy land for frontiers. Clearing for agriculture way for new plantations.51/52 wood-chip production and tree jeopardizes almost a third of all plantations. threatened frontier forests.
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 25 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE AFRICA Today, most of Africa's THREATENED FRONTIERS INCLUDE: Except for the Congo Basin, remaining frontier forests are at Africa's frontier forests have risk. The two major threats are Frontier: largely been destroyed, primarily logging and commercial hunting I.TAI NATIONAL PARK AND by loggers and by farmers clear- to meet growing urban demand SURROUNDING FORESTS Except for the Congo ing land for agriculture. In West for bushmeat. (Overhunting Forest type: Tropical Africa, nearly 90 percent of the removes populations of key Geographic location: Cote d'lvoire Basin, Africa's original moist forest is gone, and species that help maintain natural Threats: Logging, agricultural frontier forests have what remains is heavily frag- forest ecosystems.) In Central clearing, hunting, potential largely been destroyed, mented and degraded. Today, West Africa, over 90 percent of all log- invasion by war refugees African frontiers are restricted to ging occurs in primary forest - At Risk: The only remaining and most of those one patch in Cote d'lvoire and one of the highest ratios of any large and relatively intact piece of remaining are at risk another along the border between region in the world.56 In some a forest block that once covered Nigeria and Cameroon. areas, logging itself causes more than 830,000 square kilo- To the east, very little relatively little damage because meters in eight countries west of Frontier: remains of Madagascar's once only a few high-value tree species the Dahomey Gap (a natural 3. EASTERN ZAIRE FORESTS magnificent tropical forests. Long are removed. Still, logging roads savanna that divides West Africa's Forest type: Tropical isolated from mainland ecosys- open up a forest to hunters, forests into two distinct sections). Geographic location: Zaire tems, these forests are home to an would-be farmers and other prof- Threats: Agricultural clearing, exceptional number of plants and it-seekers. One region warranting Frontier: invasion by throngs of war animals found nowhere else. special concern is eastern Zaire: 2. CROSS RIVER AND KORUP refugees Unfortunately, none of Civil unrest in Rwanda, Burundi, NATIONAL PARKS AND At risk: The greatest biological Madagascar's forest fragmentsi s Sudan, and Zaire has driven hun- SURROUNDING FORESTS diversity of any forests on the con- large or natural enough to qualify dreds of thousands of people into Forest type: Tropical tinent. Also, the Ituri forest (found as a frontier today. this area, where they escalate Geographic location: Border within this frontier) is home to Large blocks of intact natur- demands on the forest. between Nigeria and Cameroon many of Africa's remaining al forest do remain in Central Threats: Logging by Asian and pygmy peoples. Africa, particularly in Zaire, European timber companies in Gabon, and the Congo. In Zaire - unprotected forests, new settle- which contains more than half ments, agricultural clearing, this region's forest cover - many hunting forests remain intact, in part At risk: Rich in plant species, this because the nation's poor forest may provide a wealth of transportation system can't easily potential new drugs and industrial handle timber and mineral products. Extracts from the newly exploitation.55 Some areas have discovered Ancistrocladus koru- fewer passable roads today than pensis vine, for example, offer in I960, the year the country hope for a new AIDS treatment. became independent, and some frontiers have lost population during this period.
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 26 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE THREATENED FRONTIER FORESTS OF AFRICA
FRONTIER FORESTS UNDER FRONTIER FORESTS UNDER •1 NON-FRONTIER FORESTS: FRONTIER FORESTS • LOW OR NO THREAT: • MEDIUM OR HIGH THREAT: • UNASSESSED FOR THREAT: large, intact natural forest ecosystems ongoing or planned human activities secondary forest, plantations, degraded insufficient information prevented that are relatively undisturbed and (e.g. logging, agricultural clearing, forest, and patches of primary forest evaluating the threat level of these large enough to maintain all of their mining) will, if continued, significant- not meeting this study's criteria as frontiers. biodiversity. ly degrade these frontiers. frontier.
Basemap data from ArcWorld. Assistance in data preparation, mapping and analysis provided by & World Wildlife Fund & SB World Conservation Monitoring Centre. Data sources (i.) Forest cover data provided by World Conservation Monitoring Centre, (ii.) Forestfrontiers data derived through expert assessment and from other sources.
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE THREATENED FRONTIER FORESTS OF EUROPE & RUSSIA
FRONTIER FORESTS UNDER FRONTIER FORESTS UNDER NON-FRONTIER FORESTS: FRONTIER FORESTS • LOW OR NO THREAT: • MEDIUM OR HIGH THREAT: • UNASSESSED FOR THREAT: large, intact natural forest ecosystems ongoing or planned human activities secondary forest, plantations, degraded insufficient information prevented that are relatively undisturbed and (e.g. logging, agricultural clearing, forest, and patches of primary forest evaluating the threat level of these large enough to maintain all of their mining) will, if continued, significant- not meeting this study's criteria as frontiers. biodiversity. ly degrade these frontiers. frontier.
Map Projection: Equidistant. Basemap data from ArcWorld. Assistance in data preparation, mapping and analysis provided by (&£ World Wildlife Fund & U World Conservation Monitoring Centre. Data sources (i.) Forest cover data provided by World Conservation Monitoring Centre, (ii.) Forestfrontiers data derived through expert assessment and from other sources.
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE EUROPE AND RUSSIA Containing Earth's largest Already, portions of Russia's THREATENED FRONTIERS INCLUDE: Once blanketed by forest, expanse of frontier forest (mostly Far East and much of European Europe and Russia have both lost in Siberia), Russia's boreal forests Russia (west of the Ural moun- Frontier: virtually all of their temperate are still largely intact. The country tains) have been heavily logged. 1. NORTHERN PRIMORSKI KRAI frontier forest. Most of Europe's houses almost three quarters of all Until now, lack of infrastructure Forest type: Temperate and boreal forests were leveled centuries ago. boreal forest and nearly one fifth and outmoded harvesting prac- Geographic location: Russian Although forest area within the of the world's total forest area.58 tices kept much of Siberia's fron- Far East region has increased since 1950, An immense storehouse of living tier forest undeveloped. Recent Threats: Logging, mining, and nearly all of it consists of carbon, the nation's frontier economic and political liberaliza- road development plantation or highly managed forests cover more than 4 million tion may change the situation, At risk: Habitat for some of the forest.57 square kilometers. Clearing them however. International timber world's rarest species, including Europe's last few large tracts could contribute significantly to and trading corporations, the Amur tiger. This forest also is of relatively natural forest are in global warming. Russia's Far particularly Asian companies, are home to Udege, Nanai, Ul'ta, and Sweden and Finland. Significant Eastern frontier is also the last looking to Siberian forests as a other indigenous groups.61 portions of this frontier fall out- habitat for such highly endangered new source of supply as burgeoning side parks and reserves, and all species as the Amur tiger, the Far global demand for timber strips Frontier: frontier forests are threatened by Eastern leopard, the Far Eastern other regions of valuable, 2. FRONTIERS ENCOMPASSING THE 60 road development, fire suppres- forest cat, the red wolf, and the accessible trees. Over the next GREEN KARELIAN BELT 59 sion, grazing, logging, and other sikha deer. decade or two, foreign capital, Forest type: Boreal activities. Endangered frontier forests machinery, and road-building Geographic location: Russia and in Russia are threatened mainly could open much of Siberia's forest Finland by logging, named by WRI's advi- to logging, mining, and other Threats: Logging for export to sors as the chief risk in about 85 damaging activities. Finland and related road percent of the region's threatened construction frontier forest. Mineral and At risk: One of Europe's last energy exploration and set fires remaining frontiers and the also impinge. traditional home of the Karelian people.
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 29 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE ASIA Most of Asia's remaining THREATENED FRONTIERS INCLUDE: Asia has lost almost 95 per- frontier forest is confined to the cent of its frontier forests. Apart islands of Borneo, Sumatra, Frontier: from the Mediterranean and Sulawesi, and Irian Jaya. Even 1. RATANAKIRI PROVINCE Middle East - where all such here, however, loggers have Forest type: Tropical Asia has lost almost95 forests have disappeared - this exploited most accessible forests Geographic location: Cambodia represents the world's greatest along coasts and major rivers. Threat: Illegal logging for export percent of its frontier loss of frontier forest outside of Agriculture and poorly planned to Vietnam. Outside protected forests, and most of Europe. China and India today resettlement programs also take a areas, most of the province is what remains is con- have just 20 percent of their origi- toll. Between 1969 and 1994, already under concession to nal forest cover. Of these remain- Indonesia's transmigration pro- foreign logging companies. fined to the islands of ing forests, less than 10 percent gram moved 8 million people to At risk: Resident minority groups, Borneo, Sumatra, can be classified as frontier. In the the nation's forested islands already evicted from other areas Sulawesi, and 20 years between i960 and 1980 where 1.7 million hectares of trop- by logging companies. Rice farm- alone, Asia lost almost a third of ical forest were soon stripped.63 ing and local fishing here and Man Jaya. its tropical forest cover, the high- More than half of Asia's last elsewhere in the Mekong River est rate of forest conversion in the frontiers are under moderate to watershed. Kouprey and other world.62 high threat, particularly from log- highly endangered species. On mainland Southeast Asia, ging. An even greater long-term most frontiers are gone. The iso- worry is Asia's burgeoning popu- Frontier: lated pockets left are confined pri- lation and its ever increasing 2. SUNDARBANS marily to Burma, Laos, and demand for food and agricultural Forest type: Tropical Cambodia, where war and civil land. Between 1990 and 1995 Geographic location: unrest until recently inhibited alone, the region's largely rural Bangladesh and India development. With peace have population grew by more than Threat: Logging, fuelwood come new threats from commer- 270 million people. The world's collection cial loggers who have already most densely populated region, At risk: The world's largest man- exhausted forests in Thailand and Asia had more than 1 person for grove forest. Habitat for the 64 peninsular Malaysia - where har- every hectare of land in 1995. world's largest - and possibly vest and import restrictions now only viable - population of the encourage logging companies to Bengal tiger. Fish and forest prod- move on to neighboring nations. ucts provide a living for up to 300,000 local families.65
Frontier: 3. NORTH HEILONGJIANG PROVINCE Forest type: Boreal Geographic location: China Threat: Logging: 80 percent of this frontier is slated to be cut. At risk: One of China's few remaining large intact tracts of primary forest. Habitat for sever- al important wildlife species. Protection for the headwaters of the Amur River.
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 30 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE THREATENED FRONTIER FORESTS OF ASIA
FRONTIER FORESTS UNDER FRONTIER FORESTS UNDER Ill NON-FRONTIER FORESTS: FRONTIER FORESTS • LOW OR NO THREAT: • MEDIUM OR HIGH THREAT: • UNASSESSED FOR THREAT: large, intact natural forest ecosystems ongoing or planned human activities secondary forest, plantations, degraded insufficient information prevented that are relatively undisturbed and (e.g. logging, agricultural clearing, forest, and patches of primary forest evaluating the threat level of these large enough to maintain all of their mining) will, if continued, significant- not meeting this study's criteria as frontiers. biodiversity. ly degrade these frontiers. frontier.
Basemap data from ArcWorld. Assistance in data preparation, mapping and analysis provided by & World Wildlife FundWorld & Conservation Monitoring Centre, Data sources (i.) Forest cover data provided by World Conservation Monitoring Centre, (ii.) Forestfrontiers data derived tk assessment and from other sources.
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE THREATENED FRONTIER FORESTS OF OCEANIA
FRONTIER FORESTS UNDER FRONTIER FORESTS UNDER NON-FRONTIER FORESTS: FRONTIER FORESTS • LOW OR NO THREAT: • MEDIUM OR HIGH THREAT: • UNASSESSED FOR THREAT: large, intact natural forest ecosystems ongoing or planned human activities secondary forest, plantations, degraded insufficient information prevented that are relatively undisturbed and (e.g. logging, agricultural clearing, forest, and patches of primary forest evaluating the threat level of these large enough to maintain all of their mining) will, if continued, significant- not meeting this study's criteria as frontiers. biodiversity. ly degrade these frontiers. frontier.
Basemap data from ArcWorld. Assistance in data preparation, mapping and analysis provided by (£» World Wildlife Fund & U World Conservation Monitoring Centre. Data sources (i.) Forest cover data provided by World Conservation Monitoring Centre, (ii.) Forestfrontiers data derived through expert assessment and from other sources.
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE A high percentage of Papua New Guinea (PNG) THREATENED FRONTIERS INCLUDE: Australia's native species live still possesses large areas of intact nowhere else on Earth, and much tropical forest - 40 percent of its Frontier: of this biodiversity resides within original forest. Along with neigh- 1. CENTRAL NORTH ISLAND A high percentage of the nation's forests. To date, the boring Irian Jaya, PNG is consid- (KAWEKA/RUAHINE RANGE) continent has lost more than 80 ered a global "biodiversity hotspot." Forest type: Temperate Australia's native percent of its original frontier The country probably contains at Geographic location: New species live nowhere forest, including large areas of least 5 percent of the world's Zealand species-rich, unique forest types. species within less than 1 percent of Threat: Introduced species else on Earth. 72 Three-fourths of Australia's tropi- its land area. (Australian brush-tailed possum cal rainforest, for example, has About 85 percent of PNG's and feral horses) been cleared since the late 1700s.68 frontier forests are under moder- At risk: A high concentration of OCEANIA (PAPUA NEW Australia's remaining fron- ate or high threat, primarily from indigenous species, as well as a GUINEA, AUSTRALIA, AND tier forests are confined largely to logging, agricultural clearing, and globally unique forest ecosystem NEW ZEALAND): Tasmania, Cape York, and the mining. One legacy of large clear- with great biodiversity, recre- Oceania has lost almost 80 northwestern region.69 Grazing by felling operations is soil erosion. ational, and scenic value. percent of its frontier forests. feral and domestic animals poses Sediment washed by rivers to the About three quarters of what a major threat, and fire manage- sea threatens PNG's species-rich Frontier: remains is under moderate or ment practices are also a major coral reefs and coastal fisheries. 2. WESTERN AND GULF PROVINCES high threat. Within the region, the concern in some areas. Logging's Forest type: Tropical status of forests varies greatly by toll within many non-frontier Geographic location: Papua country and forest type. areas is a serious problem. New Guinea New Zealand has lost the Temperate rainforests, now largely Threats: Logging and pipeline highest percentage of frontier for- fragmented, are still cut in development. (A large oilfield has est: less than 10 percent of its orig- Tasmania and southeastern been discovered about 180 miles inal forest cover remains as a Australia - fodder for woodchips inland.) frontier. Colonized by the Maori for export to Japan, which con- At risk: A vast tract of relatively about a thousand years ago, these verts them into paper, packaging undisturbed tropical forest of forests were the last of the world's materials, and other products.70-71 exceptionally high species rich- large land areas to be settled by ness. Homelands for several humans, but clearing for agricul- groups of indigenous people. ture has destroyed about two thirds of all frontier forests since that date, and another 5 percent or so has been converted to plan- tations. Although most of New Zealand's remaining frontiers are legally protected, all are threat- ened by introduced species, such as the Australian brush-tailed possum, which are taking a heavy toll on the nation's endemic flora.66'67
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 33 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE THE CLOSING FRONTIER: A CALL TO ACTION
his assessment found that few large intact forest Stewardship Options for Managing Frontier Forests T ecosystems are left on the planet, and that many of these last SUSTAINABLE FOREST PRACTICES The news is not all frontiers are threatened by logging, agricultural clearing, and other bad. The opportunity activities. But the news is not all to protect a priceless bad: even after thousands of years natural inheritance of forest clearing and degradation, some frontier forests remain. The for ourselves and opportunity to protect a priceless FRONTIER FOREST BOUNDARY future generations is natural inheritance for ourselves still ours. and future generations is still ours. OPTION ONE But this assessment also sug- Maintain the entire frontier forest as a protected park or reserve. Develop sustainable land-use practices in surrounding non-frontier forest so that gests that unless we take action this forest serves as a buffer zone. quickly, this opportunity is likely to Retain biodiversity, carbon balances, and watershed quality as they are now. pass. Against a backdrop of popu- lation growth and mounting human needs, preventing further OPTION TWO frontier losses will require a new i Establish protected areas where needed within large portions of the frontier forest to preserve biodiversity. and balanced approach to forest I Connect these areas with corridors or bridges of land that remain in natural, management - one that protects intact forest. forests' biodiversity and other I Introduce sustainable forest-use practices in the remaining frontier forest, assets while simultaneously pro- whether timber extraction, hunting, tourism and ecotourism, fishing, bioprospecting, or the gathering of traditional medicinal and ritual items of viding for people and ecosystem value to local communities. services. Ensure the maintenance of biodiversity, retention of carbon, and watershed protection.
FRONTIER FOREST BOUNDARY /
D RESTORIN G FRONTIER FOREST: THE GUANACASTE EXAMPLE Even a degraded and frag- large tract of tropical dry forest in wind and animals to carry in native dominate the landscape. Within 20 mented once-frontier forest invaded Guanacaste Conservation Area.73 tree seeds froma n adjacent national to 50 years, researchers expect the by exotic species may not necessarily Launched in the mid-1980s, park, helping nature when there was canopy to close, killing off all be gone forever: scientists practicing the project features a three-pronged money by planting typical species in remaining jaragua and stopping set restoration ecology are developing approach. appropriate places and combinations. fires completely. They also hope techniques to regrow native forests. First, participants kicked off They brought in cattle to help that by then the forest will house One of the world's most an aggressive fire-control program control the grasses. viable populations of all the plant ambitious - and thus far successful to stop human-caused fires, which Today, the incidence of fire in and animal species that once - forest restoration efforts is in north- were encouraging the growth of Guanacaste is down 90 percent, and inhabited the area.74 western Costa Rica, where local, exotic grasses in cleared forest areas the introduced grass, jaragua, is vir- national, and international and killing native seedlings. Once tually gone from the area. Thickets researchers are together restoring a fires were stopped, scientists allowed of 10- to 15-foot native trees now
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 34 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE A stewardship approach to careful development is still an As "insurance," we recom- If forest management is to forest management would option if ecologically viable core mend that nations: reflect the needs of all, successful achieve such badly needed bal- areas of forest are protected and stewardship must include the ance. (See Box 5) Such an surrounding lands managed • Maintain more than one tract active participation of these and approach should, in fact, be sustainably. (See Figure 7) of each ecosystem type. other stakeholders. applied to all of the world's forests Activities such as logging should • Protect frontiers even when because non-frontier forests also cause minimal environmental neighboring countries maintain NATIONAL AND LOCAL provide humans with a range of damage and return maximum ecologically similar forests. GOVERNMENTS: important functions and many economic benefits to local people. • Manage land outside protected Government policies must are high conservation priorities. Figure 7 illustrates how various areas in ways that protect the promote economic development Stewardship will mean pursuing development activities can be ecological integrity of forest without destroying the resource different options in different parts balanced. frontiers; and base and the environmental ser- of the world. Where few large, How much frontier forest • Try to restore fragmented and vices provided by forests. intact forest ecosystems remain does the world need? At a mini- degraded forests. (See Box 4.) Specifically, they should: - in temperate regions, for mum, we must maintain repre- example - frontier forests should sentative samples of all types of • Immediately halt further loss be largely protected in parks or forest ecosystems. There are no of frontier forests and restore reserves. Where human needs substitutes for living examples of degraded forests; are pressing and where very large how each system functions or for • Expand and better manage tracts of frontier forest remain, refuges for most of the world's protected area systems; forest species. • Create incentives for the private sector to manage frontier forests sustainably; • Monitor forest quality to measure the success of management programs; and • Encourage stewardship and educate the public about frontier forests.
• A NEW VISION OF FRONTIER FOREST STEWARDSHIP Forest management based on • Charging fees for using public • Attracting investors interested in • Developing capacity in public, stewardship should include: forest lands and returning revenues using forests sustainably and mak- private, or non-governmental forest to both the nation and local ing their continued access to forests agencies to plan, negotiate, imple- • Collecting all relevant informa- communities; contingent upon their environmen- ment, monitor, and enforce forest- tion on forests and how they are • Designing and enforcing fee tal and social record; management agreements; and being used and making it readily regulations that discourage corrup- • Including an unambiguous role • Setting aside and conserving available to anyone with a stake in tion and wasteful use of forests for for government in all large-scale special forested areas in well-delin- forests; short-term gain; forest development plans - includ- eated national parks, indigenous • Managing forests for long-term • Developing balanced land-use ing authority to ensure equitable reserves, or other protected areas. economic and other benefits and plans that set aside portions of distribution of revenues and long- involving stakeholders and the pub- forests for tourism, biodiversity con- term ecosystem viability; lic in forest-management decisions; servation, and watershed protection;
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 35 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL • Working with non- Especially within wealthy generations. As on-the-spot forest DONOR ORGANIZATIONS: governmental organizations, countries, consumers can create stewards, local populations should To promote the survival of governments, and others to demand for products that come demand that the government and global treasures that also provide develop markets for products from well-managed forests if they: private sector provide opportunities significant environmental from well-managed forests; for long-term economic and cul- benefits - including carbon • Avoiding investments in • Purchase only wood, paper, tural security without environ- storage and biodiversity projects that degrade or and other forest products that mental destruction. protection, donors should: destroy frontier forests; and are independently certified as • Lobbying and encouraging sustainably harvested;75 NON-GOVERNMENTAL • Increase support for forest-rich governments to try policies • Demand that retailers make ORGANIZATIONS, INCLUDING countries, particularly that promote forest such products available; and ADVOCACY GROUPS: neglected ones; stewardship. • Reduce pressure on frontier Non-governmental organiza- • Coordinate efforts among forests by recycling and limiting tions (NGOs) can mobilize critical donors to maximize impact; CITIZENS: consumption - not only of support for conservation and • Form partnerships among As voters and consumers wood and paper, but also of stewardship. Information is one of organizations - including the partly responsible for the fate of energy and mineral resources their most powerful tools. By private sector - working the world's last large intact forests, from forested regions. assessing and monitoring forest toward forest stewardship; and citizens should: health and use, for example, • Support projects that promote FRONTIER PEOPLES: NGOs can uncover evidence that both conservation and the • Ensure that decision-makers People who live within and governments, private industry, or sustainable use of frontier manage forests with the general near the world's last frontier others are mismanaging forests - forests. public's needs in mind (at least forests stand to lose the most if or for that matter, doing their in countries where citizens these ecosystems are destroyed. jobs. These organizations also BUSINESS AND THE PRIVATE have voting power and can Managing forests for non-timber should collect and disseminate SECTOR: directly influence their leaders); products, ecotourism, or even sus- information on forest stewardship Traditionally viewed as ene- • Keep informed about policy tainable logging and other in practice. Given limited time and mies of conservation, private issues affecting frontier forests; resource extraction could both financial resources, NGOs must industry - from logging, mining, and protect these forests and provide coordinate their efforts and form and oil companies to trade and • Voice their concerns - through local income now and for future partnerships with government retail industries - can become an protests and boycotts, if agencies and private businesses. agent of sound forest management necessary - when governments if it is willing to protect jobs and mismanage these forests. cultivate long-term profits by:
Q PLAN PILOTO: SUSTAIN ABLE FOREST DEV ELOPMENT In Mexico's state of Quintana aside for permanent production, Before ejidos managed the mahogany and cedar through Roo, an organization of 16 commu- primarily of mahogany and cedar. forest, local communities derived no enrichment planting. After eight nal groups, or ejidos, is managing After negotiating with logging benefits from logging operations. years, communities already are seeing 360,000 hectares of subtropical companies, participants - 3,000 as of Now, participants are working to good regeneration of natural forest moist forest to benefit their mem- 1991 ~ began to process logs, which maintain the natural forest by - along with an income, an incentive bers and, at the same time, main- adds value to their product and cutting trees on a 25-year cycle, to keep up the good work.78 tain the forest.76'77 Of the total brings communities more income allowing native species to regenerate, forest area, 150,000 hectares are set than shipping out raw timber does. and increasing the proportion of
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 36 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE TECHNICAL ANNEX
METHODOLOGY: MAPPING OF FRONTIER FOREST AREAS: 2. Approximately 90 regional I. Forest type (based on survey The frontier forest maps forest experts were then asked to results). Experts were asked to CURRENT FOREST COVER: within this report reflect the annotate these maps. Ten to fif- classify frontiers according to one WRI used the only existing knowledge and input of more teen individuals per region with or more of the following cate- global map of current forest cover than 90 experts and reviewers broad knowledge of forest extent gories: "boreal," "temperate hard- - that produced by the World from around the world. Work on and condition reviewed the maps wood," "temperate mixed conifer- Conservation Monitoring Centre the Last Frontier Forests assess- of candidate frontier areas and, ous and deciduous forest," "south- (WCMC) in 1996, in collaboration ment began in May 1996, when using a checklist survey, either: ern temperate/astral forest," with the World Wildlife Fund and WRI hosted meetings and review (i.) nominated candidate sites as "humid tropical forest," "dry trop- CIFOR - as a base coverage for sessions (in Washington, "frontier forests"; (ii.) redefined ical forest." this assessment. The sources for Cambridge, U.K, and Rome) at the boundaries of candidate sites this map include many country which outside experts were asked or (iii.) rejected candidate sites, II. Size (this was calculated using and regional maps derived from to help define frontier areas and and; a GIS). WRI also asked experts to national and international propose a methodology for map- roughly estimate the size of each sources, mostly accurate to a ping them. Mapping itself was a 3. WRI digitized the revised frontier assessed, where known. 1:1,000,000 scale. (All coverages three-step process: boundaries of these areas. used in the Frontier Forest III. Threats to ecosystem integrity Assessment were degraded to a 1. WRI first developed regional Experts were also asked to (based on information contained 1:8,000,000 scale.) The quality, maps of "candidate frontier areas" fill in a questionnaire for each within the questionnaires). accuracy and dates of these by overlaying - using a frontier area assessed. This survey Experts were asked to rank sites national and regional maps vary. Geographic information System was used to build a database for as under high, medium, or low For details, please refer to: (GIS) - the World Conservation each frontier site, which includes threat from "commercial logging," Monitoring Centre's current closed information on: "other biomass harvest (removal The World Conservation forest cover map with Sierra of fuelwood and construction 79 Monitoring Centre, The World Club's "wilderness areas" map materials, grazing)," "forest clear- Forest Map, (WCMC, Cambridge, to define large wooded blocks ing (for agriculture, residential 1996). devoid of human infrastructure housing etc)," "road construction (roads, settlements, etc.) where and other infrastructure near-pristine forest might be development (e.g. powerlines, found; pipelines)," and "other," and to provide additional details on known threats.
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 37 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE iv. Potential threats to ecosystem v. Source of expert information WRI also held three review MAPPING OF ORIGINAL FOREST COVER: integrity (also based on information and level of knowledge (for most sessions (one covering temperate As part of this project, from the questionnaires). Experts sites, based on the input of several and boreal regions, a second cov- WCMC developed the first detailed were asked to: (i.) note where reviewers). The names of these ering tropical frontiers, and a map of estimated forest cover significant portions of a frontier individuals are listed within WRI's third to review all areas of the "prior to the impact of modern site have been allocated for current database, along with a ranking of world) to help fill in data gaps man" (circa 8,000 years ago), and to solicit input on draft fron- or future harvest (e.g. zoned as how well these experts claim to using many global and regional tier maps. Approximately 60 biogeographic maps. These production forest, given over to know each frontier area (experts ecologists, foresters, and others included World Map of Present concessions) and to estimate the were asked to rank themselves on with broad knowledge of forest Day Landscapes (Moscow State percentage of each site allocated a 1-5 scale according to how well issues across various regions of University/UNEP), Ecoregions of for harvest, where known; and they know a given site). the globe attended these sessions. Latin America and the (ii.) indicate if a site contains Caribbean (Dinerstein et al.), high-value timber species, or In many cases, sites were Note that five frontier forest Vegetation of Africa (White), other high-value resources (e.g. nominated and reviewed indepen- sites within Western Zaire were Review of the Indomalayan gold, oil), and to estimate the dently by several experts. WRI identified using maps of current Protected Areas (MacKinnon), approximate proportion of the site harmonized these results by: (i.) road and forest cover (the latter Australia Natural Vegetation within which such resources consulting with reviewers when derived from recent satellite (Australian Surveying and Land occur. their results differed for a given imagery). These sites - lacking Information Group), and General site to come up with a consensus roads, or significant areas of Map of Natural Vegetation for view; (ii.) in some cases, giving degraded forest - were added Europe (Bohn and Katenina). extra weight to results from because experts working on the WRI adjusted this map - notably individuals who ranked their WRI study suggested forest in this by using current forest cover in knowledge of a site as significantly region qualified as "frontier," the northernmost 200 km of forest higher than that of others who however they were not sufficiently as a surrogate for historic cover so reviewed that frontier forest. familiar with the area to identify as to capture the natural patchy the boundaries of these sites. distribution of forest in this tundra-forest transition zone.
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 38 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE The WCMC map is an indi- DEFINITIONS: Forested areas must meet all (Rationale: If frontiers are cator, not a direct measure of of the following 7 criteria to qualify supposed to serve as forest refugia original cover. It depicts where CURRENT FOREST COVER: estimated as frontiers. They must: during the next extinction crises, forest might be expected to occur closed forest cover within the last they must be large enough to today in the absence of humans, 10 years or so (this date varies by 1. Be of sufficient size to support maintain their resident species in based on climate, topography, the face of periodic natural distur- country). Only closed moist forest ecologically viable populations of and other variables. The distribu- bance. The "once in a century" is depicted for tropical Africa and the largest carnivores and herbi- tion of forest cover 8,000 years vores associated with that partic- cutoff, although arbitrary, is a ago probably varied somewhat Asia. Woodlands and shrublands yardstick used by engineers and ular forest ecosystem, although from region to region, due to are not included in this category. others in designing bridges, build- long-term climate change. For ORIGINAL FOREST COVER: is the esti- they may not actually contain ings, dams etc. that can weather details on the original forest cover mated extent of closed forest these species. catastrophic natural events.) mapping methodology, please about 8,000 years ago, assuming refer to: current climatic conditions. (Rationale-, range require- 3. Exhibit a structure and compo- ments of umbrella species are FRONTIER FORESTS: are defined as sition shaped largely by natural believed to be large enough to Clare Billington, Valerie being primarily forested; of suffi- events, as well as by limited provide for habitat requirements Kapos, Mary Edwards, Simon cient size to support viable popu- human disturbance from tradi- Blyth and Susan Iremonger, of most other species within a tional activities (such as shifting lations of the full range of indige- given ecosystem). Estimated Original Forest Cover nous species associated with that cultivation). Map -A First Attempt (WCMC, particular forest ecosystem given Cambridge, UK, October 1996). 2. Be of sufficient size to support 4. Be relatively unmanaged (nat- periodic natural disturbance ecologically viable populations of ural disturbance regimes such as episodes (fire, hurricanes, pests & FRONTIER FOREST INDEX: these species in the face of a fire are permitted to occur across The frontier forest index disease, etc.), (note that this major natural disturbance episode most of the area in question). ranks countries on a scale of 0 to implies that frontier forests pro- such as one would predict to 99. The index was created by vide habitat for these species, not occur once in a century, within multiplying the percentage of that they actually contain these the ecosystem in question (fire, original frontier forest lost (that species); and exhibiting a struc- hurricanes, pests & disease, etc.). estimated to cover the country ture and composition shaped 8,000 years ago) with the per- largely by natural events, as well centage of remaining frontier for- as by limited human disturbance est area classified under moderate from traditional activities (such as or high threat to total assessed shifting cultivation). De facto they frontier area. are relatively unmanaged (natural disturbance regimes such as fire are permitted to occur), are home to most if not all of the species associated with that ecosystem type, are dominated by indige- nous tree species associated with that ecosystem type, and are characterized by mosaics of forest patches representing a range of serai stages, in areas where such landscape heterogeneity would be expected to occur under natural conditions.
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 39 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE 5. Be characterized by mosaics of considered; and: (ii.) where fires DATA CAVEATS AND • Comparability of results has forest patches representing a are generally allowed to burn LIMITATIONS been effected by expert bias. Map range of serai stages, in areas across at least half of the frontier reviewers varied in how strictly or where such landscape hetero- site (although fire suppression This assessment represents a loosely they have applied our geneity would be expected to may have been practiced in the rough, first-cut attempt to esti- criteria in defining sites and how occur under natural conditions. past). Most temperate sites in mate the status of global frontier they assessed the magnitude of North America and Europe consist areas, and should be viewed as a any given threat. As noted above, 6. Be home to most if not all of of a mix of old growth and sec- work in progress. The maps and WRI attempted to minimize this the species associated with that ondary forest. Frontier sites that data contained within this report bias by seeking input from at least ecosystem type. would not otherwise qualify using are not intended to be used to 10-15 experts for any one part of a strict interpretation of the WRI define conservation or investment the world (to cross-check on and 7. Be dominated by indigenous criteria are automatically listed as priorities, or to otherwise provide harmonize results), and by seek- tree species associated with that threatened due to lack of buffering input into regional or national ing extensive outside review of the ecosystem type. capacity and disturbance of planning and assessment activities. draft maps to insure that data are surrounding forest. WRI will work with data partners relatively comparable between Many temperate frontier over coming years to improve on regions. forests do not strictly qualify THREATENED FRONTIER FORESTS: are the base maps and the accuracy according to all seven criteria, areas assessed by experts as under of these results. Readers should WRI would welcome any primarily due to size constraints "medium" or "high" threat, where note that: comments on the accuracy of and to fire suppression and other ongoing or planned human activ- these results and suggestions on management. For example, ities will likely result in the eventual • Data availability and quality how we might improve on the Clayquot Sound in British violation of one of the seven varies between regions. For base maps during the next phase Columbia may be too small to frontier forest criteria listed above example, frontier forest is likely of this research project. qualify as a frontier forest, and all (e.g. cause declines in or local underestimated in Central Zaire sites in Scandinavia may be too extinctions of plants and animals and possibly portions of Brazil, disturbed to meet WRI criteria. or large-scale changes in the due to the fact that few scientists After consultation with temperate forest's age and structure). In have explored that region (and experts we decided to include some cases, sites listed as threat- therefore that the status of these those temperate areas:( i). that ened are currently undisturbed but forests is relatively unknown). are large enough to maintain are slated for logging or other ecologically viable populations of development activity, likely to • Naturally-fragmented forest indigenous species when the affect the ecosystem integrity of ecosystems, such as areas of surrounding non-frontier forest the forest. Note that many montane forest cover found in matrix is threatened frontier forests include portions of East Africa, do not large areas of protected forest. register as frontier forest in this While the core areas of these sites study due to their small size. may be undisturbed, these fron- However, in some cases these tiers are considered threatened areas may fully qualify as intact, because human activity in relatively undisturbed natural surrounding forest is likely to forests. impact the integrity of the ecosystem as a whole.
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 40 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE NOTES
1 Food and Agriculture Organization of 10 Calculated by multiplying regional 19 This study was limited to mapping 31 Raymond Rowe, Narendra Sharma the United Nations (FAO), Forest Resources frontier forest area by per hectare carbon frontier forests within closed forest ecosys- and John Browder, "Deforestation: Problems, Assessment 1990: Global Synthesis, FAO estimates for forest areas, presented in R.K. tems. WRI was unable to map large nat- Causes and Concerns," in Managing the Forestry Paper 124 (FAO, Rome, 1995), Dixon, S. Brown, R.A. Houghton, A.M. ural tracts of woodland area (more open World's Forests, Narendra Sharma, ed., Annex 1, p. 21. Solomon, M.C. Trexler and J. Wisniewski, forest, generally located in drier regions of (Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Publishing "Carbon Pools and Flux of Global Forest the world, between closed forest and Company, 1992), p. 34. 2 The FAO estimate applies to annual Ecosystems." Science, Vol. 263:185-90. savannah), because no global map exists loss of natural forest cover between 1980 Dixon et al's estimates are for closed and depicting wooded areas of the world. 32 International Panel on Climate and 1990 for developing countries only. It open forests for both soil and above-ground Change (IPCC), IPCC Working Group II does not include large areas of forest logged vegetation. For this reason, and because 20 Geographic Information Systems are Second Assessment Report, (IPCC, 1995). over and left to regenerate. No data are these averages include degraded forest used to store, analyze and display spatially- available for developed countries of the (which contains less carbon than intact referenced (map) data. 33 World Resources Institute, World world. forest) the figure presented in the text on Resources 1996-97, (New York: Oxford total carbon stored in frontier forest is likely 21 United Nations Environment University Press, 1996), p. 190. 3 J.M. Thiollay, "Area Requirements for an underestimate. Soil carbon figures Programme (UNEP), Global Biodiversity the Conservation of Rain Forest Raptors and include peat. We used averaged per hectare Assessment, (Cambridge, Cambridge 34 Global Witness, Corruption, War Game Birds in French Guiana." Conserva- carbon figures in estimating carbon stored University Press, 1995), p. 345. and Forest Policy: The Unsustainable tion Biology, 1989, Vol. 3(2): 128-37. in frontier forests that contain more than Exploitation of Cambodia's Forests, one dominant forest type (e.g. temperate 22 Alexander Mather, Global Forest (London: Global Witness Ltd., February 4 William Newmark, "A Land-bridge and boreal forest). Resources, (Portland: Timber Press, 1990), 1996) p. 3. Island Perspective on Mammalian p. 32. Extinctions in Western North American 11 John Perlin, A Forest Journey: The 35 Kirk Talbott and Chantal Elkin, Parks." Nature, 1987, Vol 229:430-32. Role of Wood in the Development of 23 Jack Westoby, Introduction to World Logging Burma's Forests: Resources for Civilization, (New York: W.W. Norton Forestry, (Oxford: Basil Blackwell Ltd., the Regime, (Washington, D.C.: World 5 Christine Schonewald-Cox, and Company, 1989), pp. 18-19,42-43. 1989), p. 50. Resources Institute, forthcoming). "Conclusions: Guidelines to Management: A Beginning Attempt," in Genetics and 12 World Resources Institute, World 24 Jack Westoby, Introduction to World 36 Environmental Investigation Agency Conservation: a Reference for Resources 1992-93, (New York: Oxford Forestry (Oxford: Basil Blackwell Ltd., (EIA), Corporate Power, Corruption and Managing Wild Animal and Plant University Press, 1992), p. 290. 1989), pp. 54- 5. the Destruction of the World's Forests: Populations, edited by Christine The Case for a New Global Forest Schonewald-Cox, Steven Chamber, Bruce 13 George Ledec and Robert Goodland, 25 Owen Lynch and Kirk Talbott, Agreement, (Washington, D.C.: EIA, 1995), MacBryde and Larry Thomas, (London: Wildlands: Their Protection and Balancing Acts: Community-Based pp. 6-7. The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Management in Economic Forest Management and National Law Company, Inc., 1983), pp. 415-16,443-44. Development, (Washington, D.C.: The in Asia and the Pacific, (Washington, 37 Nigel Sizer and Richard Rice, Backs World Bank, 1988), pp. 26-7. D.C.: World Resources Institute, 1995), p. 21. to the Wall in Suriname: Forest Policy 6 Larry Harris, The Fragmented in a Country in Crisis, (Washington, Forest: Island Biogeography Theory and 14 Nels Johnson and Bruce Cabarle, 26 Commission on Development and D.C.: World Resources Institute, 1995), the Preservation ofBiotic Diversity, Surviving the Cut: Natural Forest Environment for Amazonia, Amazonia p. 11. (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, Management in the Humid Tropics, Without Myths, Amazon Cooperation 1984), pp. 72-84. (Washington, D.C.: World Resources Treaty, 1992, p. xii. 38 World Press Review, "Colombia's Institute, 1993) p. 7. Vanishing Forests," World Press Review, 7 Scott Robinson, Frank Thompson, 27 R. B. Ugerton, Sick Societies: Vol. 40, No. 6,Junel993,p. 34. Therese Donovan, Donald Whitehead and 15 Commission on Development and Challenging the Myth of Primitive John Faaborg, "Regional Forest Environment for Amazonia, Amazonia Harmony, (New York: Free Press, 1992). 39 Nigel Smith, Paulo Alvim, Emanuel Fragmentation and the Nesting Success of Without Myths, Amazon Cooperation Serrao, and Italo Falesi, "Amazonia," in Migratory Birds." Science, 1995 Vol. 267 Treaty, 1992. p. xiv. 28 United Nations Environment Regions at Risk: Comparisons of (526): 1,987. Programme (UNEP), Global Biodiversity Threatened Environments, Jeanne 16 Food and Agriculture Organization of Assessment, (Cambridge: Cambridge Kasperson, Roger Kasperson and B. L. 8 Elliot Norse, Ancient Forests of the the United Nations (FAO), Forest Resources University Press, 1995), p. 765. Turner II, eds., (Tokyo: United Nations Pacific Northwest, (Washington D. C.: Assessment 1990: Global Synthesis, FAO University Press, 1995), pp. 58-9. Island Press, 1990), pp. 73,84. Forestry Paper 124, (Rome: FAO, 1995), p. 43. 29 Duncan Poore, Peter Burgess, John Palmer, Simon Rietburgen and Timothy 9 Walter V. Reid and Kenton Miller, 17 K.D. Singh, personal communication, Synnott, No Timber Without Trees: Sus- Keeping Options Alive: The Scientific January 1997; Washington Post, tainability in the Tropical Forest, (London: Basis for Conserving Biodiversity, January 1,1997. Earthscan Publications, 1989), p. 18. (Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute, 1989), p. 15. 18 United States Department of 30 Consultative Group on International Commerce, Statistical Abstract of the Agricultural Research (CGIAR), Poor United States 1996, (Washington: United Farmers Could Destroy Half of States Department of Commerce, 1996), Remaining Tropical Forest, media back- pp. 8,562. grounder to press release, (Washington, D.C.: CGIAR; August 4,1996), p. 3-
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 41 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE 40 Ecotrust and Conservation 52 Steve Gilroy, "Disturbing the Ancients," 64 World Resources Institute, World 74 David Tenenbaum, "The Guanacaste International (CI), Coastal Temperate in Buzzworm: The Environmental Resources 199697, (New York: Oxford Idea," American Forests, Vol. 100, Nos. Rain Forests: Ecological Characteristics, Journal, Vol. IX, No. 1, January/February University Press, 1996), pp. 191, 217. 11-12, November-December 1994, p. 28. Status and Distribution Worldwide, 1992, p. 41. Occasional Paper Series No. 1, (Portland: 65 World Resources Institute, 75 David Tenenbaum, "The Guanacaste Ecotrust, 1992), p. 33- 53 Nigel Dudley, Forests in Trouble: A Bangladesh: Environment and Natural Idea," American Forests, Vol. 100, Nos. Review of the Status of Temperate Forests Resource Assessment, (Washington, D.C.: 11-12, November-December 1994, p. 28. 41 Jonathan Friedland and Raphael Worldwide, (Gland, Switzerland: World World Resources Institute, 1990), p. 27. Pura, "Log Heaven: Trouble at Home, Wildlife Fund, 1992), p. 121. 76 Matthew Perl, Michael Kiernan, Asian Timber Firms Set Sights on the 66 World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) Dennis McCaffrey, Robert Buschbacher, Amazon," The Wall Street Journal, 54 Steve Gilroy, "Disturbing the Ancients," and the World Conservation Union (IUCN), and Garo Batmanian, Views From the November 11,1996. in Buzzworm: The Environmental Centres of Plant Diversity: A Guide and Forest: Natural Forest Management Journal, Vol. IX, No. 1, January/February Strategy for their Conservation, Vol. II, Initiatives in Latin America, 42 World Wildlife Fund, The Official 1992, p. 38. (Cambridge: WWF, 1995), p. 449. (Washington, D.C.: World Wildlife Fund, World Wildlife Fund Guide to 199D, P-5. Endangered Species of North America, 55 Estimate of the proportion of the 67 New Zealand Ministry for the (Washington: Beacham Publishing Inc., Congo Basin's forest cover located in Zaire Environment, New Zealand's National 77 Nels Johnson and Bruce Cabarle, 1990), pp. 446,534,549. is based on figuresin : Food and Agriculture Report to the United Nations Conference Surviving the Cut: Natural Forest Organization of the United Nations (FAO), on Environment and Development, Management in the Humid Tropics, 43 Development and degradation of sur- Forest Resources Assessment 1990: (Wellington: Ministry for the Environment, (Washington D.C.: World Resources rounding non-protected forest area threat- Global Synthesis, FAO Forestry Paper 124 199D, pp. 47-8. Institute, 1993) p. 28. ens the ecological integrity of these sites, (Rome: FAO, 1995), Annex 1, p. 28. which barely qualified as frontier forest 68 World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) 78 Matthew Perl, Michael Kiernan, under the WRI criteria. Refer to Technical 56 Food and Agriculture Organization of and the World Conservation Union (IUCN), Dennis McCaffrey, Robert Buschbacher, Annex for details. the United Nations (FAO), Forest Centres of PlantDiversity: A Guide and and Garo Batmanian, Views From the Resources Assessment 1990: Tropical Strategy for their Conservation, Vol. II, Forest: Natural Forest Management 44 Chuck Carr, personal communication, Countries, FAO Forestry Paper 112, (Rome: (Cambridge: WWF, 1995), p. 439- Initiatives in Latin America, 1996. FAO, 1993), Annex 1, Table 5a. (Washington, D.C.: World Wildlife Fund, 69 Frontier forests in Northern Australia 199D, pp. 5,8. 45 Robin Hanbury-Tension, "A Bridge 57 World Resources Institute, World contain a mix of forest and woodland, Too Far?," Geographical Magazine, Vol. Resources 1996-97, (NewYork: Oxford including small patches of rainforest. 79 Michael McCloskey and Heather 68, No. l,Januaryl996,p. 35. University Press, 1996), p. 210. Spalding, "A Reconnaissance-level 70 Mark Clayton, "Chipping Away at Inventory of the Amount of Wilderness 46 Food and Agriculture Organization of 58 World Resources Institute, World Australia's Old-Growth Forests," The Remaining in the World," Ambio, Vol. 18, the United Nations (FAO), Forest Resources 1996-97, (New York: Oxford Christian Science Monitor, April 24, No. 4,1989, pp. 221-27. Resources Assessment 1990: Global University Press, 1996), pp. 206, 218. 1996. Synthesis, FAO Forestry Paper 124, (Rome: FAO, 1995), Annex 1, p. 21. 59 Josh Newell and Emma Wilson, The 71 Nigel Dudley, Forests in Trouble: A Russian Far East: Forests, Biodiversity Review of the Status of Temperate Forests 47 The Guyana Shield includes part or Hotspots and Industrial Developments, Worldwide, (Gland, Switzerland: World all of Brazil, French Guiana, Guyana, (Tokyo: Friends of the Earth-Japan, 1996), Wildlife Fund, 1992), pp. 93-5. Suriname, and Venezuela. pp. 0,46. 72 Department of Environment and 48 Peter Raven, personal communication, 60 World Resources Institute, World Conservation, Conservation Resource December 1996. Resources 199697, (New York: Oxford Centre, and the Africa Centre for Resources University Press, 1996), pp. 206-7. and Environment, Papua New Guinea 49 Nigel Smith, Paulo Alvim, Emanuel Country Study on Biological Diversity, Serrao, and Italo Falesi, "Amazonia," in 61 Josh Newell and Emma Wilson, The (Waigani: DepartmentorEnvironmentand Regions at Risk: Comparisons of Russian Far East: Forests, Biodiversity Conservation, 1995), p. 6. Threatened Environments, Jeanne Hotspots and Industrial Developments, Kasperson, Roger Kasperson and B. L. (Tokyo: Friends of the Earth-Japan, 1996), 73 Such as certification efforts approved Turner II, eds., (Tokyo: United Nations pp. 46,53. by the Forest Stewardship Council, (eg. University Press, 1995), p. 41. Smartwood), which ensure that harvest- 62 K.D. Singh and Antonio Marzoli, ing is environmentally responsible, social- 50 Caroline Harcourt and Jeffrey Sayer, "Deforestation Trends in the Tropics: A ly beneficial (particularly to local commu- eds, The Conservation Atlas of Tropical Time Series Analysis," paper presented at nities), and financially viable. Forests: the Americas, (New York: Simon the World Wildlife Fund Conference on and Schuster, 1996), pp. 230, 238. Potential Impact of Climate Change on Tropical Forests, San Juan, Puerto Rico, 51 M. Patricia Marchak, Logging the April 1995, pp. 8-9. Globe, (London: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1995), p. 321. 63 National Development Planning Agency, Government of Indonesia, Sixth Five-Year Development Plan 1994/5- 1998/9, Vol. Ill, (Jakarta: National Planning Agency, 1994), pp. 421-22.
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 42 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE THE WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE
he Forest Frontiers Initiative (FFI) is a five year, multi-disciplinary effort to promote stewardship in and around the world's last T major frontier forests by influencing investment, policy, and public opinion. The FFI team is working with governments, citizens' groups, and the private sector in Amazonia, Central Africa, Indonesia, North America, and Russia. We also take part in pressing international discussions on forest policy.
We are motivated by the belief that there is a responsible way to use forests. We also see growing interest in finding alternatives to forest destruction that take advantage of the full economic potential of forests, not just immediate revenue from logging and clearing.
Business has a leading role to play. We are developing case studies with innovative firms to demonstrate to others the business impacts and opportunities that sustainability presents. We are also working to strengthen the Forest Stewardship Council, which promotes consumer awareness about products from well-managed forests by certifying wood products from them.
For each frontier forest region, FFI builds a network of policy-makers, activists, investors, and researchers to promote policy reform. Efforts to minimize the negative impacts of road-building and forest-clearing for agriculture, and to stop illegal logging, are part of this work.
To spark policy change and stimulate stewardship more generally, we will collect and disseminate more information as it becomes available. We are also working to build the capacity of local non-governmental groups to do the same.
To get access to information about FFI findings and activities and to find out how to participate, visit our website at "http://www.wri.org/wri/ffi/" or write to:
Forest Frontiers Initiative World Resources Institute 1709 New York Avenue, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20006, U.S.A.